carole gray and ian piriecarolegray.net/papers pdfs/ead.pdfis also echoed in recent social science...

'Artistic' Research Procedure: Research at the Edge of Chaos?

© Gray & Pirie, 1995 1

‘Artistic’ Research Procedure:Research at the Edge of Chaos ?

Carole Gray and Ian Pirie

in collaboration with

Julian Malins, Anne Douglas & Irene Leake

The Centre for Research in Art & Design,Gray's School of Art, Faculty of Design,The Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen,Scotland, UK.tel: 01224 263647/8 fax: 01224 263646email: [email protected] and [email protected]

This paper attempts to advance some of the ideas proposed inour initial paper on 'artistic' research procedure (Gray &Malins, 1993 ) and brings together some of the most recentreferences and ideas in our continuing work on this topic.Rather than provide answers or be prescriptive, we hope it willfunction as a catalyst for debate.

The paper sets out the importance of procedure for research,examines the 'methodologies' used to date in formal Art &Design research in the UK, and outlines some of the recentlycompleted research for the award of Ph.D. The development ofthese 'artistic' procedures is taking place simultaneously withadvances in other disciplines: as Social Science evaluates anumber of alternative paradigms of inquiry, ScientificPhilosophy is moving away from a Newtonian position toembrace Complexity. The paper concludes by suggesting thatConstructivism in Social Science, and Complexity in Sciencehas implications for the development of modes of inquiry inArt & Design.

Abstract

We use the term 'artistic' withsome hesitation and recognisethat there are perhaps otherterms e.g. pluralist, holist,hybrid. 'Artistic' encompassesFine Art and Design, and'artistic method' suggests acomplementary phrase to the'scientific method'.

‘Research Procedures /Methodology for Artists &Designers’, C. Gray & J.Malins, in: ‘Principles andDefinitions: Five Papers by theEuropean Postgraduate Art &Design Group’, WinchesterSchool of Art, 1993.



Part 1 - Introduction: Why 'methodological' issues are important

An examination of procedures used for formal research(Art & Design, UK)

'methodology'1. the system of methods andprinciples used in a particulardiscipline.2. the branch of philosophyconcerned with the science ofmethod.

'method'1. way of proceeding or doingsomething, especially asystematic or regular one.2. orderliness of thought,action, etc.3. (often pl.) the techniques orarrangement of work for aparticular field or subject.

(Collins Dictionary, 1982)

As the growth in Art & Design research continues (especially inrelation to higher degrees), it is becoming increasingly urgentfor us to structure research appropriately. One of the mostimportant aspects of this for any research project is the choiceof general 'methodology' and specific 'methods' (from this pointon we shall substitute the term 'methodology' with 'procedure'when referring to Art & Design research). We must not losesight of the simple definitions of ‘methodology' and ‘method',and must relate their meanings as closely as possible to thenature of ‘artistic’ practice and research.

There is nothing in these definitions which claims‘methodology’ and ‘method’ as pertaining solely to Science andSocial Science. Procedures must be responsive, to solve theproblems or tackle the challenges prompted by our disciplines.This is why we must examine procedures of practice, andwhere appropriate, use them in research. The use of aninappropriate procedure can invalidate the whole of thecredibility of a piece of research, or render it invisible.

Until fairly recently, Artists and Designers undertaking formalresearch drew heavily on the existing and validated methods ofthe Sciences and Social Sciences. We have opted for safety andconvenience! According to the 'Allison Research Index of Art &Design’ (ARIAD) the predominant procedures adopted so far inArt & Design research are illustrated in the graph.

In decreasing order of popularity they are:

• descriptive and historical -clearly these 'methodologies' relate to the classic text baseddissertation or thesis, and conform to what are the traditionallyacceptable research procedures in arts and humanities;

• experimental -quasi-scientific methodologies', demonstrating attempts toperhaps ‘objectify’ research;

• practical and philosophical -the growing use of practical procedures is encouraging, as anincreasing number of researchers are drawing on their ownpreferred practice-led procedures for conducting research);this leaves only relatively few projects which have used a

‘Allison Research Index of Art& Design’, Brian Allison,Leicester Expertise, 1992.

see next page for full scaleversion

Research for HigherDegrees e.g. MA, M.Phil.,Ph.D

freq

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principal methodology (2133 projects in Index)

Most commonly used methodologies in formal Art & Design Research (UK)(source: Allison Research Index of Art & Design, 1992, p.8)

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• comparative 'methodology', and lastly a

• naturalistic 'methodology'.

Naturalistic (with its emphasis on context and humaninvolvement) and practical are the ones which perhaps willgain the greatest popularity in the future, and which can bedeveloped into more ‘artistic’ procedures.

Even though these have been identified as principal proceduresused, they are not mutually exclusive; it is clear that mostresearchers in Art & Design have displayed characteristiceclecticism, adopting a ‘multi-method’ approach to informationgathering, selection, structuring, analysis, evaluation,presentation and communication. This synthesis of proceduresis also echoed in recent social science research (Brewer &Hunter, 1989). Discovering the limitations of these individualmethodologies will help to develop new hybrids.

