carol mckiel lane community college
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College Instructors as Learning Managers: Span of Control as a Factor of Class Size in Education. Carol McKiel Lane Community College. What Is Span of Control?. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
College Instructors as
Learning Managers:
Span of Control as a Factor of
Class Size in Education
Carol McKielLane Community College
What Is Span of Control?
o Ratio of manager to employeeso Different institutions have identified
a specific number of employees a manager can effectively supervise
Application of Span of Controlo Emergency response
• 1:8 supervisor to workers • Greater safety
o Military • 1:5 team leader to soldiers
o Prisons• 1:4 guard to inmates• 1:15 increase in violence
o Education – elementary school• 1:12 principal to teachers
• Wider span negatively impacts student outcomes (Mears, 2004; Meier & Bohte,
2003)
Why not span of control?
In the interest of improving student outcomes…
Many business practices applied in education.
If the ratio of manager to employee is so critical for positive outcomes...
Why debate class size?
Gulick (1937 ) identified most effective span of control ratio
1:10
History of Span of Control
Workplace in the PastManagers control employees’ behaviors
3 Productivity Factors Impact Size of Span of
Control
1. Training• Experience level of employees
2. Distance between the manager and employees
• Physical distance requires more time
3. Diversity of Function• Different types of employee jobs• Different levels of employee skills
Workplace in the PastManagers control employees’ behaviors
More of any one factor = Fewer employeesFactors impact ability to control
o Change in management philosophy changed span of control • Management structures flattened
• Increased span of control 1:30
Today’s Workplace Managers do not control but engage with workersManagement theories are about collaborationo McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y
• X – authoritarian mgr thinks lazy employee• Y – collaborative mgr thinks capable employee
• Collaboration = higher productivity
o Herzberg’s Motivation Theory• Employee engagement = Job satisfaction = Productivity
(Herzberg, 2003; McGregor, 1960)
Span of Control Is Now about Relationshipso For employee satisfaction –
• Managers need to work more closely with their employees
o Employees state they want a relationship with their manager
o Employees wanted:• Feedback• Guidance• Support
• Emotional• Psychological
(Doran et al., 2004; Shirey, 2006)
1 manager : 10 employees complex thinking
problem-solving creative labor
Span of Control and Employee Productivity
(Gittell, 2001;Hattrup & Kleiner, 1993; McManus, 2007)
1 manager : 30 employees
redundant non-
skilled labor
o Impacts productivity
• Small ratio: 10 employees• Problem-solve with employees• Help workers develop skills
Relationship with Employee
(Gittell, 2001)
• Wide ratio: >10 employees• Monitor for compliance
- Discipline non-compliance• Difficult to meet each person’s needs
o Develop one-on-one relationships• Complex problems require deeper discussion• Higher level skills need more guidance
It takes time…
(Davison, 2003; Hattrup & Kleiner, 1997)
• Small span of control – 1:6.5• Companies experience 20% growth rate
• Median span of control – 1:8• Companies have less than a 20% growth
rate
• Business recognizes the return on investment and willing to pay for a small span of control
Higher Educationo Large classes 1:25 or more 100 students/term
• Difficult to address individual learning needs
• Monitor for compliance
• Information flows one way from instructor• One size fits all teaching method
• Teach/learn in lower levels of Bloom’s taxonomy• Knowledge, comprehension, application (Baxter Magolda, 2004;
Leland & Kasten, 2002)
Higher Education
Large groups can beeffective method forpassing content to millions of people.
Higher Education
Complex nature of today’s world has shifted educationaloutcomes…
Higher levelskills needed.
Skills People Need to Develop in Higher Education
“People need to be able to use knowledge flexibly in different contexts.”
(Leland & Kasten, 2002, p. 72)“Interaction and collaboration are now important in most workplaces, and are expected to be even more important in the future.”
(Livingston, 2010, p. 59)
Skill Developmentand Higher Ed
“The goal of school cannot simply be dissemination, but rather, must be the absorption of material.”
Livingston, 2010, p. 60
“Higher education focused on knowledge acquisition has trained students to be transitional knowers.”
Baxter Magolda(as cited in Hunter, Laursen, & Seymour, 2007, p. 66)
“If you expect someone to do something, you have to expect to teach them how.”
