career advancement of hotel managers since graduation a comparative study

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Personnel ReviewCareer advancement of hotel managers since graduation: a comparative study

Thomas N. Garavan Fergal O'Brien Deborah O'HanlonArticle information:

To cite this document:Thomas N. Garavan Fergal O'Brien Deborah O'Hanlon, (2006),"Career advancement of hotel managerssince graduation: a comparative study", Personnel Review, Vol. 35 Iss 3 pp. 252 - 280Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00483480610656685

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Career advancement of hotelmanagers since graduation:

a comparative studyThomas N. Garavan

Department of Personnel and Employment Relations, Kemmy Business School,University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Fergal OBrienDepartment of Accounting and Finance, Kemmy Business School,

University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland, and

Deborah OHanlon

International College of Hotel Management, Shannon, Ireland

Abstract

Purpose To investigate the factors predicting the career progression of hotel managers working ininternational hotel chains in Ireland, Europe and Asia.

Design/methodology/approach The study uses a cross-sectional questionnaire designconsisting of 337 respondents. It investigates individual- and organisational-level factors thatpotentially explain the career progression of hotel managers.

Findings The study reveals significant differences in managerial progression in the threesub-samples. A multiplicity of factors explains differences in advancement. These includedemographic, human capital, psychological characteristics of the manager and organisationalcharacteristics. The model developed in the paper explained significant variance in three measures ofmanagerial advancement: salary level, number of job moves, and position reached in the hierarchy.

Research limitations/implications The study is based on self-report data and the responserates are slightly below those reported for behavioural science research. The study does not gather theperceptions of the managers superiors. The findings indicate that managerial advancement isexplained by a complex set of factors, which would benefit from further investigation.

Practical implications The study findings suggest important practical implications for theprovision of training and development, individual and organisational career strategies, the role ofnetworking in advancement and the respective roles of managers and organisations in managingcareers.

Originality/value The paper has a cross-cultural dimension which to date is largely absent fromthis area of research.

KeywordsCareer development, Hotel and catering industry, Managers

Paper type Research paper

IntroductionCareer research continues to thrive. The majority of this research in recent years hasfocused on how the shape of traditional career paths has changed in the face ofincreasing environmental uncertainty. It has also focused on changing organisationalcareer management practices, individual career planning strategies and the emergenceof new career models such as the boundaryless and protean careers (Arthuret al., 1989;

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/0048-3486.htm

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Received 27 March 2003Revised 23 June 2004Accepted 7 July 2004

Personnel Review

Vol. 35 No. 3, 2006

pp. 252-280

q Emerald Group Publishing Limited

0048-3486

DOI 10.1108/00483480610656685


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Barrett et al., 2000; Blair-Loy, 1999; Phillips, 2001; Van der Heijden, 2002; Hall andMoss, 1998; Flores et al., 2003). It is argued that flexibility and change have replacedstability as key career planning and counselling concepts (Sharf, 2002; Bolles, 2001)

There is however an alternative perspective that argues that irrespective of these

environmental changes, for many individuals there is a significant amount of stabilitywithin their careers over time (Betz and Voyten, 1997). For this reason it is legitimate tostudy how managers advance within an organisation setting and to explore anadvancement model of career rather than an employability model. Feldman (2002)argues that managerial career dynamics are best understood only by examiningmanagers experiences over time. Careers are neither static nor exceptionally dynamic;they evolve over time and are influenced by characteristics of the individual as well asby organisational factors (Tharenou, 1997; Sullivan, 1999). The literature conveysconflicting and different messages concerning the locus of responsibility for career andthe extent of job tenure. While there is evidence of declining job tenure (Allred et al.,1996) managers are still likely to stay in organisations that provide advancement andlearning opportunities (Carberyet al., 2003). There is lots of evidence that managersexpect career advancement as a norm in organisations and consider that theorganisation has the primary responsibility to ensure that it happens. On the otherhand contemporary career models emphasise that the individual manager hasresponsibility for managing career and employability (Hall and Moss, 1998).

The study of managers in international hotel and hospitality organisationsrepresents a novel context. These organisations are increasingly under immensepressure to develop and maintain managerial talent. International hotel managers arealso expected to understand and manage in different cultural contexts and differentcorporate cultures (DAnnunzio-Green et al., 2002). There is an abundant literaturehighlighting that hotel managers report both dissatisfaction with their careerprogression and intentions to leave (Carbery et al., 2003). Furthermore, managerial

advancement in hotels is frequently unplanned and unsystematic (Deery, 1999), thereare fewer training and development opportunities (Baum, 1995b), managers experiencework overload (Riley et al., 1998), have low levels of remuneration (Price, 1994) andexperience managerial stress (Zohar, 1994).

This paper builds on previous research in a number of ways. We used acombination of individual- and organisation-level variables. Previous studies have lessfrequently combined them. We measured these variables through the lens of therespondent. We asked for their self-reports. We utilised three objective measures ofmanagerial advancement: number of job moves within the managerial hierarchy, thelevel of management reached and the number of salary increases. These measures wereconsidered effective objective indicators of career success. We acknowledge the largeliterature and body of research findings on subjective or intrinsic career measures.

They were not however the focus of this study. We captured a cross-cultural dimensionin our study. We categorised respondents by the location of the hotel in which theycurrently worked and by country of birth. We consider the cross-cultural feature to bean important extension on previous research, which has not explicitly included it as astudy variable. Finally we confirmed the importance of factors previously highlightedand identified a number of variables that are unique to the context we studied.

