career counseling & guidance csl6803.21 winter 2011 1/15/11 overview of main theories
TRANSCRIPT
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Career Counseling & GuidanceCSL6803.21Winter 20111/15/11Overview of Main Theories
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Holland’s TheoryTheory of Vocational Personalities
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Personality TypesRealistic, Investigative, Artistic,
Social, Enterprising and Conventional
describes personalitiescharacteristic set of attitudes and
skills preferences for vocational and
leisure activities, life goals and values, beliefs about oneself, and problem-solving style
also describes environments
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Holland’s Types
RealisticInvestigative
Artistic
SocialEnterprising
Conventional
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Leslie- from Holland’s perspectiveWhat would her “type” be? What environment has she been
in, and what’s the congruence?How does Holland’s theory help
understand Leslie and her choices?
What hypotheses would you make from this perspective?
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Developmental Theory-SuperChapter 5
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Central Premisevocational development is a
process of making several decisions
process culminates in vocational choices
Vocational choice is an implementation of the self-concept
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Assumptions of Stage Theories
Behavior develops continuouslyStages are irreversible (though
contemporary theorists are less definite about this)
There are characteristic patterns to each stage
There are tasks that must be accomplished at each stage to go to next stage
Increasing levels of maturity and independence
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Developmental vs. Trait Factor TheoriesProcess orientedInclusive of roles outside career
focusLongitudinalMultidisciplinarySelf concept is critical
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Self ConceptIs formed by vocational
preferences and competencies, changes and evolves over time in
interaction with situations, Is a product of social learning, is increasingly stable over the life
span
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Career MaturityIs the readiness of the individual
to cope with the demands of the environment
Predicts successful coping with the requirements of each stage
Involves both attitudinal factors and cognitive factors.
In adults, term is career adaptability, “readiness to cope with changing work and work conditions”
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Developmental StagesGrowth (ages 4 to 13)Exploration (ages 14 to 24)Establishment (ages 25 to 44)Maintenance (ages 45 to 65)Disengagement (over age 65). Individuals do not necessarily go
through these stages at these ages, may recycle through
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GrowthAges 4-13Tasks include:
◦ becoming concerned about the future,
◦increasing personal control over one’s own life,
◦convincing oneself to achieve in school and at work,
◦acquiring competent work habits and attitudes
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Explorationages 14-24 tasks are:
◦ crystallizing- focusing in on a broad occupational area
◦ specifying-narrowing down to a specific choice
◦implementing career choice
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Establishment ages 25-40entering and becoming
established in one’s career and work life
tasks include:◦ stabilizing-- settling in and learning
about job requirements◦Consolidating- feeling secure in job◦Advancing--assuming greater
responsibility
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MaintenanceAges 45-65Tasks include:
◦Acceleration- continuing to grow and change
◦Stagnation
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DeclineAges 65 and olderTasks include:
◦Specialization◦disengagement
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Life RolesChildStudentHomemakerWorkerCitizenLeisuriteRoles interact and vary in
intensity over life-span
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Goals of CounselingDevelop and accept an
integrated and adequate picture of themselves and their life roles,
Test the concept against realityConvert it into reality by making
choices that implement the self-concept and lead to job success and satisfaction as well as benefit to society
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C-DAC Model AssessesLife structure and work-role
salience, Career development status and
resources, Vocational identity, including
values, interests, abilities, Occupational self-concepts and
life themes.
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Gottfredson’s theoryExplains why individuals’
vocational expectations vary by sex, race, and social class.
Views vocational choice first as an implementation of the social self and then implementation of self concept
Choices circumscribed by social variables such as gender or social class
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Vocational Aspirationsproduct of accessibility (choices
that are most realistic), andcompatibility (person-
environment fit).
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StagesStage One (ages 3 to 5)-
orientation to size and power Stage Two (ages 6 to 8) -
orientation to sex roles Stage Three (ages 9 to 13) -
orientation to prestige and status Stage Four (ages 14 and older)-
orientation to the internal self
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Gottfredson’s theoryExplains why individuals’
vocational expectations vary by sex, race, and social class.