We think it is true to say that within most UK art institutions(usually belonging to a larger university structure) research hasbeen manipulated to some extent by the dominant models ofestablished research in Science and Social Science. This mayhave led us towards adopting a ‘reductionist’ approach, andthe use of quasi-scientific methods to give research an air of‘respectability’; both these things can and do distort research inArt & Design. More positively, this context may have forced usto adopt a less vague approach, and ultimately has promptedresearchers working in the field to question just what‘methodologies’ are appropriate for Art & Design research.There are still problems, but gradually, as more researchprojects in Art & Design are completed and validated, a greaterconfidence in proposing alternative procedures is apparent.

Current debate, in particular within the process and practice ofdesign, criticises severely the shortcomings of much ofindustrial design practice this century (Mitchell, 1993 ). Thebreaking down of the design process into a ‘rational’,‘systematised’ and ‘calculable’ scientific method has in factmoved the emphasis of design to the ‘end-product’ i.e. physicalobject, rather than bringing design closer to the ‘end-user’.

The concern over the unknown or difficult to measure ‘softdesign’ issues (involving human perception, emotion, colour,touch, smell, sound) has led to the adoption of rigid quasi-scientific design methods and practice. Although capable ofproducing products that are easy to manufacture and/orfunction reasonably well, they are in fact further away fromsatisfying the human needs of ‘end-users’ than were the

‘Multimethod Research: ASynthesis of Styles’, J. Brewer& A. Hunter, Sage, 1989

Current Debate - Research Procedures in Design Practice

'Redefining Designing fromForm to Experience', C.T.Mitchell, Van NostrandReinhold, 1993



products that evolved through ‘craft-based’ practice.

In contemporary culture within an industrialised society, thisconcept of manufactured product with 'craft-qualities' or visual'metaphor' for cultural continuity is probably best understoodby the Japanese. As a nation, the Japanese have remainedculturally intact for two thousand years and have retained adeep relationship with the material properties and culturalimagery of the past, without restricting the visual appearance offuture design. In recent times they have shown how a greaterunderstanding of people's feelings, and emotions towardsinanimate objects can be applied to modern design problems,and that these attitudes are as important (and in some casesmore important) than the functional or measurable properties ofa given product.

The 'self-concept' and the 'meaning of object' (Crozier, 1994)clearly illustrate the complex nature of trying to define themental picture of what 'self' means to each individual i.e thevisual, spiritual, physical, pyschological image of oneself andthe theory of objects as physical and visual symbols of 'self'.

Intuition, innovation, subjectivity, risk, experiment and practiceis embedded in the process of ‘creation’. Human responses tothese 'creations' (be they works of art or products designed forspecific functions), are also governed by equally complexsystems. 'Taste', for example, is affected by many factors. It has ahistorical past with association, and memories of people, places,events and objects and can also have a present and future withassociated self-reference to portray personal values andaspirations.

The holistic complexity of many of the areas of ‘artistic’ researchpractice in Art & Design, sometimes regarded as ‘chaotic’,cannot and does not conform to conventional measurablesystems. Research of this nature is extremely difficult to carryout and evaluate if it tries to precisely emulate research modelsdeveloped by scientific disciplines.

A programme of research currently being carried out is usingthe potential of new-media technologies to explore single andcross-cultural 'human' responses to visual stimuli, related to thedigital control, manipulation and production of new productforms, colour, patterns and texture. Global communications viathe Internet, for example, will enable people from around theworld to interactively participate in important aspects of theresearch. This programme will, by its nature, evolve a 'hybrid'research strategy to manage the formidable aspects of'complexity' (Pirie, 1994).

'Grow Your Own:New Product Development and theDesigner's Contribution', Ph.Dresearch in progress.

'Manufactured Pleasures',R.Crozier, ManchesterUniversity Press, 1994



Emerging technologies, particularly interactive CD ROM, offerthe opportunity to comprehensively document and evaluate‘artistic’ research. For the first time, Artists & Designers have areadily accessible medium which can include image (still ormoving), sound and text, with the ability to cross link, referenceand create statistical data. This database of information canthen be ‘interrogated’ and interactively examined,chronologically (linear) or holistically (non-linear).

The breakthrough in the use of computer technologies for'artistic' research is largely attributable to the development ofthe intuitive graphical user interface. This, associated withlateral thinking skills (which are a recognised strength in visualartists and designers), have enabled researchers to explore, link,develop and apply various software applications beyond theirinitially intended function.

Observation of the activities of the researchers based at Gray’sSchool of Art, The Robert Gordon University, reveals the speedwith which the majority have recognised the methodologicalimportance of this new technology, regardless of the researchtopic or discipline area. Also noticeable is the enthusiasm forlearning various software packages as researchers investigateand develop personal and appropriate complex ‘multi-method’research processes. Recent developments in software andmassive improvements to the power of desktop computersenable researchers in Art & Design to collate, manipulate andinterrogate visual data in the manner that Scientific researchershave been able to do with numerical data for some considerableperiod of time. This has had a liberating effect on theorganisation and documentation of practice-led research, aprocess which itself has prompted the need to developinterpretative visual systems. Currently computers are beingused to compile extensive interactive visual databases, enablingboth comprehensive and appropriate supervision, andcomplex, non-linear analysis of a given research project. Inparallel, researchers often use the same 'visual' computer codeto directly generate, influence, control and feed back into theircreative process, this cyclical loop mirroring the classic learningpatterns of theory, experiment, application and reflection.

Examples of software currentlyused in research projects togather, collate, select, analyse,synthesize, interpret, evaluate,present and communicateinformation - HyperCard,MacroMind and MacroMediaDirector, Acrobat, Morph,Photoshop, MacProject,

FileMakerPro, StatView, etc.