We structured the paper as follows: We review the literature on managerialadvancement and develop hypotheses. We then describe our methodology and report

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descriptive and analytical statistics on our sample. Finally, we discuss the support forour hypotheses and outline the implications of our findings.

Theoretical background and hypotheses development

Individual- and organisation-level variables are relevant in explaining managerialcareer advancement. Individual-level variables typically include demographic andhuman capital variables and psychological concepts such as career motivations,satisfaction with the psychological contract, and participation in career developmentactivities. Organisation-level variables typically include career systems, organisationsize and sector and the way in which job roles are defined.

Individual-level variablesDemographic characteristics. The research, in general, indicates a relationship betweenage and managerial career advancement, however the relationship appears not to bestrong. Managerial level increases with age to a certain point at which stage it slowssignificantly (Cox and Nkomo, 1992). Age appears to be more important in explaining aparticular objective measure of career success, the level of pay achieved (Tharenou,1997).

The impact of gender on career advancement is strong. Female managers do notreach as high a managerial level as their male counterparts (Huffman and Torres,2001). In the hospitality context, female managers gain more promotions to middlemanagement but are less likely to reach senior management and in particular generalmanagement positions (Nebelet al., 1995; Riley, 1990). Higher standards may be usedwhen organisations consider womens managerial career advancement(DAnnunzio-Green, 1997). Thus we hypothesise:

H1a. The age of the manager is positively associated with the three measures ofmanagerial advancement.

H1b. The gender of the manager is positively associated with the three measures ofmanagerial advancement.

There is evidence of cross-cultural differences in careers and managerial advancement.Ronen and Shenkar (1985) for example illustrate that countries can be clusteredaccording to similarities on certain cultural dimensions. It is not as yetcomprehensively studied. There is strong support for Anglo, German, Nordic, LatinEurope and Latin America clusters. There is modified support for Far East andArabian clusters. These findings suggest the cultural background of the manager andthe location of the hotel maybe important factors in explaining career advancement.Hofstede et al. (1990) in their pioneering research identify cross-cultural differences invalues and managerial practices. There is limited research investigating thesedifferences in a career context. A small number of studies in the hospitality contextillustrate differences in hospitality managers role expectations, which stem fromcultural differences. These differences relate to styles of management and notions ofservice. Leong (2002) highlight different behavioural expectations across cultures inthe degree of personal interaction expected in a managerial relationship. Kim andAtkinson (2002) points out that in Asia, for example, good service relates to a high levelof personal attention or customisation. There is a much lower concern with efficiencyand timesaving. These are more likely emphasised in European cultures. There are

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cross-cultural differences in career expectations, the extent to which managers aremotivated to plan their careers and differences in individual self-efficacy. Chew et al.(2002) found that men in Singapore reported higher levels of self-efficacy for careersthat were based on enterprising and realistic orientations than did women. Women had

higher self-efficacy for artistic, investigative and social orientations. Flores et al.(2003)concluded that country and cross-cultural factors influence approaches to careerdevelopment as well as career expectations. Studies by Turner and Lapan (2002) andWiese et al. (2002) found differences in proactive career management as well as goalsetting orientation. Albion and Fogarty (2002) found that adults in Australia reportedfewer difficulties in making career decisions. Thus we hypothesise:

H1c. Country/region of origin of the manager is positively associated with the threemeasures of managerial advancement.

Human capital characteristics. The human capital characteristics of managers areimportant in explaining career advancement. Human capital theory postulates that

managers who invest in education, off-the-job training, acquire planned workexperience and enhance managerial competencies will have increased levels of careeradvancement. There is a significant level of support for this proposition in the generaland hospitality-specific literatures, with some important qualifications.

Education is moderately associated with career advancement. Tharenouet al.(1994)and Johnsrud and Heck (1994) provide evidence of direct and indirect effects. Directly itinfluences advancement and indirectly it influences participation in training anddevelopment. The relationship is moderated by gender. There is some evidence that thetype of qualification and the educational institution are relevant. Baum (1995b) andRuddy (1998) found little support for the proposition that completion of a Diploma orDegree enhances promotion prospects within the Irish hospitality industry. The careerpatterns of managers with or without a degree were substantially similar. In contrast,

Baruch and Peiperl (2000) and Baruch and Leeming (2001) report a positiverelationship between education and career development. Baruch and Peiperl (2000)found that participation on an MBA programme added value to the graduate andimproved the graduates employability, career advancement and remunerationprospects.

The relationship between participation in training and development and careeradvancement is stronger (Tharenou and Conroy, 1994). Investment in managementdevelopment has a more potent effect (Roberts and Biddle, 1994). Being prevented fromparticipating in training and development is related to a lack of promotion. Therelationship is however complicated. There are gender effects and Baum (1989), in ahospitality context, found that participation in training and development was morestrongly related to the development of managerial skills than progression.

Significant breadth and depth of managerial experience is positively related tocareer advancement (Stroh et al., 1992; Whitely and Coetsier, 1993). There is strongsupport for this relationship in the hospitality management literature. Nebel et al.(1995) found that managers who reached a general manager position within a hotel hadacquired significant experience in general and functional management positions. Thecompetency literature suggests that experience and skill is positively related toadvancement (Howard and Bray, 1990). A number of hospitality-based studies (Gliatisand Guerrier, 1993; Jayawardena, 2000) indicate that the possession of particular


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competencies enhanced managerial career advancement. These include language,people management, entrepreneurial and competencies in managing culturaldifferences.