(Kuh et al., 2005, p. 66)
Higher Education & Skill Development
We need graduates capable of complex thinking and creative problem-solving.
Relationships Between Faculty and Students
Is Important for Skill Developmento One-on-one relationships with faculty …• Students show significant gains in critical
thinking
“There is no substitute for periodic personal contact between students and faculty,” (Tinto, 1987, p. 167)
(Hayes & Devitt, 2008)
The Discrepancy
In the workplace creativity and problem-solving1:10
In the classroom critical thinking and problem-solving
1:25 The ratio business recognizes as suitable for low-skilled, redundant labor
The Questiono Why the discrepancy? o What is the nature of the work of
managers and instructors?
?
Are There Commonalities in Managers’ and Instructors’ Work?
Both take care of needs of people and help them develop.
Maslow’s theory explains the nature of human need and relationships.
Applied in business and education
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs1. Physical
• Lighting, temperature, and lunch2. Safety – not just physical safety
• Emotional security3. Need to belong
• Membership in a satisfying group4. Self esteem
• Personal value within the group5. Self Actualized
• Understanding of self • Context with others
Maslow’s Theory: commonality between business and education
If elements of Maslow’s theory embedded in span of control
Then possible support for span of control in education
5 management functions related to Maslow’s Theory
In span of control practices… Managers a) provide motivation
b) promote communication
c) foster independence
d) build relationships
e) develop a collaborative work environment
Span of Control Literature
Are the 5 factors found in management and education
literature?
Similarities in Education and Management
LiteratureFoundation Theorists Vincent Tinto
Leaving College
1987
George Kuh National Survey of
Student Engagement (NSSE)
Indiana University
2005
Frederick Herzberg Motivation-Hygiene Theory
2003
Douglas McGregorThe Human Side of Enterprise
Theory X and Theory Y
Controlling vs Collaborative
Management Practices
1960
Education and Management Literature
Shows Similarities Faculty feedback
motivates students to submit polished articles.
Kuh
Provide Motivation Manager feedback
focusing on improving employee competence improves motivation.
Herzberg
Education and Management Literature
Shows Similarities Students identify
that high quality interactions with faculty impact academic development.
Kuh
Robust discussions are important in order for managers and employees to clarify functions and tasks.
McGregor
Promote Communication
Education and Management Literature
Shows Similarities There is no
substitute for periodic personal contact between students and faculty.
Tinto
Build Relationships Satisfying the human
need to belong to a group increases employee satisfaction and results in higher productivity.
McGregor
Education and Management Literature
Shows Similarities Instructors help
students develop their potential by engaging them formally and informally.
Tinto
Foster Independence Managers should work
closely with employees in order to help them construct job skills and promotion paths.
Herzberg
Education and Management Literature
Shows Similarities Integrating students
into the campus culture satisfies their need to belong. If this does not happen, students satisfy the need to belong somewhere else.
Tinto
Develop a Collaborative EnvironmentPeople are interdependent in
their work. When people work positively with each other, they are more satisfied about their jobs.
McGregor
Similarities between management and instruction
within the 5 management functions
In the literature:
What About the Attitudes of Managers and
Instructors?o Are they alike in their thinking of their work with people?
o Do they have similar expectations?
?
Study of Manager and Instructor
Perceptions about Their Work with People
Research Methodso Q method – study/compare people’s
perceptionso Focus group – participants share ideas
The Research
o Community collegeo 4 managers and 4 instructors
• 4 women and 4 men• At least 5 years experience on the job• Good reputations of working well with
others
Q Method
o Allows the researcher to compare participants’ attitudes about a topic.
Developed by William Stephenson in 1935Current Q Method Expert – Steven Brown
For more information about Q Method go toqmethod.org
Q Method Is Not a SurveyIn a survey…
1. I think we should decrease class size. X2.I think we should increase teacher qualifications. X3.I think we should increase the number of days. X
Strongly
disagree
Moderately agree
Strongly agree
Participant A and Participant B
• Two people answer “strongly agree” for all statements.
• The participants appear to value each statement the same.
• The participants appear to share the same view.