A number of research projects for higher degrees, have recentlybeen successfully completed; these have attempted to leave thesafe waters of existing 'methodological' approaches: animportant contribution has been made by the Ph.D work ofAnne Douglas.

This research was practice-led, and necessitated amethodological shift from initially a positivist stance to ahumanist one (The diagram demonstrates this in relation to thedevelopment of the notion of 'test'). The idea of looking atpractice as a phenomenon seemed appropriate, as Anne’s initialeducation was in anthropology where Structuralism as amethod attempted to make visible what was invisible. She soondiscovered the limitations in this structuralist approach (i.e. thedata was selected, and could only deal with stable, unchangingcontexts - what structuralists describe as ‘synchronic’), realisingthat practice-led research requires ‘diachronic’ data - which hasevolved through time, is unstable and changing. She looked atmusic, especially of John Cage, whose practice was structuredto allow for improvisation; she noted how Cage evolved hisown language as he worked, his procedure traceable within thefinal product - in the same way that drawing can be tosculpture - a visible trace.

Douglas also realised that it was necessary to communicate herresearch in a dynamic, visual way, and as well as a site-specificexhibition of sculpture, she also used multimedia to captureand communicate the essence of the information.

Julian Malins’ Ph.D research was of an interdisciplinary naturesupported by both the Faculty of Design and the Faculty ofScience & Technology. The ensuing innovative and unfoldingresearch necessitated investigation and enquiry in all of thefollowing areas: kiln and systems design, aesthetic qualities andperceptual evaluation of lustre glazes, new developments inglaze chemistry and computer monitoring and control. Thedirect link with the Science Faculty gave Malins a soundgrounding in the scientific method (one of his supervisors was achemist). Latterly he explored and developed techniques foraesthetic evaluation of his research results. He used ‘semanticdifferential’ techniques to elicit human responses on a range ofvisual and qualitative issues relating to his lustre glazesproduced by his innovative environmentally safe ‘clean kiln'. Amultiplicity of approaches is now enabling Malins toretrospectively examine his 'hybrid' Ph.D research strategy. Partof his post-doctoral research has been to examine the drawbackof existing appropriate ‘objective’ methods for aestheticevaluation, and the investigation of more appropriate design

Emerging Research Procedures - recent work for higher degrees

‘Structure & Improvisation:The Making Aspect ofSculpture’, University ofSunderland, 1992

Positivism Humanism / Hermeneutics

ON THE NOTION OF TEST

Section of The Ladder(Concrete beam)Single Parameter testing for texture

The Ladder Series: Scaling UpAbandoned as a means of achieving scale. Focus on Moulds

As an aspect of the concrete process, and of creative potential.

Zig Zag TowersSculptures which embody

Colour/Texture/Form.

Semi-QuaverOne of a series of five.

Ten Green Bottles ?Two Parameter testing: colour & texture

Bergen

Zig Zag

Tuber

Maze

KeyTest Piece

Designed to examine aspects of the process, based around a change in one or at most two parameters.

Small SculptureDesign to examine all aspects of the process, colour/texture/mould/filling by means of a completed sculpture.

MilestoneAn acknowledgementof an understanding of a new stage in the process.

Large Scale ProjectsCompleted sculptures which take up elements of the process and relate them through to site.

Quaver

© C

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’Zig Zag‘, Anne Douglas, 1992

see next page for full scaleversion

‘The Monitoring and Controlof Specialist Ceramic KilnAtmospheres and Emissions’,The Robert Gordon University,1993

Fan

Air In-take Exaust gases

Air in-lets

Kiln lid

‘Psychological Testing',6th ed., A. Anastasi,Collier Macmillan, 1988



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© Copyright Anne Dougals, 1995

Diagram 2 -On the Notion of Test

© A

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5



methodologies, which he believes still needs to be liberatedfrom a ‘positivist’ tendency. The impact of new media andtechnology, which may give freedom and control to the user(instead of dictating and dominating action), is an importantpart of his research.

Irene Leake’s PhD involved a practice-led research procedure,stemming from her own work as a sculptor. She demonstratedthe value of non-verbal approaches to inquiry by theexperiential and interdisciplinary way in which she conductedthe research. This research was initiated by a concern that non-verbal skills, such as those of the visual artist, should be takenmore fully into consideration in the development and use ofnew technology. She undertook five drawing/gesture projects,concerned with observing and notating dance performance (liveand on video) and also her own movement (in puppet andmasked mime performance). Through these, she aimed tomake more explicit what is involved in the drawing process,and to make this information accessible also to people outsidethe art field.

She focussed upon gaining a greater understanding of herRapid Drawings of human movement, in particular the ‘senseof movement’ which they convey. This involved taking visual,tactile and kinesthetic factors into consideration. She haddeveloped this type of ‘drawing for inquiry’ to inform hersculpture practice. The 1200 drawings created during thecourse of the research were viewed en masse by Leake, bydancers (the subjects of the drawings), and by invited observersfrom various fields.