Depth of the managerial role is not significant for advancement to middle level

positions but is significant for career advancement to general managers positions(Forbes and Piercy, 1991; Judge et al., 1995). Managerial jobs in the hospitality andhotel sector have unique characteristics. Baum (1989; 1995a) found that operationalskills, usually related to direct customer contact, are considered by managers to bemost relevant to the current job and to future training requirements. Operationalconsiderations took priority in how managers allocate their time. Managers are mostlikely to be involved in supervision in areas such as front office, restaurant, bar andkitchen. Ladkin and Riley (1996) found that a significant number of general managersspent time in food and beverage. A relatively small percentage of general managersspent time in housekeeping, accounting and marketing activities. Front-office andpersonnel function experience was also significant. A small percentage of managerswere promoted to a general manager position from outside the hotel and hospitalitysector.

Nebel et al. (1995), in a study of hotel general managers in the USA, found that 80per cent of respondents had performed assistant general manager roles for on averagethree years. They tended to work in a very narrow stream of roles, such as, food andbeverage, front office and housekeeping. These three departments were the mostsignificant to a general managers career. Hotel grade was not significant in explainingvariation, however age differences were significant. Younger general managers weremore likely to work in operational departments and accumulated limited experience ingeneralist roles such as sales, marketing, finance and human resources. Thus wehypothesise:

H2a. Education level at graduation is positively associated with the three measures

of manager career advancement.

H2b. Investment in education since graduation is positively associated with thethree measures of manager career advancement.

H2c. Participation in training is positively associated with the three measures ofmanager career advancement.

H2d. Managers self-report of competencies is positively associated with the threemeasures of manager career advancement.

H2e. The breadth and depth of general and functional experience is positivelyassociated with the three measures of manager career advancement.

Mentors, networking and commitment to development. The influence of mentors andthe acquisition of social capital are significant. Mentor presence and mentor careersupport is positively related to managers promotion in early career (Whitely et al.,1991; Yuen, 1995). Mentoring processes are more significant in the early careerhowever there is little research highlighting their value in the later career (Raabe andBeehr, 2003; Scandura, 1992). Scandura (1998) found that some mentoring relationshipscould be dysfunctional from a career advancement perspective. Managers whoadvance are likely to have personal contacts in diverse groups within and beyond the

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organisation (Gould and Penley, 1984; Ruddy, 1998). Meyerson (1994) found thatmanagers who have strong external ties had better advancement. Ruddy (1998) foundthat successful hotel managers were interpersonal networkers. Gould and Penley(1984) found that the use of interpersonal career strategies resulted in senior manages

thinking more positively about the manager. Gender effects exist. Ragins andSundstrom (1989) found that male managers had more favourable social networks andpersonal contacts than females. They provided more information, support and accessto jobs. Thus we hypothesise.

H3a. Mentor support and networking activities are positively associated with thethree measures of managerial advancement.

Commitment to career, development and career orientations. Career commitment andcommitment to development are relevant individual-level variables. Jones andWhitmore (1995) found that career commitment predicted advancement todivision-level management. Howard and Bray (1990) and Ruddy (1998) foundsupport for the proposition that commitment to career predicts advancement.

A related career concept is the career orientation of the manager. Schein (1996)postulated that managers who possess career anchors that match their occupationalrole are more likely to experience progression. There is modest support for thisproposition in the literature. Research (Cooper et al., 1996; Whitely et al., 1991)highlights the variability of career orientations and the influence of organisationalexperiences in modifying a managers self-concept. Whitely et al. (1991) found that thecareer orientation will be manifest in attitudes to short and medium-term careerprospects. It appears that managerial and interpersonal orientations are morepredictive of advancement (Sharf, 2002).

The commitment of the manager to development is related to the level of managerialadvancement (Noe and Steffy, 1987; Facteau et al., 1995). Specific elements of

commitment to development include continually taking courses to improve skills,availing of organisational training opportunities, moving jobs to gain knowledge andskill, utilising a mentor and emulating a role model (Noe, 1996; Mathieu et al., 1992).Several studies highlight a positive relationship between commitment to development,task performance, and advancement (Chew et al., 2002; Quinones, 1995). Noe (1996)highlights the importance of career development strategies. He postulated that the useof a career strategy by managers is likely to encourage developmental behaviour. Thuswe hypothesise:

H4a. Strong career commitment is positively associated with the three measures ofmanager career advancement.

H4b. Managerial and interpersonal career anchors are positively associated with

the three measures of manager career advancement.

H4c. Strong commitment to development is positively associated with the threemeasures of manager career advancement.

Satisfaction with the psychological contract. The psychological contract is considered arelevant variable in explaining career advancement (Turnley and Feldman, 1999;Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler, 2000; Rousseau, 1996). There is limited empiricalinvestigation concerning the influence of the psychological contract on career


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advancement. Sullivan (1999) provides a strong argument that the content of thepsychological contract is important in explaining attitudes and commitment to careermanagement. There is however, no universal agreement amongst researchers on howthe psychological contract should be measured. Some commentators (Rousseau, 1996;

Schalk and Freese, 1993) contend that it can be measured by focusing on theemployees perceptions of both the obligations of the employee to the organisation andthe employer to employees. This second more unilateral view is prominent in theliterature on managerial advancement. Blumenfeld et al. (1987) studied theexpectations of potential hospitality managers and found that work andadvancement opportunities were key elements of their psychological contract. In thecareer context, both Kram (1996) and Allred et al. (1996) highlight a number of elementsthat characterise the modern psychological contract from the employees perspective.Kram (1996) argues for a relational approach to careers. This consists of managersproactively diagnosing career issues and engaging in coaching activities incollaborative learning environments. Allred et al. (1996) focused on the increasedemphasis on self-managed careers, ownership of career development, continuouslearning and change.