Views vocational choice first as an implementation of the social self and then implementation of self concept
Choices circumscribed by social variables such as gender or social class
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Vocational Aspirationsproduct of accessibility (choices
that are most realistic), andcompatibility (person-
environment fit).
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StagesStage One (ages 3 to 5)-
orientation to size and power Stage Two (ages 6 to 8) -
orientation to sex roles Stage Three (ages 9 to 13) -
orientation to prestige and status Stage Four (ages 14 and older)-
orientation to the internal self
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Self efficacy theory:Chapter 7
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Backgroundindividuals’ perceptions of reality are
greater determinants of their behavior than objective reality
behavior changes and decisions are mediated by expectations of self-efficacy
Self efficacy is the confidence one has to accomplish tasks in a specific situation
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Level and Strength of Self-efficacy Will Determine:
Whether or not a coping behavior will be initiated
How much effort will result How long the effort will be
obtained in the face of obstacles
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Sources of Self Efficacy:Performance accomplishmentsVicarious experienceVerbal persuasionEmotional arousal
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Outcome ExpectancyLead to an expected outcomeSuccessfully execute behavior to
produce outcome Effort varies in magnitude,
generality, and strength based on outcome expected
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Development of InterestsOutcome expectancies and self-
efficacy beliefs both predict interests
Interests (together with self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectancies) predict goals
Goals lead to choosing and practicing activities, which then
Lead to performance attainments
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Choice ModelPerson inputs and background
context influence learning experiences, which
influence self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectancies, which
influence interests, which influence choice goals, which influence actions, whichinfluence performance
attainments
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Performance Modelpredicts the level of performance
as well as the persistence past performance
accomplishments influence self-efficacy and outcome expectancies, which
influence performance goals, which lead to performance attainment level.
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Career CounselingIdentify those options that clients
have foreclosed because they have unrealistic or faulty self-efficacy beliefs or outcome expectancies.
Identify and evaluate barriers to various career choices
Modify and counteract faulty efficacy beliefs and faulty occupational information.
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InterventionsIncreasing individuals’ self-efficacy Fostering positive and realistic
outcome expectationsSetting specific goalsIncreasing coping self-efficacy and
strong performance skillsExpanding vocational interests, Increasing decision-making skills and
exploratory behavior, Increasing consideration of non-
traditional careers
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Goal of Career CounselingHelp clients find a career that
matches their interests, values, and skills.
Help clients explore possibilities that are a good match, but were discarded from consideration due to poor self-efficacy perceptions or inaccurate outcome expectations
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Identifying Foreclosed Options
Focus on the results from an interest inventory, using both high and lower scoring scales.
Analyze discrepancies between occupations identified on various inventories
Use a card sort
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Modifying Faulty Self-efficacy Beliefs help clients create opportunities
to experience successful performance accomplishments
Help clients develop accurate view of abilities to raise efficacy beliefs
Reanalyze previous experiences that led to faulty efficacy beliefs
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Identifying BarriersIdentify barriersDetermine if realisticBrainstorm ways to overcome
them
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Theory of Work Adjustment
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Central PremiseCan predict satisfaction in a job
from knowing the fit between the individual and the environment.
Correspondence is a good fit.Environments require individuals
to have abilitiesIndividuals require environments
to reinforce their needs.
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SatisfactorinessHow well an individual’s abilities
and skills meet what the job or organization requires. Result is a satisfactory employee.
Satisfactory employees are retained, promoted or transferred. Unsatisfactory employees are fired.
Abilities are assessed and compared to occupational aptitude patterns for jobs.
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SatisfactionHow well the organization meets
the needs of an individual. Individuals have needs and
values that are met by the job (e.g., need to be autonomous or challenged). If the job meets these needs, result is satisfication.
Satisfied employees stay, if not quit.