What factors are important for improving schools?
o Participants compare each statement with every other statement
o Rank orders the statements from “most agree” to “most disagree”o Only 1 statement can be “most
agree”
Q Method Is Different From a SurveyThe researcher has a stronger tool to study and compare participants’ attitudes.
o Only 1 statement can be “most agree”
Participant
Decrease class size
Increase teacher
qualifications
Increase the
number of days
A 1. Most agree
3. Least agree
2. Neutral
Statements Sorted in Order of Preference
o Differences in people’s attitudes show up when they must decide on “most agree.”
Participant
Decrease class size
Increase teacher
qualifications
Increase the
number of days
A 1. Most agree
3. Least agree
2. Neutral
B 2. Neutral 1. Most agree
3. Least agree
In the survey, participant A and B looked the same. Using Q Method, the researcher has a better understanding of the participants’ attitudes.
o Similarity only if preference ranking is the same.
Participant
Decrease class size
Increase teacher
qualifications
Increase the
number of days
A 1. Most agree
3. Least agree
2. Neutral
B 1. Most agree
2. Neutral 3. Least agree
o Similarity only if preference ranking is the same.
Participant
Decrease class size
Increase teacher
qualifications
Increase the
number of days
A 1. Most agree
3. Least agree
2. Neutral
B 2. Neutral 3. Least agree
1. Most agree
o Agreement in all areas is unlikely o Significant if agreement exists.
Participant
Decrease class size
Increase teacher
qualifications
Increase the
number of days
A 1. Most agree
3. Least agree
2. Neutral
B 1. Most agree
3. Least agree
2. Neutral
Setting Up the Q Method
oStep 1 – Develop the Statements• Use the literature from the field• Identify at least two themes
In the Study Comparing Managers and Instructors Attitudes
oTheme 15 Management Functions of Span of Control
a) provide motivation
b) promote communication
c) foster independence
d) develop a collaborative work environment
e) build relationships
oTheme 2McGregor’s Management Theory
Theory X – AuthoritarianTheory Y - Collaborative
In the Study Comparing Managers and Instructors Attitudes
Theory Y (collaborative)Theory X (authoritarian)
providing motivation
promoting communication
fostering independence
developing a collaborative work environment
building relationships
fostering independence
developing a collaborative work environmentbuilding relationships
providing motivation
fostering independence
developing a collaborative work environmentRelationships/collaborative
o Use the 2 themes to form a grid5 x 2 grid – 10 intersect cells
Motivation/authoritarian Motivation/collaborativeMotivation/authoritarian
Developing the Statements to Sort
o 3 statements per cell• 30 statements
Develop the Statements Using the Themes
Affective Management Functions of
Span of Control
Management Theory X (authoritarian)
Management Theory Y (cooperative)
ProvidingMotivation
(M)
1. People often require reward and punishment in order to become motivated. (1XM)
2. People are reluctant to take on the responsibilities needed to do the task. My role is to push them, so they will work hard. (3XM)
3. People want to be closely directed in their activities. (5XM)
1. People are basically self-motivating; my role is to remove barriers and provide support, so they can perform their tasks well. (2YM)
2. People enjoy taking on responsibility. My role is to help them do this. (4YM)
3. People learn to exercise self-direction under appropriate conditions. (6YM)
PromotingCommunication
(C)
1. I need to tell people how to do every detail of a task, so they can complete the task effectively. (7XC)
2. Individuals need to know about the mistakes they make. (9XC)
3. Communication is important for getting people to do their assigned tasks. (11XC)
1. I need to provide coaching and feedback to people, so they can complete a task appropriately. (8YC)
2. Individuals need to be recognized for jobs well done. (10YC)
3. Communication is important for providing support for people to accomplish their tasks. (12YC)
FosteringIndependence
(I)
1. Individuals develop primarily because of my pressure on them to perform. (13XI)
2. An objective of my job is the get individuals to do their work effectively. (15XI)
3. Part of my job is to keep constant pressure on people in order to keep them working hard. (17XI)
1. I encourage individuals to take the initiative with their tasks. (14YI)
2. An objective of my job is to help individuals develop their unique capacities. (16YI)
3. In general, people are quite capable, and I only have to help them see their capacities for them to do the work. (18YI)