Anakwe et al. (2000) found that managers expectations concerning development,career management, self-knowledge and utilisation of skills are associated withpersonal learning, goal setting, the selection of career strategies and career decisionmaking. Thus we hypothesise:

H5a. Satisfaction with the psychological contract is positively associated with thethree measures of manager career advancement.

Organisation-level variablesOrganisation size, growth and hotel grade. The general finding is that organisation size(numbers employed) is not directly significant in explaining managerial advancement.There may be indirect effects due to characteristics of the internal labour market. If wetake growth as a measure of organisation size, the evidence is significantly less clear.Periods of high growth have inconsistent links with promotion rates for all managers(Hurley and Sonnenfeld, 1994), however there is doubt concerning whetherorganisation growth is significant for managerial career advancement. There is littleevidence demonstrating a link between the grade of the hotel and managerialprogression in a hospitality context. Ruddy (1998), for example, found no association.Baum (1999) found that managers in top graded hotels had more opportunities forcareer development and more and better quality training and developmentopportunities. There is some tentative evidence concerning the extent ofadvancement in differently graded hotels. Thus we hypothesise:

H6a. The size of the hotel is not associated with the three measures of managercareer advancement.

H6b. The hotel grade is positively associated with the three measures of managercareer advancement

Organisational career systems and support for development. Organisations differ in theway they develop career systems and the levels of support for career development.Gunz (1988) postulated that organisations have different career logics. Gilbert and

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Guerrier (1997) hypothesised that the hospitality sector is likely to have acommand-centred career logic in which managers develop by taking on anadditional level of command. Managers are likely to reinforce the same narrow setof skills but may utilise them in different settings. Ladkin and Riley (1996) found that

hotel managers careers develop through a sequence of moves between functions andunits usually in the same hotel. They are less likely to work in other business sectors.

Sonnenfeld and Peiperl (1988) suggest organisations vary in the types of careersystems they implement. They define career systems as the collections of policies,priorities and actions that organisations use to manage people. They argue that hotelstypically have a fortress system. This system is characterised by limited investment intraining and development and there is an expectation that managers will be flexible tohandle multiple tasks, survive under stress and be willing to change.

Career encouragement by superiors and peers is related to promotions. It does not,however, explain the managerial level achieved. Tharenou and Conroy (1994) foundthat career encouragement increased womens training and development much more sothan men and the increase in training and development opportunities in turn led to

career advancement. Thus we hypothesise:

H7a. The level of perceived support for career development is positively associatedwith the three measures of manager career advancement.

Research methodologySampleData were obtained from graduates of two major hotel and hospitality managementschools in the Republic of Ireland and Switzerland. Both schools provided detailedalumni lists. We sent a questionnaire to a sample of 1,400 managers stratified bycountry of birth (375, Irish; 425, European; and 600, Asian). We achieved the followingresponse rates: Irish 28 per cent; European 25 per cent and Asian 21 per cent.

These are statistically significant samples for each group of respondents. We areconscious that our response rates are somewhat lower than those reported in theliterature for this type of research (Baruch, 1999). Cultural issues likely influenced theresponse rates in addition to the length of the questionnaire and the use of a postalsurvey.

The mean age of managers was 34; the range was 22-48 and the modal age 37. Fiftytwo percent were male and 48 per cent female; 33 per cent were married; 47 per centsingle with the remaining 19 per cent not categorised. Thirty two percent of managersreported that their socio-economic background as professional with 36 per centindicating that it was employer or manager. Forty percent of managers had no familyconnections with the hotel industry. Of those mangers who had connections with thehotel industry 57 per cent indicated that their family owned a hotel, bed and breakfast,

restaurant or bar and 9 per cent indicated that their parents or siblings worked withinthe hospitality or hotel industry.

Sixteen percent of managers had achieved Certificate-level qualifications, 60 percent Diploma-level, 17 per cent Degree-level at graduation. Seven percent ofrespondents reported a post-graduate third-level qualification. Fifty eight percent ofmanagers had acquired additional qualifications since graduation. Of those whoachieved a qualification post graduation, 17 per cent of managers reported a Diplomaqualification, 22 per cent a Degree qualification and 24 per cent a Postgraduate


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qualification. Managers had acquired significant levels of managerial experience sincegraduation. Sixty one percent of managers reported six or more years experience inhotel management.

Differences were revealed across our sub-samples. The majority of Asian

respondents had family connections within the industry. The data for the Irish sampleindicates that the family is likely to own a hotel. This pattern of ownership is also thecase for the European sample. Asian respondents were relatively more qualified atgraduation than Irish respondents, however the Irish sample were more likely to haveinvested in education since graduation. European respondents were more likely toundertake Masters-level qualifications.

MeasuresThe study variables were measured using multi-item scales. The response and sampleitems are presented in Table I. We derived the measures from two main sources ofliterature. The career commitment, career anchors, psychological contract, and themanagerial competencies variables were measured using existing published scales byCarson and Bedeian (1994), Schalk and Freese (1993), Schein (1996), and Tallieu andFranchimont (1991). For the hotel management specific measures we use the work ofLadkin and Riley (1996). In addition we created a number of new scales to measurementoring and networking activities, commitment to development, organisationalsupport for development, and breadth of hotel work experience.

Limitations of the studyThe study relied on self-reports. We relied on the honesty of respondents to reportaccurately the number of job moves and salary increases. This is a significantlimitation. It exposes the data to common method variance. Several othercharacteristics of the sample may reduce the generalisability of the study results.

The response rate was modest and fell slightly below the response rates that werereported for organisation behaviour and management surveys. We derived our samplefrom two highly reputable hotel management schools. This possibly introduced biasinto our study because graduates from these schools would expect to have significantmanagerial advancement.

