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T h i s p r o j e c t h a s b e e n f u n d e d w i t h s u p p o r t f r o m t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n . T h i s p u b l i c a t i o n r e f l e c t s t h e v i e w s o n l y o f t h e a u t h o r s , a n d t h e C o m m i s s i o n c a n n o t b e h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a n y u s e w h i c h m a y b e m a d e o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d t h e r e i n .

TEACHTACKLING EDUCATIONAL

DEFICITS THROUGH ARTS AND CRAFTS BASED ENTERPRISE

LEARNING

PROJECT LEVEL DESK RESEARCH PAPER – INTELLECTUAL OUTPUT 1

United Kingdom, July 2016

TEACH - Tackling Educational deficits through Arts and Crafts based Enterprise Learning14 May 2023

Authors: Bob Bates, Praxis Europe, United Kingdom

Busra Tosun, Etkin Egitim Org., Turkey

Cristina Barna, Heart of a Child Foundation, Romania

Sophie Putcrabey, CMA

Editor: Elisabeta Ungureanu, Gecko Programmes Ltd, United Kingdom

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CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...............................................................................5

The UK Context.........................................................................................................................................5

Turkey.......................................................................................................................................................8

France: Introduction - From unemployment, skill sectors in danger and in the sector: craftsmanship.....9

SECTION 1: ISSUES SURROUNDING THE LEARNING NEEDS OF DISADVANTAGED LEARNERS (CULTURE, CIRCUMSTANCES, EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT).........................................................................................10

United Kingdom......................................................................................................................................10

Turkey.....................................................................................................................................................12

Romania..................................................................................................................................................14

FRANCE: Problems and issues relating to the learning needs of disadvantaged people and access to the labour market.........................................................................................................................................16

SECTION 2: LABOUR MARKET ISSUES IN UNITED KINGDOM, TURKEY AND ROMANIA...............................................................................................29

United Kingdom......................................................................................................................................29

Turkey.....................................................................................................................................................33

Romania..................................................................................................................................................34

SECTION 3: AN EXAMINATION OF THE TEACH PROJECT PARTNERS’ PEDAGOGIES. PROVISION OF STATUTORY AND NON-STATUTORY EDUCATION IN UNITED KINGDOM, TURKEY AND ROMANIA, AND THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE LEARNER.........................................................................................37

United Kingdom......................................................................................................................................37

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Turkey.....................................................................................................................................................39

ROMANIA................................................................................................................................................41

FRANCE...................................................................................................................................................41

SECTION 4: SOCIETAL PRESSURES (ECONOMIC, HEALTH, WELFARE)..........43

United Kingdom......................................................................................................................................43

Turkey.....................................................................................................................................................46

Romania..................................................................................................................................................47

FRANCE...................................................................................................................................................51

SECTION 5: THE ARTS AND CRAFTS BASED ENTERPRISE LEARNING. IMPLICATIONS TO FAMILIES AND COMMUNITIES..................................60

United Kingdom......................................................................................................................................60

TURKEY....................................................................................................................................................62

ROMANIA................................................................................................................................................63

FRANCE...................................................................................................................................................67

SECTION 6: WIDER NATIONAL AND EU WIDE IMPLICATIONS IN LIGHT OF POLICIES................................................................................................71

UNITED KINGDOM..................................................................................................................................71

TURKEY....................................................................................................................................................73

ROMANIA................................................................................................................................................75

FRANCE...................................................................................................................................................77

SECTION 7: IMPLICATION FOR ARTS AND CRAFTS SKILLS. ARE THEY FORMAL ENOUGH?...............................................................................................82

UNITED KINGDOM..................................................................................................................................82

TURKEY....................................................................................................................................................84

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ROMANIA................................................................................................................................................85

FRANCE...................................................................................................................................................87

REFERENCES:.............................................................................................................90

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

WHAT IS TEACH?

Teach (Tackling Educational deficits through Arts and Crafts based Enterprise Learning) is a cross field

partnership of Adult Education, VET and Employer bodies, funded by the Erasmus+ Programme.