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Needs and valuesSix basic values: autonomy,
achievement, comfort, status, altruism, and safety.
Needs are assessed, and compared to the occupational reinforcer patterns of occupations (e.g., jobs are assessed to determine the pattern of needs in the environment).
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Personality StylesDetermines how an individual
interacts with the environment.Celerity: speed to interact.Pace: intensity or activity level.Rhythm: pattern of pace (steady,
cyclical or erratic).Endurance: sustaining
interaction.
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AdjustmentIf an employee’s needs are not
perfectly correspondent (I.e., if not all needs are met), employee is dissatisfied, and begins to adjust to increase correspondence.
Flexibility is the ability to tolerate the correspondence. This is the threshold before adjustment begins to occur. (see chart on p. 66).
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Adjustment (cont).Once threshold of adjustment is
reached, dissatisfaction is too great, and individual moves into adjustment mode- to increase satisfaction (i.e., correspondence).
Reactive adjustment - change self, such as reduce level of needs
Active adjustment- change work environment to increase rewards
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Adjustment (cont.)Perseverance: Continuing in the
environment after adjustment begins. Perseverance continues until the discorrespondence is too great, and individual quits.
Perseverance and flexibility are fluctuating- may tolerate discorrespondence one day, but not next.
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Development StagesDifferentiation: First 20 years of
formation of abilities, values and personality style.
Stability: Adulthood, relative constancy of abilities and values.
Decline: Physiological changes that alter abilities and values.
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Goals of Counseling Purposes: identifying a career
choice, clarifying decision-making, helping a client identify opportunities for adjustment, and helping a client decide on various ways to change an environment.
Self-knowledge is critical.May help client adjust to
environment or find new job.
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Counseling Hypotheses Inadequate Performance due to:
◦ Actual discorrespondence between the clients’ actual abilities and the job requirements.
◦ Inaccurate perception by client of his/her abilities.
◦ Client may be able to do the job task, but is not able to perform tasks in other life roles.
◦ Abilities and requirements correspond, but inadequate performance is a result of discorrespondence in the need-reward discorrespondence.
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Counseling Hypotheses (cont)Dissatisfaction due to:
◦Actual mismatch between needs and rewards
◦Needs are met vicariously rather than is a true psychological need.
◦Client is satisfied in job, but needs are not met in other domains.
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Stages of Counseling Establishing a working
relationship. Exploring client’s problem. Assess client’s work personality
and self-image—identify needs and abilities.
Assess the environment in similar terms.
Assess the effect of counseling on the problem.
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Chapter 10Theory Integration
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Person Environment Fit Theories
Holland: how vocational personalities and work environments fit together.
Outcomes include vocational choice and adjustment; predicted by congruence with the environment.
TWA highlights individuals’ abilities and needs.
Focuses on how individuals decrease job dissatisfaction.
outcomes include vocational choice and adjustment.
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Developmental TheoriesSuper: life long development Gottfredson: emphasis on childhood
and adolescence. Both explain how choices are made
and implemented. Both predict vocational choice and
development; Super’s outcomes also include implementation of the self-concept, and delineation of work as one of many life roles.
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Social LearningFocuses on learning experiences, both
in the past and in the future. Emphasis is on ways that individuals
learn characteristic ways of approaching tasks and general observations about themselves and their world.
Individuals’ learning histories, their genetic endowments, and their task approach skills interact with environmental conditions to predict vocational choice.
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Social CognitiveFocuses on the personal construction
individuals place on what they have learned.
Highlights how interests develop and how choices develop.
Emphasis on an individual’s beliefs about his or her competence in the related abilities and the outcomes expected of pursuing that field.
With social learning theory, consideration is given to environmental conditions and events.
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Theories help counselorsHolland identifies what happens, Developmental theories describe how
it happens,TWA depicts how it happens and the
outcome, Social learning theory changes how it
will happen.Social cognitive career theory
describes how an individual’s perceptions of reality help to make it happen.