ResultsDescriptives, correlations and coefficient alpha reliability estimates are presented forall variables in Table II. Reliabilities for all scales except career anchors are well abovethe generally accepted level of 0.70.

The majority of respondents were in the early- or mid-career stages. Sixty twopercent of respondents had graduated within the past ten years. Eighty five percent of

respondents had graduated between 1-15 years. Analysis indicated that over 60 percent of respondents had worked as international hotel managers for between 1-10years. Almost 20 per cent of Asian respondents had worked 10 years within theindustry. On average, respondents became managers within 3.65 years of graduation.European respondents were promoted to the position of manager significantly quickerthan other respondents. Asian respondents were promoted to the position of managerat a significantly slower pace. The means for each sub-group were: European, 2.65years; Asian, 4.35 years; Irish, 3.95 years. We isolated the upper quartile to identify

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how quickly that group of respondents achieved a managerial position. The mean was

1.85 years. This indicates that a significant proportion of respondents operated on a

fast-track mode. This finding was relatively consistent for the three sub-samples.

Respondents had significant levels of organisational and job tenure. The average

organisational tenure for respondents was 5.5 years. Respondents demonstrated

significant levels of loyalty to the organisation. The mean scores (Irish, 4.25 years;European, 5.65 years; Asian, 6.75 years) indicated statistically significant differences intenure for the three sub-samples. Asian respondents had significantly longer tenure

than Irish respondents. Sixty-six percent of respondents were in their current positions

for less than two years. Asian respondents had relatively longer job tenure than Irish

or European respondents. Respondents were likely to hold a number of different jobpositions during their careers. The mean number of positions for respondents in this

study was 3.85 years. Asian managers tended to change jobs more frequently

Variable Scale development Sample item/alpha reliability

Career commitment A 7-item abbreviated version ofCarson and Bedeians (1994) scale

I have created a plan for mydevelopment in this line of

work/career (Cronbach Alpha 0.72)Satisfaction withpsychological contract

A 22-item scale measuringtransactional and relationaldimensions of the psychologicalcontract developed by Schalk andFreese (1993)

To what extent do you haveexpectations concerning your job inrespect of career development?(Cronbach Alpha 0.76)

Perception ofmanagementcompetencies

A 20-item scale measuringmanagers perceptions of thepossession of competency relevant tohotel work developed by Tallieu andFranchimont (1991) and authors

I am confident to deal withsituations that involve multiple workdemands (Cronbach Alpha 0.75)

Mentoring andnetworking activities

An 11-item scale measuringmanagers networking activities

developed by the authors

I regularly play internal politics toget noticed (Cronbach Alpha 0.74)

Careeranchors/orientations

An 18-item scale measuring careeranchors/self-concepts developed bySchein (1996)

I want to build a career to enable meto manage across functions(Cronbach Alpha 0.64)

Depth of manager role An 8-item scale measuring theimportance of different strategic andoperational aspects of hotelmanagement developed by Ladkinand Riley (1996)

I have responsibility for dealingwith human resource issues(Cronbach Alpha 0.67)

Commitment todevelopment

A 7-item scale measuring thecommitment of the manager todevelopment developed by authors

I am continually taking courses toimprove my skills (Cronbach Alpha0.71)

Organisational careersystems and support for

development

A 7-item scale measuring the extentto which the hotel implements

various career management policiesand practices developed by authors

In my organisation there is anopportunity to formulate structured

career development plans(Cronbach Alpha 0.71)

Breadth of workexperience

A 20-item scale measuring extent ofwork experience developed byauthors

I have worked at a strategic level infood and beverage (Cronbach Alpha0.77)

Table I.Description of the

measures used andreliabilities


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Variable

N

M

SD

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1.Careercommitment

325

3.67

0.45

(0.72)

2.Satisfactionwithpsyc

hologicalcontract

330

3.85

1.05

0.62**

(0.76)

3.Perceptionofmanagerialcompetency

320

4.25

1.01

0.31*

0.34*

(0.75)

4.Mentoringandnetworkingactivities

310

3.71

0.67

0.10

0.16

0.25*

(0.74)

5.Careeranchors/orienta

tions

325

3.41

0.78

0.57**

0.36*

0.10

0.11

(0.64)

6.Commitmenttodevelo

pment

318

3.67

0.37*

0.27*

0.59**

0.47**

0.21*

0.10

(0.71)

7.Organisationalcareer

systemsandsupportfor

development

311

3.25

1.21

0.31*

0.21*

0.46**

0.31*

0.11

0.49**

(0.71)

8.Depthofmanagerialr

ole

312

3.46

0.78

0.11*

0.09

0.07

0.08

0.02

0.07

0.08

(0

.67)

9.Breadthofworkexperience

321

3.86

0.77

0.18

0.11

0.16

0.17

0.15

0.11

0.26*0

.58**

(0.77)

Notes:n

327,

*p

,0

:

05;**p

,

0:

01(two-tailed)coefficientalpha;reliabilityestimatesarepresen

tedinthediagonal;allofthescalesin

cludedinthis

studyhaveafive-pointresponse

Table II.Means, standarddeviations, correlationsand reliabilities

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(mean 4:75) whereas Irish respondents had significantly fewer positions(mean 3:15).

The extent of organisational mobility was significant. It should however be pointedout that this was likely to be within the same hotel group. The average organisation

tenure for the respondents was 4.5 years. Asian respondents had significantly longerorganisational tenure (mean 4:85) when compared with European (mean 4:45)and Irish (mean 4:25).