The partnership is represented by partners from the United Kingdom (Praxis Europe and Gecko

Programmes), Turkey (Etkin Egitim Org – ISMEK), Romania (Heart of a Child - Inima de Copil) and France

(Chambre de Métiers et de l’Artisanat du Rhône) - organisations that have joined together with the aim

of developing a training provision to better engage and support disadvantaged adult learners through

the use of traditional arts, crafts and enterprise.

Praxis Europe has extensive expertise on the development of innovative community focused activities;

Gecko Programmes joined the partnership as an experienced UK VET training provider with focus on the

creative sector, providing mentoring into employment and self-employment; ISMEK is the training arm of

Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and provides a broad range of vocational courses for disadvantaged

adults; Inima de Copil is a NGO providing education, care and social reintegration for those who are at risk

of social exclusion. Chambre de Métiers et de l’Artisanat du Rhône have joined the partnership as a

sector representative, due to its extensive network of employers.

TACKLING EDUCATIONAL DEFICITS

In recent years, there has been great interest among educators to link the arts-based learning with human

development. The arts and crafts participation has additionally been linked to positive social outcomes,

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successfully addressing the learning needs of those unemployed and at risk of social exclusion and

increasing their employment opportunities and entrepreneurial spirit.

In France, three years after leaving school, young people from secondary education through

apprenticeship have an employment rate 10 points higher than those who received education through

conventional schooling. Craftsmanship is also an excellent way to project business creation, that is to say

the creation of wealth and potentially jobs.

Data from Eurostat (Quarter 1, 2014) indicates that 10.4% of EU citizens are in households with very low

work intensity. In terms of unemployment across the partner countries we see: Turkey - Male 8% /

Female 10.9 %; UK - Male 7.4% / Female 6.8 %; France - Male 10.9% / Female 10.8%; Romania - Male 6.5%

/ Female 7.9%.

These people make up the 124.5 million EU citizens at risk of poverty and deprivation. Many of these

people are in a constant cycle of benefits, low paid work and have been failed by mainstream education

services. These people have never considered education as a way of breaking the cycle of poverty. Many

of these people have been failed by a lack of connectivity with education during the school years. These

statistics are using young people, women, older people, people with disabilities, people from minority

groups and families that are subjected to low pay, poor health and living on benefits on a long term basis.

The current desk research, carried out by each of the TEACH partners, aims to provide a comprehensive

perspective detailing the benefits of arts and crafts learning and teaching methodologies and pedagogies

used by partner states with the view of tackling the educational deficits of disadvantaged learners and

create employment and self-employment opportunities.

THE UK CONTEXT

The purpose of this report has been to provide a UK context for a comparative analysis report

that details the arts and crafts learning and teaching methodologies and pedagogies used by partner

states in supporting a variety of disadvantaged learners through the use of arts and crafts. In this respect,

a ten-point plan has emerged that serves to turn disadvantage into “advantages”. This is represented in

the form of a mnemonic.

Autonomy.

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Disadvantaged people must be allowed and encouraged to develop their arts and craft skills in ways that

are true to their principles, ideals, and capabilities. They should not be denied access to informal learning

if that is their chosen path. The opportunity to develop their talents must also be available.

Development incentives.

Disadvantaged people need support in their efforts to achieve self-sufficiency in terms of education,

training and employment in the arts and craft sector. Too many existing resources, alleged to serve a

disadvantaged group, in fact perform a disservice, by reinforcing dependency or by falling short of

expectations, thereby compromising the reality of self-development.

Vision:

Disadvantaged people need to know about opportunities in the arts and craft sector and the tools

available to them, and to know how to use them to promote their own skills and development.

Access to just employment.

Employment in the arts and craft sector, at a subsistence-level income, is not sufficient for becoming self-

sufficient. What is needed is “just” employment, which entails employment free from limiting, damaging,

or self-fulfilling stereotype, meaningful work, safe work, exploitation-free workplace, career development

and advancement opportunities based on merit, job security, and the freedom and means to pursue

work.

Networks.

People of like situation need each other to form a base of support for creating, using, and maintaining the

tools for self-sufficiency.

Taking responsibility for decision-making:

Disadvantaged people should not be deprived the opportunity to participate in decisions that affect their

own livelihood and well-being.