X= Authoritarian management philosophyY=Collaborative management philosophy
The Codes for the Statements
M = provide motivation
C = promote communication
I = foster independence
DC = develop a collaborative work environment
R = build relationships
The Statements1. People often require reward and punishment in order to become motivated. (XM)
2. People are basically self-motivating; my role is to remove barriers and provide support, so they can perform their tasks well. (YM)
3. People are reluctant to take on the responsibilities needed to do the task. My role is to push them, so they will work hard. (XM)
4. People enjoy taking on responsibility. My role is to help them do this. (YM)
5. People want to be closely directed in their activities. (XM)
6. People learn to exercise self-direction under appropriate conditions. (YM)
7. I need to tell people how to do every detail of a task, so they can complete the task effectively. (XC)
8. I need to provide coaching and feedback to people, so they can complete a task appropriately. (YC)
9. Individuals need to know about the mistakes they make. (XC)
10. Individuals need to be recognized for jobs well done. (YC)
11. Communication is important for getting people to do their assigned tasks. (XC)
12. Communication is important for providing support for people to accomplish their tasks. (YC)
13. Individuals develop primarily because of my pressure on them to perform. (XI)
14. I encourage individuals to take the initiative with their tasks. (YI)
15. An objective of my job is the get individuals to do their work effectively. (XI)
16. An objective of my job is to help individuals develop their unique capacities. (YI)
17. Part of my job is to keep constant pressure on people in order to keep them working hard. (XI)
18. In general, people are quite capable, and I only have to help them see their capacities for them to do the work. (YI)
19. My role is to establish an environment where people learn that good work is rewarded and mistakes are not acceptable. (XDC)
20. My role is to establish an environment where people feel safe enough to take the risks necessary to improve their skills. (YDC)
21. The environment is not as important as my message to individuals that I expect them to work hard. (XDC)
22. Individuals need to feel part of a cohesive group in order to do their jobs well. (YDC)
23. People work best when one person determines the goals for them. (XDC)
24. People work best when there are shared goals that they helped establish. (YDC)
25. My relationship with individuals centers around my authority to set the work agenda. (XR)
26. Engaging with individuals to form positive, give-and-take relationships is important to helping them do their work effectively. (YR)
27. I am concerned with the quality of the work. My relationships with people is not as important. (XR)
28. I am concerned with the quality of my relationships with individuals. If the relationship is good, people will perform better. (YR)
29. My relationship with individuals is not as important as making sure they know what is expected of them. (XR)
30. Building relationships with people is critical to promoting positive outcomes in individuals. (YR)
o Statements are placed on index cardso Sort each statement (card) in
preference orderfrom 1 to
30 “most agree” to “most disagree”
Step 2 - Participants Sort the Statements
(wikipedia)
The Sort
card 1
card 2
card 3
card 4
card 5
Most agree to Most disagree
o Statements are placed on a grid.o Simpler than linear placement.o Stephenson: statistically sound to use a
grid.o Participants place statements in columns.
o Participants sort the statements• Rank each statement from most agree to most disagree
(wikipedia)
The Sort
card 1
card 2
card 3
card 4
card 5
Most agree to Most disagree
Sort Results
Instructor 4 15 18
20 2 9 19
22 14 10 1 5 17
24 28 8 6 21 13 29 7
30 12 26 16 11 4 3 27 23 25
Statement placement results for Instructor 4
Instructor 4 15 18
20 2 9 19
22 14 10 1 5 17
24 28 8 6 21 13 29 7
30 12 26 16 11 4 3 27 23 25
o The statement values used for factor analysis
+4 +2
+2
+2
+3
+3
-3
-3
-2
-2
-2
-1
-1
-1
-1
-4+1
+1
+1
+1
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
Sort Results
o Each statement assigned score based on placement
o Compare the participants’ sorts
o Look for correlations between participant opinions
• Use a modified Pearson r
r=1-∑(x-y)2/x2
(Brown, 1991)
Q Method – Data Analysis
Sort Results – Data Analysis
I1 I2 I3 I4
M1 0.57 0.51 0.58 0.78
M2 0.62 0.64 0.48 0.63
M3 0.64 0.64 0.66 0.86
M4 0.69 0.70 0.63 0.74Significant agreement between managers
andinstructors on the way they placed their
statements.