Respondents had a significant number of salary increases since graduation. Theoverall mean for respondents was 7.21 salary increases. Irish respondents receivedsignificantly more salary increases than Asian and European respondents (Irish, 8.25;Asian, 6.25; European, 7.15). Forty five percent of respondents received an annualsalary of over e33,000. Asian respondents were paid a significantly lower salary whencompared to Irish and European respondents (Asian mean salary, e27,000; Europeanmean salary, e33,000; Irish mean salary, e44,000).

The findings revealed that respondents job and organisational tenure patterns and

levels of salary progression correspond to some characteristics of the contemporarycareer model, in particular frequent job moves, numerous salary increases, increasedresponsibilities, and enhanced competencies. However the results also indicated thatmany respondents worked within a bounded career and reported significant levels oforganisational tenure.

Certain functions within the hotel were more important than others in the careers ofhotel managers (Table III). Food and beverage, front office and housekeeping were thethree functional areas that the majority of respondents gained experience in at somepoint in their career. This pattern was relatively consistent for the three sub-samples.Respondents spent on average 4.30 years in front office, 3.75 years in food andbeverage and 3.3 years in housekeeping. Respondents from Ireland were more likely towork in housekeeping, Asian respondents in food and beverage and Europeanrespondents in front office.

Respondents gained significant experience in general management positions.European and Asian respondents were more likely to work in general managementpositions (Asian, 3.75; European, 3.25; Irish, 2.75 years). Respondents weresignificantly less likely to work in specialist functional areas. These specialistfunctional areas were non-core activities. Where respondents had specialist experiencethey were more likely to work in sales and marketing, and less likely to work in humanresources and accounting and finance positions. European respondents were morelikely to work in human resources. Irish respondents were significantly more likely toacquire experience outside of the hotel sector.

The grade of the hotel was important in explaining the type of experience that

managers acquired. The majority of respondents worked in mid-range or luxurygraded hotels. Respondents were more likely to acquire front office experience inbudget-graded hotels. Irish respondents were significantly more likely to work inbudget hotels at some point in their careers. Respondents who worked inluxury-graded hotels were more likely to work in specialist functional areas andgeneral management positions. There were significant differences for the threesub-samples. Respondents from Asia were significantly more likely to work in generalmanagement positions most likely in luxury hotels, whereas Irish and European


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work experience is positively associated with the number of managerial job moves

(b 0:24; p # 0:05), the level of management reached (b 0:17; p # 0:05) and the

number of salary increases (b 0:29; p # 0:01). The depth of the managers role is

positively associated with the number of managerial job moves (b 0:17; p # 0:05),

the level of management reached (b 0:

17; p # 0:

05) and the number of salary

increases (b 0:18; p # 0:05). Therefore,H2e was supported.

The extent of networking and mentoring activities is positively associated with two

measures of managerial advancement; the number of managerial job moves (b 0:24;

p # 0:01) and the level of management reached (b 0:29; p # 0:01). H3a was

particularly supported.

The managers perceived level of career commitment is positively associated with

the three measures of advancement; number of managerial job moves (b 0:27;

p # 0:01), the level of management reached (b 0:23; p # 0:05) and the number of

salary increases (b 0:26; p # 0:01). H4a was supported.

The strength of the managers managerial and interpersonal career anchor is

positively associated with the three measures of career advancement; the number of

managerial job moves (b 0:24; P# 0:05), level of management reached (b 0:17;

p # 0:05) and the number of salary increases (b 0:15;p # 0:05).H4b was supported.

The commitment of the manager to development is positively associated with two

measures of managerial advancement; the number of managerial job moves (b 0:23;

p # 0:05) and the level of management reached (b 0:17; p # 0.05). H4c was

particularly supported. Satisfaction with the psychological contract is positively

associated with the three measures of managerial advancement; number of managerial

job moves (b 0.17; p # 0.05), the level of management reached (b 0.23;p # 0.05)

and the number of salary increases (b 0:15; p # 0:05). H5a was supported.

Three organisational-level variables are positively associated with some of theadvancement measures included in the study. The size of the hotel is positively

associated with the three measures of the advancement; the number of managerial job

moves (b 0:27;p # 0:05), the level of management reached (b 0:24;p # 0:05) and

the number of salary increases (b 0:18;p # 0:05).H6awas supported. The grade of

the hotel is positively associated with the number of managerial job moves (b 0:22;

p # 0:05) and the number of salary increases (b 0:27; p # 0:01). H6b was partially

supported. Perceptions of organisational support for career development is positively

associated with the number of managerial job moves (b 0:16;p # 0:05) and the level

of management reached (b 0:20; p # 0:05). H7awas partially supported.

The complete regression model accounted for significant variance in the three

dependent variables; number of managerial job moves (adjusted R2

0:

36;p#

0:

05),the level of management reached (adjusted R2 0:32; p # 0:05) and the number of

salary increases (adjusted R2 0:16; p # 0:05). Each block of variables explained

significant variance in the three measures of the dependent variable. The analysis

indicated that demographic, human capital and manager psychological variables

explained the most significant variance. Organisational-level variables explained some

variance, however they did not add significantly to the power of our model to explain

the career advancement of hotel managers.


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DiscussionThe overall question that runs through this study is as follows: What factors explainedthe career advancement of hotel managers? The answer to this question is importantgiven that hotels frequently experience difficulties in retaining managers, in providing

opportunities for participation in training and development and in implementingsophisticated career management policies and practices. Hotels are service-typeorganisations. It follows that the motivation and quality of management is importantin determining the level of service quality provided to customers. The research designutilised was unique; it incorporated a combination of individual- and organisation-levelvariables and a cross-cultural dimension, a feature absent from many previous studies.The sample is significant and we achieved a sufficient response rate for our threesub-samples. The study included measures of individual- and organisational-levelvariables.