Access to education:

Education that enables progression in the arts and craft sector should enhance the values of someone’s

own culture, and be relevant to the values of other segments of society, to their own potential for

development, and to employment opportunities.

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Growth:

While growth capital is obviously needed to be self-sufficient, certain disadvantaged groups are denied

the opportunity to create or keep capital. Often, government or corporate practices serve to keep capital

away from smaller institutions, especially those that focus on the arts and craft sector. Many creative en-

terprises are content-based businesses with intangibles that the investment community often finds much

more difficult to value, monetise, and sell in case of default. This leads to a host of creative enterprises

finding it impossible to access growth financing and points to the need for more public policy incentives to

ensure creative industry equal access to financial investment and business support programs.

Emotional Energy:

To grow towards self-sufficiency, disadvantaged people require the sort of personal and emotional energy

that comes from self-respect. The notion of a powerful creative economy challenges artists and creatives

alike to reconsider their role in society, perhaps seeing themselves as leaders and drivers of this new

world order instead of being a vital and necessary drain on limited resources.

Support systems that are responsive:

These include accessible transportation, safety and security, food and clothing, strong neighbourhoods,

social services, advocacy and influence, and social, recreational, and aesthetic opportunities.

The report is broken down into eight sections that can be summarised as:

1. Issues surrounding the learner needs of disadvantaged learners in the UK: This section defines

“disadvantagement” as not being centred primarily on structural causes such as health, poverty

and education but focused on denied access to the opportunities needed for self-sufficiency.

2. Labour Market Issues in the UK: This section describes the rate of economic recovery in the UK

and the steps that policy makers need to take to ensure this recovery is sustainable and the role

that social enterprises can play in this.

3. An Examination of Pedagogical Provision of statutory and non-statutory education in the UK: this

section looks at the transferable skills that can be accrued through training in the arts and

creative subject areas. It then focuses on the work of the Praxis Europe Creative Minds project.

4. Societal Pressure in the UK: This section examines the pressures put on people who are

disadvantaged in terms of poverty, health and welfare.

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5. Implications for Families and Communities: This section looks at how unemployment affects

families and the OECD’s recommendations for dealing with this issue.

6. This section reviews the wider national and EU-wide Implications for people disadvantaged in

accessing employment, education or training opportunities.

7. This section examines the implications for arts & craft skills by asking the question are training

opportunities formal enough?

TURKEY

The main purpose of this research paper has provided extensively information about ISMEK. In

recent years, there has been great interest among educators and in the links between arts-based learning

and human development. Arts and Crafts participation has additionally been linked to positive social

outcomes, learning needs, reach to more trainers, provide more effective branches, increase mentee’s

satisfaction, answer people’s demands, and increase employment opportunities.

First part is about disadvantaged learners. Giving percentage about disabilities investigate the

importance of ISMEK. Disabilities institutions are divided into two parts which are formal and private

schools. Furthermore, ISMEK has made a breakthrough with KOSGEB. All these institutions are discussed

in next stage.

Secondly, the research paper clarifies the effects of ISMEK at labour market issues. Some of the

branches are directly aimed to ensure employees to labour market forces.

The third part completely gives information about formal and informal education in Turkey and

the implication of leaners.

The kind of social pressures such as economical, health issues and welfare situation is explained the next

part. Not only mentioning the issues but also solving the pressures by ISMEK are discussed that the case is

elaborated to improvement of welfare regime, health insurance and social structure.

Other next two parts are about arts and crafts based entrepreneurship and implementation to

families and communities so that ISMEK observes the positive feedbacks on the society cope with

competitive environment.

The last parts investigate the sufficiency of policies due to the effects on national and EU wide.

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FRANCE: INTRODUCTION - FROM UNEMPLOYMENT, SKILL SECTORS IN DANGER AND IN THE SECTOR: CRAFTSMANSHIP

In France, the number of unfilled jobs is estimated at 300,000. Craftsmanship; the leading

enterprise in France, offers 250 craft skills and more than 510 different job opportunities, bringing

together a diverse collection of know-how and skills. Some of these businesses are facing recruitment

difficulties. A paradoxical situation, almost abnormal, in the current economic environment. According to

the Labour Requirements survey 2016 led by the job centre 50% of hiring intentions comes from TPE (very

small companies), that is to say establishments with fewer than 10 employees.