Perfect Correlation: r=1.00 Significance >.45
Managers and instructors sorted themselves into 1 group. Showed significant similarity in their thinking.blue statements=Collaborative yellow statements
=Authoritarian
Managers and Instructors favor the Theory Y – Collaborative
Q Method – Data Analysis
Strong Correlationof Statement Placement
Correlation in “Most Agree”Statements 30, 26, and 12
Correlation in “Most Disagree”Statements 3, 23, and 25
Strong Correlationof Statement Placement
Statement 30 (build relationships)
“Building relationships with people is critical to
promoting positive outcomes in individuals.”
Strong Correlationof Statement Placement
Statements 26 (build relationships)
“Engaging with individuals to form positive,
give-and-take relationships is important to
helping them do their work effectively.”
Strong Correlationof Statement Placement
Statements 12 (develop communication)
“Communication is important for providing
support for people to accomplish their tasks.”
Focus Group Activity of the Study
o Managers and instructors discuss sort results
o They talked about the similarities
During the Focus Group
o Initial surprise and doubt of the sort results• “Teachers are managers… but if I say
managers are teachers, then whom do you teach?”
Manager 3
• “I see managers and instructors as inherently different.” Instructor 4
Focus Group
o Researcher asked participants to respond: “How do you help people develop?”
• Participants’ comments written on board•Without names…
• Not clear who said what• Managers’ and instructors’ comments
similar
Focus Group Resultso Shift in the group’s attitude“It’s all about relationships.
Good teachers are good listeners and have close relationships.
Good managers are good listeners and have good relationships.”
Manager 1
“There is an overlap with managers and instructors in the skill set of one-on-one interactions and small group dynamics.”
Instructor 1
“I think humans have to teach, and humans have to manage.”
Manager 2
Similarity in Participant StatementsPost-sort interviews and focus groupo Participants comments within 5 management functions
a) build relationships b) promote communication c) develop a collaborative work environment d) foster independence e) provide motivation
Similarity in Participant Statementso Build Relationships – highest Q score
o Greatest similarity between participants• “I don’t think you can do anything
without positive relationships.”
Manager 3
• “People feel good when there’s a relationship between them and the people they work around.”
Instructor 4
Similarity in Participant Statementso Promote communication • “I like to ask a lot of questions when
they come to see me about a decision. “What would you do?”
Manager 1
• “I usually pose a difficult problem to the students, then I start asking questions.” Instructor 1
Similarity in Participant Statementso Foster independence • “My role is staying with people in the
developmental stages of wherever it is that they’re developing.”
Manager 2
• “I believe successful students need to feel empowered but also take responsibilities.”
Instructor 4
Similarity in Participant Statementso Provide motivation • “You address the whole person. Try to
support them in all the parts of their lives.” Manager 4
• “I like to help them see how [the classes] are connected to achieving a certificate or degree. For the purpose of providing hope…”
Instructor 3
Similarity in Participant Statementso Develop a collaborative work environment • “We look for areas where we could
develop as a team.” Manager 2
• “Building community is something that’s really important to me.” Instructor 2
Intersect of Management & Instructiono Both managers and instructors:
• Work with people to perform complex tasks• Develop relationships• Concern for people’s growth• Help people develop skills
Are Instructors Learning Managers?o Instructors help others develop skills
• Critical thinking • Problem-solving
o Instructors identify objectives for others and develop tasks to achieve those objectives
o Instructors communicate the objectives and tasks
o Instructors help others become independento Instructors develop relationships as part of
helping others grow and develop
Intersect of Management & Instruction
o A basic difference in structure:• Managers work with 10 or fewer employees
•Higher level skills, creativity, and problem-solving
• Instructors work with 25 or more students•Develop critical thinking and problem-
solving skills
o Both managers and instructors:• Work with people to perform complex tasks
• Develop relationships• Concern for people’s growth• Help people develop skills
Instructors as Learning Managers?
Can we expect instructors to help people develop complex thinking and problem-solving skills with a span of control business uses for low skilled labor?
Questions?
Contact: Carol McKiel, PhDLane Community [email protected]
Google: span of control and class size
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http://www.electricalreviews.co.uk/lg-50ps3000-lcd-television-review/
http://www.123rf.com/photo_3120034_large-group-of-different-people-and-workers.html
http://www.philosophy.ox.ac.uk/lectures/john_locke_lectures/past_lectures
http://computer-reviews.net/2005/05/http://webpages.scu.edu/ftp/bdonaldson/images/
classroom.jpg
http://www.opednews.com/populum/showtags.php?tid=102