The data revealed a picture of the hotel manager who was relatively young, welleducated and male. Hotel managers invested in significant levels of post-graduateeducation. The data on investment in training and development by managers revealedan interesting picture. Managers tended to rely on short-term, organisationallyprovided training and development. They also relied on more traditional trainingstrategies such as short management courses. There was significantly less evidence ofthe use of more innovative and work-based learning activities such as special projects,hardship assignments and mentoring processes. The analysis indicated significantcross-cultural differences in the use of training development and education activities.Irish respondents reported greater use of short-course based activities; Europeanrespondents reported greater use of mentoring activities, special projects andassignments. European respondents also participated in more short courses than Irishand Asian respondents. Asian respondents were less likely to participate in trainingand development relative to Irish and European respondents. The analysis revealed

cross-cultural differences in respect of attitudes to development. European respondentswere more committed to career development than Irish and Asian respondents. Asianrespondents were committed to utilising their college education and to learning aforeign language. They were significantly less committed to utilising a mentor orcontinually investing in skill enhancement activities. European respondents placedmore emphasis on social learning activities, such as the emulation of role models, andmentoring. They were more committed to enhancing their foreign languagecapabilities. Irish respondents were less committed to learning a foreign languagebut were strongly committed to utilising their college education in the job. Suchrespondents were more focused on availing of training opportunities within the hotel.The data indicated that managers working in different cultural settings placeddifferent emphasis on the value of learning and have preferences for particular ways of

learning.Hotel managers placed emphasis on particular dimensions of career, work

expectations and perceptions of their managerial strengths. Respondents had twopronounced career anchors or orientations; a desire to manage people and an emphasison service and dedication. Cross-cultural differences in career anchors were revealed.European respondents placed more emphasis on the technical/functional dimensions ofthe managerial career and in life style issues. Irish respondents placed more emphasison entrepreneurship, on autonomy in the form of opportunities to do things in a

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particular way and a concern to have freedom to act. Asian respondents, in contrast,placed significantly more emphasis on service and dedication to others and on jobsecurity. They placed significantly less emphasis on life-style, entrepreneurship andautonomy dimensions.

The content of hotel managers psychological contracts is interesting and it in manyways the findings from this study reflect the emerging contract as advanced byRousseau (1996) and others. Respondents placed strong emphasis on pay andpromotion, career development opportunities and the quality of job assignments. Theyprioritised clear managerial growth possibilities, hands-on leadership, a strongcommitment by the hotel to service, emphasis on collaboration and teamwork and asuperior salary as important issues. Irish and European respondents reported similarpriorities. Asian respondents were more concerned about issues related to pay andpromotion and the reputation of the hotel. They were less concerned with thecharacteristics of the job and the culture of the hotel.

Managers overall reported high levels of career commitment. European respondentswere more committed to their careers than Asian and Irish respondents. They had alonger-term goal focus. Asian respondents were more prepared to make personalsacrifices to learn and to relocate if necessary. They reported less clarity in respect ofcareer goals. Managers differed significantly in their willingness to network. Irishrespondents made greater use of networking. They were more likely to circulate CVs,search job adverts, and to continually look for a higher salary. Asian respondents makegreater use of family contacts within the industry; they kept a record of contacts andwere less likely to wait to be told about promotion opportunities. They were less likelyto actively circulate CV or to search job adverts. European respondents were morelikely to utilise external networking. They made greater use of contacts within theindustry and actively searched for external labour market opportunities.

Looking at our hypotheses, the study provided moderate or partial support for the

majority of them:. Age and gender are associated with hotel manager advancement.

We found strong support for both age and gender impacting managerial advancement.Gender is associated with all three measures of managerial advancement; number ofmanagerial job moves, level of management reached and the number of salaryincreases. The relationship is however negative for the level of management reachedand the number of salary increases. This suggests that male respondents have moreopportunities on both of these measures of advancement. Age is similarly associatedwith the three measures of managerial advancement. The relationships identified inthis study are stronger than indicated in the managerial advancement literature. It doesreinforce the general finding that there are significant gender differences in managerial

advancement:. Investment in education, post-graduation education, training are positively

associated with managerial advancement.

There is partial support for this group of hypotheses. Education level at graduation ispositively associated with the number of salary increases and the level of managementreached. Investment in education since graduation is positively associated with thelevel of management reached. There is no support for the investment in training


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manager and the organisation. It is likely that where the discrepancy is perceived to be

low, then the manager will engage in innovative behaviours and be more willing to

pursue a career within the hotel. The quality of the psychological contract can shape

various aspects of the career and improve career commitment, the availability of

development opportunities and commitment to development:. Size and grade of the hotel are positively associated with managerial

advancement.

There is partial support for the hypothesis that the size and grade of the hotel are

positively associated with hotel manager career advancement. The size of the hotel is

positively associated with the number of managerial job moves and the level of

management reached. The grade of the hotel is associated wit the number of

managerial job moves and the number of salary increases. These findings are not

surprising in the context of hotels and hospitality. There is evidence to indicate that

managers in higher graded hotels have more varied work experience and are likely to

be better paid (Watson et al., 2002):. The organisations career management system and scope of managerial roles are

positively associated with managerial advancement.