In France, millions of job seekers therefore coexist with the difficulties of the craftsmanship

sector to recruit. Possible explanations have been put forward for the inability of the careers system to

present craft careers, the lacklustre image of the trades in their modernity and the mismatch between

training policies and programs and the economic reality of enterprises.

Hiring difficulties are being felt in the building trade, especially in finishing work. Recruitment

projects for companies in the food industry are regularly considered difficult. The Industrial production

crafts, whilst an essential cog for advanced industrial sectors (such as aerospace, automotive ...) are

experiencing the same difficulties over and over again. Finally, today and in the future, all areas of

personal services will carry real career prospects. Craft enterprises wishing to recruit are facing a shortage

of qualified profiles.

Craftsmanship trades must also cope with an ageing workforce. Almost 30,000 companies are

affected each year by the need for takeover or transmission. Of these, 63% are not taken over, because

there are simply no buyers. In 2010, almost one apprentice in two was trained to be a craftsman.

Bitter observations, but at the same time bringing hope to many struggling learners. Hence the

importance of seizing the subject of educational deficits head on, taking more than ever into account the

situation and training of the most vulnerable groups.

Three (3) years after leaving school, young people from

secondary education through apprenticeship have an

employment rate 10 points higher than those who received

education through conventional schooling. Craftsmanship is also an

excellent way to project business creation, that is to say the

creation of wealth and potentially jobs.

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Opposite is the latest communication campaign National Fund for the Promoting and

Communicating about Craftsmanship, baptised ‘What if the solution was right before your eyes.’

SECTION 1: ISSUES SURROUNDING THE LEARNING NEEDS OF DISADVANTAGED LEARNERS (CULTURE, CIRCUMSTANCES, EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT)

UNITED KINGDOM

For the purpose of this report, “disadvantaged” refers to all groups that encounter obstacles

created by society that restrict access to resources, benefits and opportunities. The structural causes that

underlie disadvantage include disability, race, ethnicity, gender, religion, indigenous or national origin,

labour force status (employed or unemployed), income status and geographical location (remoteness

from urban-based services).

Giving substance to the definition is difficult as there are varying degrees of disadvantage: one

person may be more, or less, disadvantaged than another. It is possible that the degree of a person’s

disadvantage and/or the cause(s) may change during the course of their life. As standards of living rise

over time in a particular society, what is regarded as a disadvantage by one generation may not have been

regarded as disadvantageous by an earlier generation. An example in respect of educational attainment is

that being educated only to year eleven schooling probably would be considered a substantial

disadvantage now, but would not have been considered so in the UK even as recently as the 1960s when

an individual’s craft and skills were coveted more than their educational achievements.

The concept of disadvantaged, in respect of learning, is not centred primarily on those structural

causes cited above but focused on denied access to the opportunities needed for self-sufficiency. People

see themselves as disadvantaged to the extent that they are denied access to the same opportunities

found useful by the majority of society. These include such tangible things as health, education,

employment and capital and more personal issues such as autonomy, responsibility and self-respect,

A major feature of “disadvantagement” therefore is the presence of barriers to self-sufficiency. These

barriers are the ways in which people are denied access to needed tools to support their development,

and include:

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Unavailability of Resources. Resources (employment, training, business capital, etc.) may be

unavailable in sufficient quality or quantity to certain groups.

Inaccessibility of Resources. Even if available, resources could still be inaccessible to certain

groups, because of cost, poor design, locale or distance.

Society’s Regard for a Group. Disadvantaged groups are often unappreciated, devalued, or

derided by the larger society.

Institutionalised responses (government, programs, agencies, systems etc.) to the needs of

certain groups may be inadequate or counterproductive.

The labour efforts or other forms of contribution of some groups may be undervalued in the

marketplace.