The resulting observations, together with information from thevisual and performing arts, computing, perception andanimation aided her subsequent analysis of the visualrepresentation (inclusive of two- and three-dimensional andtime-based media) of movement. This was expressed in theform of a morphological chart. The final drawing experimentconsisted of an inquiry into whether the performer’s consciouscontrol of energy is reflected by the Rapid Drawings; it wasalso demonstrated how the drawings could be subjected tofurther analysis by means of computer animated (HyperCard)sequences. The doctoral research was presented as a writtenthesis, in addition to an exhibition of drawings and computeranimated sequences.

‘Apprehending movement ofthe human figure through themedium of drawing, withcomments on its possiblerelationship to computermediated interaction’,University of Brighton, 1993

Two cards from acorresponding stage ofcomputer animated(HyperCard) sequences of theRapid Drawing shown at thetop. The marks were displayedcumulatively (above) and non-cumulatively (below) in time-based sequences.

A logical extension of themorphological chart analysiswould be to present it in theform of a multimedia/interactive item, or aninstallation, or a virtualenvironment.

A Rapid Drawing from IreneLeake’s final PhD project. Thedancer was concentrating onLaban’s Effort quality of‘Strong Weight’.


© Gray & Pirie, 1995 10

Summary

The key characteristics of these emerging proceduralapproaches seem to be that they are:

• practice-led, involving the practitioner as researcher, whoreflects-in-action and reflects-on-action

• interdisciplinary, demonstrating a willingness to examineother fields and make sensible connections and adaptations

• holistic and contextual (non linear and inclusive)

• using varied visual and multimedia methods of informationgathering, selection, analysis, synthesis, presentation /communication, and although the material can be structuredaround a ‘linear’ argument (if necessary), it can be accessed in anon-linear way.

There are, no doubt, other very good examples of researcherswho have been brave enough to take some risks withmethodological approaches, and we as supervisors andexaminers should recognise and reward that daring.

‘The Reflective Practitioner’,D. Schön, Jossey-Bass, 1991,and‘Educating the ReflectivePractitioner’, D. Schön,Jossey-Bass, 1987

‘knowing-in-action’ -"the sorts of knowledge wereveal in our intelligent action,publicly observable / physicalperformances and privateoperations .... spontaneousskilful execution ....constructions .... explicit,symbolic form from tacit,spontaneous intelligence ....dynamic quality."(Schön)

‘reflection-in-action’ -"constructionist's view ....thinking reshapes action whilewe are doing it ....improvisation, conversation."(Schön)

‘knowing-in-action’ and‘reflection-in-action’ -"a process we can deliverwithout being able to say whatwe are doing .... ""reflect on ‘reflection-in-action’ - verbal description ....reflect on the verbaldescription .... intentionalfeedback."(Schön)


© Gray & Pirie, 1995 11

Positivism - realist ontology;prediction and control;consensuality andconsensibility; objectivity;empirical experimentalism.Explanation.(Guba)

Post-positivism - realityremains a central concept,acknowledgement of theimpossiblity to truly perceiveit; critical stance important;absurdity of completeobjectivity; acknowledgementof interaction of inquirer andsubject of inquiry; there is noindisputable foundation forknowledge, knowledge is inprinciple uncertain andcontingent; methodology ishistorically situated andevolving - it changes overtime; continual revision,adjustment. Multi-methodology - criticalmultiplism. (Guba)

The Paradigm Dialog’, E.Guba (ed.), Sage, 1990

Critical theory - ideologicallyoriented inquiry (e.g. neo-Marxism, feminism,materialism, etc.); inquiry asa political act, to empower, toraise consciousness, facilitatetransformation.(Guba)

Constructivism - realities existin people’s minds as personalconstructs; relative,contextual; subjectivistposition, subjectiveinteraction; interpretation ofindividual constructs;compare, contrast, confront -come to terms with;reconstructs the world in theminds of the constructors.Understanding.(Guba)

Part 2 - A Wider Context: Paradigms of InquirySo far we have concentrated on the visual arts, but now wewant to explore a broader picture of modes of inquiry. It isnecessary to look back in order to go forward. If we have somedissatisfaction with existing methodologies, we need to try tounderstand them in order to invent other approaches. In aneffort to put into context ‘artistic’ research procedures, we havetried to develop a visual 'map' (Gray & Malins, 1993)attempting to characterise existing and developing paradigmsof inquiry. We acknowledge that this 'map' is simply a startingpoint and needs developing through further debate.

The methodology of ‘Newtonian’ science basically remainedunchallenged for three hundred years, as the most ‘reliable’way of generating knowledge and explaining naturalphenomena. It personifies the positivist paradigm of inquiry.

Most of 20th century inquiry might be characterised byadherence to a post-positivist paradigm, in that many of theclassical tenets of inquiry have been (and are being)challenged, in all disciplines. This is not only evident in science,but also in social science, especially in ‘new paradigm research’(Guba, 1990) , where critical theory and the constructivistparadigm currently holds sway. (See diagram 3 - Paradigms ofInquiry - p. 12)

To understand and articulate procedure in any mode of inquiry,we must take into consideration the starting points thatdetermine what inquiry is and how it should be practised.Guba’s work provides us with a useful framework. If we canarticulate our ‘ontology’ (the nature of reality, the ‘knowable’ inArt & Design), describe our ‘epistemology’ (the nature of therelationship between the inquirer and the ‘knowable’, e.g.objective or subjective, etc), we are more likely to be able topropose the most appropriate kinds of ‘methodologies’ forinquiry in Art & Design, and characterise an ‘artistic’ paradigmof inquiry.