There is partial support for the hypothesis that the level of organisational support for

career development is positively associated with managerial advancement. It is

positively associated with one measure of advancement the level of management

reached. There is, to date, limited empirical evidence that organisational support for

careers, without a similar level of individual manager career commitment, will be

important in predicting managerial advancement. It is more likely that organisational

support for careers will be reflected in the provision of training and development

opportunities, the availability of formal mentoring support and the opportunity forregular lateral job moves to broaden and deepen managerial experience. There is no

support for the hypothesis that the breadth and depth of the organisations managerial

role definitions is positively associated with managerial advancement:

. The cultural background of the manager is positively associated with

managerial advancement.

A particular feature of our study was the inclusion of respondents who worked in

different countries. We had a good representation of Irish, European and Asian

respondents. There is very strong support of the hypothesis that the managers

country of origin (in terms of where he/she is currently working) is positively

associated with managerial advancement. We should point out that there was a strongrelationship between the current work location of the respondent and his/her country

of birth. For example, respondents born in Asia tended to work in Asian countries.

Cultural background strongly associated with the three measures of advancement

included in the study. This finding provides support for the view that national cultural

differences in values influence how individuals think about the task of management,

the employment relationship and career. The results suggest scope to investigate

cross-cultural influence in more detail.


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Implications for individuals and organisationsThe findings highlight a number of important implications for individuals. There areadvantages to be gained from investment in education, training and development.Education since graduation proved to be a useful predictor of managerial

advancement. Commitment to development and career are important. Careercommitment appeared to be particularly important. It makes sense that graduatesshould be encouraged to pursue careers in which they have a greater interest. It is alsoimportant that managers are concerned to diagnose their skill and talents in asystematic fashion and to match them to appropriate career opportunities.

The study highlights the role of networking activities. Networking has particularsignificance to the level of management reached as well as the number of job moves.The study revealed cross-cultural differences, however it is pertinent to point out thatmanagers who spend time developing their networking competencies are more likely toadvance faster. Spending time in social networks is beneficial to the managersadaptability, flexibility and visibility. We did not investigate whether networking ledto greater social recognition by key decision makers in the hotel.

Organisations also have a role to play in managing the career commitment,motivation and development of managers. By empowering managers and encouragingself-development, organisations can help mangers grow professionally within theorganisation. Organisationally provided career development activities can helpmanagers achieve greater career maturity and commitment. It makes sense fororganisations to design mentoring and coaching programmes to build commitment towork and organisation and to use training and development interventions to reduceturnover and prepare the manager to avail of advancement opportunities that are likelyto arise.

The study results reveal that a number of organisation-level variables are relevantin explaining managerial career advancement. Three particular dimensions require the

attention of organisations. The nature of the organisations career system is important.This concerns the extent to which the organisation has in place a comprehensive careermanagement system and provides career planning interventions.

Two elements of the job role are also important. The first concerns the extent towhich managerial job roles are defined. Are they sufficiently broad in task and skillterms? The second dimension concerns the extent to which job roles provide asufficient level of responsibility to the manager in order to acquire the necessaryexperience before promotion.

ConclusionsWe found that managerial advancement within hotels is predicted by a combination ofdemographic, human capital, psychological-variables and to a lesser extent

organisation-level variables. Demographic variables were significant in explainingthe extent of managerial advancement on the three measures included in this study.The country in which the graduate works was particularly significant in explainingadvancement. Human capital variables explained significant variance in the threeadvancement measures. Investment in education since graduation, mentoring andnetworking activities, managers perceptions of competencies and the breadth anddepth of managerial experience were positively associated with managerialadvancement. Psychological characteristics of the manager including commitment to

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career and development, satisfaction with the psychological contract and particularcareer anchors were also important. Organisation-level variables did not consistentlyexplain variance in the three measures of advancement. The size of the hotel waspositively related to the three measures of advancement whereas the grade of the hotel

was significantly related to the number of job moves and the number of salaryincreases. Perceptions of the organisations career system and support for developmentwere positively related to the number of and level of job moves but not to salary. Thefindings suggest that managerial advancement is complex and multidimensional,however in this study there is strong support for the total model presented.

A weakness of our study is that as far as both independent and dependent variablesare concerned, we relied on self-report measures. While managers strove to achieveconsistency in their self-reported response patterns, it could be that the variablespertaining to a number of career advancement predictors are clustered because theymay have overstated the level of advancement achieved. It would be interesting to havethe organizations perspective on the significance of the predictor variables.

Our findings provide some support for the protean career model. It is interesting toobserve that managers demonstrated strong loyalty to the hotel. There was lessevidence of turnover than might have been anticipated. The findings indicated that formany hotel managers there is a significant amount of stability in their careers. It is alsoclear that hotel managers careers were bounded rather than boundaryless. Particularelements of the protean model practised include investment in training anddevelopment, self-managed career activities, enhancement of competencies andnetworking. Critics have advocated that the protean model is a convenient ideology foremployers who wish to place ownership for careers with employees and use it as anexcuse for less job security, fewer training opportunities and promotion prospects. Thetraditional career has not ceased to the extent suggested in the literature. Instead wedetect in the context of hotels an evolution towards new ways of thinking about career

and career management but not a fundamental shift in the nature of career.Evolution towards a new career model does suggest implications for management

development, education and career development activities for both individuals andorganisations. It is likely that managers will increasingly focus on general transferableknowledge and skills to meet both individual and employer demands. However, giventhat managers are a competitive resource it is incumbent on hotels to facilitate thedevelopment of managers and move towards a model of learning that focuses on thecreation of a continuous learning culture. In order to create this culture, hotels need toformulate clear policies that emphasise the importance of continuous learning formanagerial effectiveness and provide rewards in the form of advancement to thosewho utilise their skills and competencies.

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