A disadvantaged learner is defined by the particular pattern of denied resources and barriers it faces,

rather than attributable to structural causes. In this respect, they may face more than one barrier. Some

barriers may be more easily surmounted or removed than others. Overcoming “disadvantagement” in

terms of learning and employment, therefore, means overcoming or removing the barriers to self-

sufficiency or self-determination. This can take many forms, depending on the pattern presented, but

would include enabling or empowering the learner’s own efforts to develop the opportunities or

resources needed for their own self-sufficiency.

TURKEY

Regarding these issues, first of all we need to clarify what does “disadvantaged “mean for Turkish

Society. When it is said disadvantaged it means people with disabilities, people isolated from the society

and people living under low quality of life.

The percentage of people with disabilities in Turkey is %12.29 and this makes 1.559.222 people.

The number of schools for disabled students is 814 and they are all private schools running under the

rules of Ministry of Education. That means students with disabilities have to pay for their education

themselves. This is a big problem for some families who cannot afford to pay for their children’s education

in these schools and for these kind of families there is the support of the government. Some families

prefer to send their children to the formal public schools and they receive the same education and

training as the students without any disabilities. This is a challenging way for students with disabilities.

Municipalities in Turkey provide many services for people with disabilities.

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We can give an example from İSEM (İstanbul Centre for People with Disabilities) İstanbul

Metropolitan Municipality.

The services provided are:

1. Public Relations Service

2. 153 help line for Transport Service for Disabled and Old People

3. Health Support Services (Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation with Sport)

4. Psychological and Social Services

5. Training Services (Provided by İSMEK)

6. Employment

7. Legal Rights Guidance

8. Summer Camps

9. Libraries

10. Hair Care Services (for the disabled people who cannot go out of the house)

Turkish Municipalities and Government provide many services for disabled people provided that their

disability ratio is over %40. They can benefit from many services that healthy people have to pay for.

Some of these services are:

1. Sports Federation for Professional Sportsmen / Sportswomen with Disabilities.

2. Free Public Transport

3. Scholarship During University Education

4. Free Vocational Arts & Crafts Trainings (Both for disabled and healthy people)

According to The Economist Intelligence Unit prepared in 2013, Turkey is the 51 st country with 5.95

score out of 10 regarding the quality of life. People living under low quality of life receive financial support

from the government. They are paid monthly and their needs are covered by the government.

The percentage of unemployed people is %11.1 which makes 3.290.000 people. Job Employment

Agency of Turkey (İŞKUR) is responsible to find appropriate jobs for unemployed people on condition that

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they declare their unemployment and willingness to be employed. There is not a governmental support

for unemployed people unless they have at least 2 years of full-time working experience. But this support

is only for 10 months, not whole life long.

After 10 months of unemployment payment, the people need to start work again. This situation

pushes people for working, they know they have to work to be able to continue their lives. If there is no

family support, life becomes very difficult for unemployed people. And it can also be difficult for them

when they cannot find jobs related to their education field and skills if they are not open to learn new

skills and try to change their career paths.

At this point İsmek has a huge benefit for unemployed people because there are 412 different

fields of training which arouse interest for everyone.

Founded in 1996 and started with 141 trainees in 3 branches, İsmek has become a huge adult education

provider in 33 main branches and 412 sub branches. İsmek currently has 253.660 trainees which is over

the annual target of the organisation.

İsmek also provides entrepreneurship training within the protocol with KOSGEB (Development

Organization for Small and Middle Industries). People register for a 9 days of entrepreneurship training

and at the end of the training they receive a certificate. If the trainees develop their own projects to

establish their own jobs and if the project is approved by Kosgeb, they receive 50.000 funding to start

their own business.

The Department of Employment at İsmek is responsible for directing the trainees who are

looking for jobs to the related sectors and companies. The staff at the department publishes job

announcements on the web portal and people can see appropriate jobs for them. Application for the jobs

are done through the employment department. The department creates the connection between

employee candidates and companies.

ROMANIA

We can consider ‘disadvantaged learners’ vulnerable groups such as Roma and pupils from poor

families, institutionalized children, persons with disabilities, who continue to face significant obstacles

in accessing and completing education, especially in rural areas.