C. Gray & J. Malins,‘Research Procedures /Methodologies for Artists &Designers’, 1993 - sections 2 -6. (See also 'visual map' p.4 inre-issued paper)

RESEARCH PROCEDURES / METHODOLOGIES

esta

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pluralistic

eclectic

anarchic

chaotic

intuitive

inclusive

divergent

postmodern

interactive

multi-media

non-linearrelativistic

idiographic

holistic

expansivesynthesis?

uncertaintyprinciple

counterinductive

visual / kinetic

deconstructive

rule breaking

subjective

visual communication

organic

interpretetive

"soft"holistic

self-directed

heterarchical

choice

chaotic

pluralistic

intuitive

reflective

chance

(multi-philosophy)

(multi-philosophy)

pluralistic

sensorydiscursive

private

postmodern

iconoclastic

visionary

debatable

related to: artworks (artificial things), artists / designers (people),creativity (process & products), culture

absolute

individualisticantipositivistic

flexible

" Enl

ightenment "

qualitative

SocialScience

Methodology

ethnomethodological

contextual

educational

populations

cultural

man madephenomena

qualitative

behavioural

intersubjective

objective

convergent

positivistic

nomotheticlogical

rational

quantitative

reductionistanalysis

inductive

controllable

deterministic

normative

systematic

measurement

universal

replicable

mechanistic

reliable

verifiable

interpretetive

"hard"

experimental

natural/physicalphenomena

(one philosophy)

public

confirmatory

goal oriented

hypothetical

NewtonianScience

Methodology(c1650)

QuantumScience

Methodology

(c 1900)

(c1850)

mass media

collaborative

cultural

humanistic

perceptual

phenomenological?"Artistic "

Methodology?

15/20 years

collaborative

experiential

Common concerns of all methodologies ?

intuitionhypothesis / hunch

reason / deliberateness / intentionculture / context / language

empiricism / experimentconsensible / consensual

political / publicfallible / ego

© Carole Gray, 1993


© Gray & Pirie, 1995 12

Diagram 3 -Paradigms of Inquiry

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ONTOLOGY(the nature of reality, the 'knowable')

EPISTEMOLOGYnature of relationship betweeninquirer and the 'knowable'

METHODOLOGYHow should the inquirergo about finding out knowledge ?

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r bi

asin

g an

d co

nfou

ndin

g fa

ctor

s ar

e th

ereb

y au

tom

atic

ally

ex

clud

ed fr

om

influ

enci

ng th

e ou

tcom

es.

Exp

erim

enta

l /

man

ipul

ativ

e -

qu

estio

ns a

nd/o

r hy

poth

eses

are

sta

ted

in a

dvan

ce in

pr

opos

ition

al fo

rm a

nd

subj

ecte

d to

em

piric

al

test

s (f

alsi

ficat

ion)

un

der

care

fully

co

ntro

lled

cond

ition

s.

Crit

ical

rea

list

- r

ealit

y ex

ists

but

can

nev

er b

e fu

lly a

ppre

hend

ed. I

t is

driv

en b

y na

tura

l law

s th

at c

an o

nly

be

inco

mpl

etel

y un

ders

tood

.

Mod

ified

obj

ectiv

ist

-

obje

ctiv

ity r

emai

ns a

re

gula

tory

idea

l, bu

t it

can

only

be

appr

oxim

ated

, with

sp

ecia

l em

phas

is

plac

ed o

n ex

tern

al

guar

dian

s su

ch a

s th

e cr

itica

l tra

ditio

n an

d th

e cr

itica

l com

mun

ity.

Mod

ified

ex

perim

enta

l /

man

ipul

ativ

e -

em

phas

ise

criti

cal

mul

tiplis

m. R

edre

ss

imba

lanc

es b

y do

ing

inqu

iry in

mor

e na

tura

l se

tting

s, u

sing

mor

e qu

alita

tive

met

hods

, de

pend

ing

mor

e on

gr

ound

ed th

eory

, and

re

intr

oduc

ing

disc

over

y in

to th

e en

quiry

pro

cess

.

Crit

ical

rea

list

- r

ealit

y ex

ists

but

can

nev

er b

e fu

lly a

ppre

hend

ed. I

t is

driv

en b

y na

tura

l law

s th

at c

an o

nly

be

inco

mpl

etel

y un

ders

tood

.

Sub

ject

ivis

t -

in th

e se

nse

that

val

ues

med

iate

inqu

iry.

Dia

logi

c,

tran

sfor

mat

ive

-

elim

inat

e fa

lse

cons

ciou

snes

s an

d en

ergi

ze a

nd fa

cilit

ate

tran

sfor

mat

ion.

Rel

ativ

ist

- re

aliti

es

exis

t in

the

form

of

mul

tiple

men

tal

cons

truc

tions

, soc

ially

an

d ex

perie

ntia

lly

base

d, lo

cal a

nd

spec

ific,

dep

ende

nt fo

r th

eir

form

and

con

tent

on

the

pers

ons

who

hol

d th

em.

Sub

ject

ivis

t -

inqu

irer

and

inqu

ired

are

fuse

d in

to a

sin

gle

(mon

istic

) en

tity.

Fin

ding

s ar

e lit

eral

ly th

e cr

eatio

n of

th

e pr

oces

s of

inte

ract

ion

betw

een

the

two.

Her

men

eutic

, di

alec

tic -

indi

vidu

al

cons

truc

tions

are

el

icite

d an

d re

fined

he

rmen

eutic

ally

, and

co

mpa

red

and

cont

rast

ed d

iale

ctic

ally

, w

ith th

e ai

m o

f ge

nera

ting

one

(or

a fe

w)

cons

truc

tions

on

whi

ch th

ere

is

subs

tant

ial c

onse

nsus

.

(sou

rce:

'The

Par

adig

m D

ialo

g', E

. G. G

uba

(ed.

), 1

990,

pp

18 -

27

- r

elat

ing

to S

ocia

l Sci

ence

s. A

dapt

ed b

y G

ray.

)

Pa

rad

igm

s o

f In

qu

iry

? A

rtis

tic ?


© Gray & Pirie, 1995 13

New Scientific Paradigms

Over the last ten years even scientific researchers (especially atthe Santa Fe Institute in New Mexico) began to sense that oldreductionist approaches were no longer tenable, and thatmathematical abstractions ignored the complexities of the realworld (Waldrop, 1994).

The study of complexity as a phenomenon has brought Sciencecloser than ever to Art, closer since than perhaps theRenaissance. Knowledge has gone through a cycle – from non-specialism to specialism and compartmentalisation, and nowback to interdisciplinarity. Researchers in Art & Design nowhave the opportunity of sharing with researchers in otherdisciplines their own research perspectives.

With the emergence of Chaos theory and attempts tounderstand Complex Systems (e.g. weather, stock market,ecosystems, socio-political systems, cultural systems) scientificresearchers acknowledged that new ways of thinking must beapplied to complex phenomena, that new methodologies mustbe developed which were capable of handling changing,complex data. The importance of new technologies in this taskwas crucial. The emergence of chaos and complexity theorieswas co-incident with the development of high poweredcomputers, capable of handling many variables, enabling forexample the creation of virtual environments, simulations, thevisual examination of pattern behaviour, and the ability forsimultaneous evaluation and analysis.

Dynamic systems appear to bring order and chaos into a specialkind of balance - a balance point called the Edge of Chaos. Thisidea between complexity and phase transitions has so far onlybeen demonstrated in cellular automata. Whether it applies inthe real world is as yet unclear; recent political and economicevents e.g. the collapse of the Soviet Union, dramaticfluctuations in global economies, suggest that large complexdynamic systems, in order to survive, must remain in aperpetual state of balance and feedback i.e. on the Edge ofChaos.

It is clear now that such systems are not sustainable if they resistchange, become too 'locked-in', or are too rigidly controlled. Onthe other hand, lack of any structure and direction cancels outthe notion of system, and becomes completelycounterproductive. Successful systems must be evolutionary –responsive to feedback, change and new conditions.

‘Complexity: the emergingscience at the edge of orderand chaos’, M.M. Waldrop,Penguin, 1994 (first pub. 1992)

Chaos theory -“... in essence, that very simpledynamical rules can give riseto extraordinarily intricate,surprising and essentiallyunpredictable behaviour." i.e.fractals, turbulence, weather,etc.(Waldrop)

Complex, self-organizingsystems are adaptive andopportunistic, “possessing akind of peculiar dynamism" -they are spontaneous,disorderly, alive. Not inequilibrium, always unfolding,in transition… “Systemscomposed of many 'agents' …constantly organising andreorganising themselves intolarger structures through theclash of mutualaccommodation and rivalry…new emergent structures …engage in new emergentbehaviours. Complexity … ascience of emergence".(Waldrop)

Edge of Chaos -"... where system componentsnever quite lock into place,never quite dissolve intoturbulence; where new ideasand innovation nibble away atthe edges of the status quo;constantly shifting battle zonebetween stagnation andanarchy".

order > complexity > chaos (phase transition)

(Waldrop)


© Gray & Pirie, 1995 14

Platonist - who prefers theworld in basic equilibrium,and whose task it is to restoreequilibrium

Heraclitus - whoacknowledges that the world isin flow and change - ‘you cannever step into the same rivertwice’ - it is fluideverchanging, alive.

Ref. Appendix 1

'An Exploration of thePrinciple of Chance in theCreative Activity known asSculpture', Ph.D, The RobertGordon University, 1992

Paradigms of Practice

"Instead of relying on the Newtonian metaphor of clockwork predictability, complexity seems to be based on metaphors more closely akin to the growth of a plant from a tiny seed ... or perhaps even the organic, rhythmical, self-organizing patterns created by flocking birds or shoals of fish."

(Waldrop, 1994).

Disciplines like economics (which traditionally have adopted aneoclassical framework) have recently been reviewed in termsof complexity (Brian Arthur, in Waldrop, 1994). Complexity canalso be looked at in philosophical and in theological terms:Richard Lewontin (the geneticist) identified two philosophicalstances that a scientist might adopt: Platonist and Heraclitus.In theological terms we might consider the Newtonianperspective as essentially a ‘Christian’ one, especiallyProtestantism (we rely on God for order); whereas complexityseems essentially ‘Taoist’ (no inherent order, vast, amorphous,everchanging, patterns that change, re-arrange, never repeatexactly). It seems that the 'artistic' stance has a great deal incommon with the Heraclitian and Taoist philosophies.