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Vulnerable groups such as rural communities, Roma, institutionalized children and people with

disabilities rank significantly below the general population in access to education, completion rates and

performance. According to the data from European Commission - Country Report Romania 2016, despite

progress, 27% of Roma children still receive education in de facto segregated schools, as defined by the

Roma Inclusion Index (2015). The early school leaving rate remains high due to an insufficient focus on

early detection and prevention, poverty and low availability of remedial programmes. Romania’s early

school leaving rate increased to 18.1 % in 2014, nearly 7 pps. above the EU average and the national

Europe 2020 target. The early school leaving rate is much higher for rural residents, Roma and children

with special needs. Support for parents and teachers working with pupils at high risk is insufficient. This

phenomenon conducts to a new phenomenon - ‘disadvantaged workers’, unqualified persons for the

labour market, with no chance in obtaining a job.

According to the Institute of Educational Sciences (ISE)1 there is an important gap between areas

of residence: almost 1/5 of the young people from the rural area at scholar age 15 - 18 years old, do not

accede to the secondary level at education. Analysing specific rates of the scholar enrolment in high

school, ISE considers a situation also problematic, which did not change significantly in the last years.

From 2009 until present approximately 1 child from 4 remains outside high school or professional

education. The rate of enrolment in the professional education for the same age is very low (1,1%), even if

it is possible that the measures of the restructuring of this specific route to determine in the next years a

growth of the specific rates of enrolment both for the group of age 15 - 17 years, and for higher ages too.

The schools situated in socio-economic disadvantaged areas are confronting with bigger

challenges. A recent analyses of the Institute of Educational Sciences with UNICEF support indicated the

fact that in schools from priority educational zones, participation at education is an important challenge:

in the primary cycle, in four years approximately 25% of the children are lost, and approximately 33% in

secondary cycle, because of being repeaters and school leaving. (Jigău and Fartușnic – coord., 2012,

quoted from ISE website).

In the Romanian context, the causes of becoming disadvantaged learners and of no scholar

participation are considered in general: the poverty and disadvantaged socio-economic conditions. A

1 Institute of Educational Sciences, And now? Where? Scholar route of the graduates of VIII class in ZEP schools, available online at: http://www.ise.ro/iar-acum-incotro-parcursul-scolar-al-absolventilor-clasei-a-viii-a-din-scolile-zep, extracted in March 2016

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UNICEF2 study elaborated in 2012 identified for every category of risk a series of specific social - cultural

difficulties, from which we mention:

- For Roma children and young people: a low level of education of the Roma families, early

marriage tradition, mobility of the Roma nomads, the lack of identity documents (birth certificate, identity

card), sometimes the language spoken in the family, discrimination associated also with the educational

supply and demand, residential segregation.

- For children and young people from the rural areas: the conditions of socio-economic

development of the rural communities - undeveloped infrastructure, big distance from the house to

school, precarious scholar infrastructure and endowments, low interest of the qualified professors to

teach in rural isolated communities. Also, the economic environment is under-developed and the

possibilities of finding a job for the young people from the rural areas are quasi - inexistent, so their

motivation to participate at education is low. The low level of education in rural areas, especially

regarding post-secondary level, conducts to the transmission of low educational aspirations from adults to

the young generation.

- For the poorest children and young people: the lack of financial resources of the families for

supporting education refers especially to the financial resources for the minimum - clothes, footwear,

requisites, and also to the contribution for extracurricular activities (trips etc.). Also, some poor families

have big difficulties in assuring the minimum conditions for study at home: space, light, adequate

temperature etc.

- For the children with disabilities and children with special educational needs: insufficient

development of a culture of inclusion inside and outside the school, discriminatory attitudes towards

children with special education needs, first at social level, in many cases accompanied by the parents’

shame.

FRANCE: PROBLEMS AND ISSUES RELATING TO THE LEARNING NEEDS OF DISADVANTAGED PEOPLE AND ACCESS TO THE LABOUR MARKET

2 UNICEF (2012), ISE - All children at school until 2015. Global initiative regarding the children outside the educational system in Romania, Fartusnic C.(coord.), p.37 - 42, available online at: http://www.unicef.ro/wp-content/uploads/Toti-copiii-la-scoala-pt-web.pdf

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The current economic changes significantly discriminate and sometimes definitively for young

people entering the labour market without any qualifications. In parallel, craftsmanship business

requirements are ever increasing. This is one reason why vocational education is crucial for young people

leaving school without qualifications. In France, the authorities intend to re-gild the apprenticeship shield

and attempt to restart it. They often face the persistent bad image attached to it and the unpreparedness

of dropouts from college or high school at an early stage.