Many of the ideas in complexity research - messiness,randomness, non-linearity, adaptivity, feedback, and so onseem familiar to artistic ears, have some resonance in designer’sminds. Some scientists (Kaufmann, Farmer, etc) suggest thatmany of the ideas in complexity research might extend beyondscience and be applicable to cultural dynamics. Are theprocesses and practices of Art & Design complex, adaptivesystems on the edge of chaos? If so, what are the implicationsfor research procedures?

Our initial paper (in: ‘Principles and Definitions’, 1993) did try toset out the characteristics of general methodologies in Designand Fine Art practice, and relate these to the processes ofcreativity and the scientific method. One might say that artists(probably many sculptors) in the 20th Century have beenpreoccupied, if not obsessed, by process, by procedure, asopposed to product. There are many examples of artworkswhich demonstrate an openness of procedure, a kind of‘methodological’ transparency, an accessibility - works whichreveal their own development and making, and acknowledgethe impact of serendipity (Watson, 1992) and external context.Some ‘artistic’ methodologies (in Fine Art at least) are revealedin these works. These artists have placed as much emphasis onprocess, on methodology, as on product. This has brought a


© Gray & Pirie, 1995 15

New Cultural Paradigms

certain objectivity, transparency, and demystification to thework, and in our view has enhanced their power tocommunication, and given us an insight in to the researchprocedures of practice

At a similar point in the 20th Century, Designers who aredissatisfied with the now largely discredited rigid ‘designmethods’ are also looking to process, context and user-involvement in a holistic approach to the design process. A newfocus and redefinition of ‘Design’ is currently taking place. Thisshifting emphasis requires the designer to adopt a substantiallydifferent role and moves the preoccupation with the ‘tangible’physical object (form, line, structure, geometry) as the means ofproviding the ‘correct’ solution, to the context and environmentof the ‘user’ to the ‘intangible’ of (feelings, perception, culture,experience).

This convergence of interests between Artists and Designerscould perhaps lead to new developments in research methodsas a result of collaborative research practice.

The notion of interdisciplinarity is completely appropriate in thecurrent cultural context, where in the arts, architecture,aesthetics, and philosophy the issues of fragmentation,boundary breaking, pastiche, collage, and reference characterise‘Postmodernism’. In social, economic, and political structures‘Postmodernity’ is characterised by challenges on ownershipand authorship, authority, centralisation - exemplified by thecollapse of monolithic systems i.e. the Soviet Union. The impactof new technology on global communication, mass media,interactivity, and its central role in gaining an understanding ofcomplex phenomena, shows us sometimes only too graphicallythat the world is not a stable, rigid system. The system isconstantly evolving and changing the way in which we interactwith our environment and surroundings.

We construct and manipulate our own reality. Science no longerhas, if it ever had, the authority to be the sole source of reliableknowledge - Newtonian certainty has given way tofalsificationism, uncertainty, possibility.


© Gray & Pirie, 1995 16

New Paradigms in 'Artistic' Research?

Conclusion

see next page for full-scaleversion

Context for the development of 'artistic research procedures'

CONSTRUCTIVISM

CULTURE

COMPLEXITY

? 'ARTISTIC' RESEARCH

PROCEDURES?

? 'ARTISTIC' RESEARCH

PROCEDURES?

postpositivism

knowledge as

personal constructions

knowledge as

personal constructions

proceduresof

practice

proceduresof

practice

postmodernism /postmodernity

postmodernism /postmodernity

complex, non-linear systems;

'edge of chaos', feedback

complex, non-linear systems;

'edge of chaos', feedback

In what ways are all these ideas useful to us in developingformal ‘artistic’ research procedures?

• We might develop ‘artistic’ research proceduresdirectly out of practice; this after all is our positionof strength. We can use in research some of our ownprocedures of practice. We know the value of the‘reflective practicum’ - our phenomenology ofpractice - reflection on the reflection-in-action ofpractice (Schön, 1987), where we confront thechallenges of real world practice, where situationsare not well-formed structures, but messy andindeterminate; in a word they are complex. We couldadopt a constructionist perspective - after all weframe and shape our own worlds, and inventprocedures for inquiry. The value of this to formalresearch is in our active awareness of the processand the deliberateness and explicitness of theprocedure.

• We might make use of Guba’s framework(ontology, epistemology, methodology) to try toelucidate ‘artistic’ inquiry. We might adopt and/oradapt some of the characteristics of Constructivismas a paradigm of inquiry, as we already can relateto these ideas through practice.

• We might consider the visual arts as a complexsystem, balanced on the 'edge of chaos', adapting,opportunistic, dynamic, spontaneous, unfolding,disorderly, alive - a system characterised byperpetual novelty. If so, we might adopt a generalresearch strategy which complements this, which isnon-linear.

Simplistically, we see three influences on the development of‘artistic’ research procedure:

Culture predominantly postmodernist, embracing‘artistic’ practices and procedures, andwith which Artists & Designers arefamiliar

Complexity as the pervasive state of things,acknowledging non-linearity, dynamic systems,change, uncertainty

Constructivism (in the Social Sciences) - as theclosest appropriate paradigm of inquiry toresearch in Art & Design, from which we couldbuild.


© Gray & Pirie, 1995 17

Con

text

for

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f 'ar

tistic

res

earc

h pr

oced

ures

'

CO

NS

TR

UC

TIV

ISM

CU

LTU

RE

CO

MP

LEX

ITY

? 'A

RT

IST

IC'

R

ES

EA

RC

H

PR

OC

ED

UR

ES

?