APPRENTICESHIP: A COMPARISON WITH THE GERMAN MODEL

The French obsession with the diploma has often pushed learning by apprenticeship into the

background. The result? Getting into the labour market is hard, especially for the young. The comparison

with the German model, based particularly on apprenticeship, is striking.

Number of apprentices in 2013 - Comparison Germany France

Number of apprentices Number of apprentices in %

of the number of young

people aged 15-24

% of apprentices in total,

enrolled in vocational

secondary education (2012)

Germany 1,430,977 16% 87.5%

France 438,143 5.2% 27.2%

Sources: Eurostat and OECD

Unemployment rates by education level in 2013 - Comparison Germany France

France Germany

Unemployment rate of highly qualified

people (25-64) (ISCED 5-6)5.2% 2.5%

Unemployment rates for semi-skilled

people (ISCED 3-4)8.4% 4.9%

Unemployment rates for people without

qualifications (ISCED 1-2)13.9% 12.5%

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http://www.unige.ch/aref2010/participation/Soumettre/Classification-CITE.pdf


Proportion of ‘early leavers’ from

secondary education (18-24 years)9.7% 9.9%

Proportion of ‘NEET‘ (‘Dropouts’, 20-24) 19.4% 10.3%

Sources: Eurostat and OECD

The unemployment rate of persons without qualifications is of the same order of magnitude in both

countries. The German labour market is therefore not inclusive for this category of people. Nevertheless,

the unemployment rate of semi-skilled qualified people is two times lower. Finally, the number of

‘dropouts’, that is to say youth without schooling unemployed is also two times lower.

Polarised apprenticeship and progression upwards

Apprenticeship in France rising but heterogeneously. Since 2005, the entire growth of the apprenticeship

takes place in higher education. Learning is thus polarised at the two qualifying ends (CAP infra-bac and

higher education). Apprenticeship remains relatively undeveloped at the level of vocational

baccalaureate. Indeed, 83% of young people preparing a professional baccalaureate do so through

schooling. In addition, learning is almost non-existent at the semi-skilled level 4 ISCED classification.

The duration of apprenticeship contracts

Because of the predominance of apprenticeships at CAP level, French youth starts apprenticeship on

average 1.3 years earlier than German youth.

However, the duration of apprenticeship contracts in Germany is longer. Indeed, the average length of an

apprenticeship in Germany is 3 years when less than 1.7 years in France.

Apprenticeship focuses on very small enterprises

Apprenticeship focuses on small businesses, mainly craftsmanship enterprises. However, SMEs, ETI and

especially large companies are much less involved on the whole. The proportion of apprentices in the

workforce is 7.4% in the TPE (1 to 9 employees) and 0.95% in companies with more than 250 employees.

In Germany, apprenticeship is distributed in a much more homogeneous manner across all businesses.

Apprenticeship: Pre-employment or casual labour?

We often highlight the beneficial effects of apprenticeship on employment. However, these do not appear

to be direct. Indeed, the proportion of apprentices hired by the host company after their training is only

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http://www.unige.ch/aref2010/participation/Soumettre/Classification-CITE.pdf

https://data.oecd.org/fr/youthinac/jeunes-descolarises-sans-emploi-neet.htm


37% for companies with over 50 employees. Conversely, the proportion is 75% in Germany. In France,

apprenticeship is primarily a valued experience to put forward rather than a direct passport to

employment. Nevertheless, this low retention rate is also due to a high rate of resignation on the part of

apprentices. A third of non-hires are due to a resignation.

Significant failure rate

The failure rate of apprenticeship contracts amounts to nearly 30%. It is generally high or very high in

areas considered less attractive, namely the hotel trade, catering and craftsmanship. Even more

disturbing, almost 80% of breach of apprenticeship contracts cause the complete abandonment of

apprenticeship.