? 'A

RT

IST

IC'

R

ES

EA

RC

H

PR

OC

ED

UR

ES

?

post

posi

tivis

m

know

ledg

e as

pe

rson

al

cons

truc

tions

know

ledg

e as

pe

rson

al

cons

truc

tions

proc

edur

esof

prac

tice

proc

edur

esof

prac

tice

post

mod

erni

sm /

post

mod

erni

typo

stm

oder

nism

/po

stm

oder

nity

com

plex

, no

n-lin

ear

syst

ems;

'edg

e of

cha

os',

feed

back

com

plex

, no

n-lin

ear

syst

ems;

'edg

e of

cha

os',

feed

back


© Gray & Pirie, 1995 18

These are ‘big’ influences and ideas, but we believe that specificprocedural techniques ('methods') can only be developed inresponse to this wider context of inquiry, as well as theparticular research project. Researchers cannot afford to take anarrow view, for if they do they run the risk of developingresearch procedures which are completely esoteric, hermetic,and irrelevant outside the specific context of the research project.Recent developments in 'artistic' procedures (as outlinedpreviously) could be used as the basis for developing new'hybrids' appropriate to specific project needs. New mediatechnologies enable the development of such 'synthetics' in away which previously was not possible.

What is required is an attitude shift - our research is notscientific, nor does it wish to be. It is ‘artistic’. It is research byArtists and Designers, into, through, and for the development ofArt & Design research as a discipline. Perhaps we do not needconvincing of this - we all would recognise the strategies foroperating in a complex world. We have enough experience, andconfidence in this to put forward our own research procedures;these procedures, comprising specific research techniques, arerooted in practice and in the philosophies and theories of Art &Design.

We have no wish to ignore the raft of existing scientific andSocial Science methods - indeed many can be appropriatelyused. Social researchers called themselves social ‘scientists’,adopting and adapting some of the methodologies of science:although they made a great step forward in advancing researchin their fields, in our opinion they have not gone far enough. Wemust be brave enough to propose, use and validate our ownprocedures, or else our research will never be released from thegrip of the ‘scientific method’, and will never be a powerfulmode of disciplined inquiry.


© Gray & Pirie, 1995 19

References

Allison, B.,‘Allison Research Index of Art & Design’Leicester Expertise, 1992

Anastasi, A.,'Psychological Testing', (6th edition)Collier Macmillan, 1988

Brewer, J. & Hunter, A.,‘Multimethod Research: A Synthesis of Styles’Sage, 1989

Crozier, R.,'Manufactured Pleasures: Psychological Responses to Design'Manchester University Press, 1994

Gray, C. & Malins, J.,‘Research Procedures / Methodologies for Artists & Designers’ in:‘Principles and Definitions: Five Papers by the EuropeanPostgraduate Art & Design Group; Winchester School of Art,1993.

Guba, E. (ed.),‘The Paradigm Dialog’Sage, 1994

Mitchell, C. T.,‘Redefining Designing from Form to Experience’Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993

Schon, D.,‘The Reflective Practitioner’Jossey-Bass, 1991, and‘Educating the Reflective Practitioner’Jossey-Bass, 1987 (2nd ed.)

Waldrop, M. M.,‘Complexity: the emerging science at the edge of order and chaos’Penguin, 1994 (first pub. US 1992)


© Gray & Pirie, 1995 20

Appendix 1Some examples of 20thC Artists who have externalised theirworking methodologies - (ref. pages 14 - 15)

Picasso, Tatlin - use of real materials in real space, revealing theirmaking; Gabo - interest in engineering, natural inclination to usedrawing and experiments with materials to explore positive &negative space; similarity to mathematical models; Science and Artfused through methodology (coincident with the development ofQuantum Theory)

Arp, Duchamp - use of chance and Dadaist notions of anti-method(Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle)

K. Martin - chance and order series (and other Systems artists -Tebby, Hughes, Kidner, Ernest, Steele, etc.) - use of rules andmathematics, process as important as product

LeWitt - serial art, systems of drawing which could be carried out byothers; Judd - factory fabricated, necessitated clear drawings andinstructions, open and transferable methodolog

Christo, Long, Nash, Goldsworthy - process, event, time-based,ephemeral, documentation essential

Woodrow - inventive process, self-revealing method of making;Deacon - use of fixings as functional and decorative, not hidden,refers to himself as a ‘fabricator’, enjoyment of revealing fabricationmethod

Whiteread - literally externalised internal and unperceived spaces (asin 'House'), procedure as important as product; in fact productdestroyed!

Information on authors and contributorsPrincipal Authors

Dr Carole Gray, Reader in Art & Design,The Centre for Research in Art & Design,Gray's School of Art, The Robert Gordon University,Aberdeen.

Ian Pirie, Course Leader,BSc (Hons) Design for Industry,Gray's School of Art, The Robert Gordon University,Aberdeen.

Contributors

Dr Julian Malins, Research Fellow in Design,Dr Anne Douglas, Research Fellow in Fine Art,Dr Irene Leake, Research Fellow in Fine Art,

all working at

The Centre for Research in Art & Design,Gray's School of Art,The Robert Gordon University,Aberdeen.


© Gray & Pirie, 1995 21

carole gray and ian piriecarolegray.net/papers pdfs/ead.pdfis also echoed in recent social science...

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