The place of general education

Unlike Germany, the place of general education remains strong for all qualifications, including those

related to apprenticeship. Indeed, it occupies 55% of the time in CFA for a CAP and 50% of the time for a

professional baccalaureate. In Germany, the proportion of time in general education is very low and varies

with the trade being prepared. Basic general education is considered to have been achieved on leaving

school after 'o' levels. General education is not identified as such but is seamlessly integrated into

technical education. Take the example of a student who is training as a hairdresser. If the sciences are not

directly taught as such, the learner will receive a basic chemistry course when it is time to address the

subject of dyes. This system permits a break’ with traditional mores in education. While in France we still

find the CAP and Professional bac, subjects thought of as ‘classic’ like history, French, science, are well

separated from vocational education. Germany has developed a system based on 3 pillars that vocational

education is based on:

Orienting themselves professionally in apprenticeship and in professional life

Participating in the company's life (labour law and trade union, business economics)

Technological and vocational education

Bertrand Martinot, former social advisor to the presidency of the Republic explained in his study ‘Learning, a vaccine against youth unemployment’, than ‘While it is laudable to promote the rise of general education, the French system may discourage young learners especially those experiencing difficulty. Such weight devoted to general education in France can therefore be a problem. The major emphasis given to general subjects can even prevent the development of certain vocations.

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The PISA survey by the OECD (2012) shows that young French graduates of the second cycle of secondary

education have an average far less general skills than their German counterparts at the age of 15. This

leads us to think that for some types of learners, the shape of the teaching prevails over the substance.

THE LABOUR MARKET AND VULNERABLE GROUPS

In France, the unemployment rate today is 10.5% of the workforce. Unemployment affects the population

very unevenly, and is even discriminatory. Vulnerable groups are affected first.

Long term unemployment rate

During a period of unemployment, a return to work can prove difficult. Unemployment can then become

installed. When the period of unemployment exceeds one year, it is defined as long term. In France, the

long-term unemployment rate in 2013 stood at 40.4% of the total number of unemployed. This rate has

been climbing since 2008, with the first effects of the financial crisis on the labour market. Nearly one long

term unemployed person in three has been unemployed for at least 3 years.

Long term unemployment rate Total, % of unemployed people,

2013 – Source: OECD

YOUTH

Youth unemployment ratio

Here we use the word ‘youth’ for all persons of 15 to 24 years old.

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Youth unemployment ratio (total, % of young active population, 2015). Source: OECD

Unemployment rates for people who have been out of education and have no qualifications for 1-4 years

In 2014, this rate reached a critical mass of 53%, highlighting the extent of training needs for this segment

of the population.

Beyond unemployment, ‘NEET’

The term ‘NEET’ comes from the English ‘not in employment, education or training’. This expression

concerns youth of 15 to 29 years old, school leavers without training or employment. In 2014, the ‘NEET’

represented 16.3% of 15 to 29 year olds. Today they are almost 2 million. Worse, half of them are in

phase of de-socialisation since they do not even try to find a job.

Youth is increasingly overqualified for the positions held

On average more often unemployed than the rest of the population, young people tend to accept less

qualified or even precarious employment. They just do not find opportunities after graduation. It also

highlights some problems in the appropriateness of certain training courses for the requirements of the

labour market. Finally, they lack stability. Young people are nearly four times more often on fixed-term

contract than the over 30 year olds.

The level of education in France in superficial progression?

Over generations, the level of qualifications held by the resident population in France has increased. In

2013, one in ten people aged 25 to 34 did not have any diploma. For comparison, in the case of three out

of ten people aged 25 to 34 in 1985. In 1985, the proportion of graduates in a generation was 30%. It was

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78% in 2014. In 1985, the 15-24 age group unemployment rate was between 10 and 15%, whereas a

quarter of young people are currently unemployed.

Difficulties encountered in the labour market have led in some cases to an impoverished youth

The effects of the financial crisis have in fact exacerbated the impoverishment of youth. It is now

estimated that one in five lives below the poverty line. Half of the students combine their studies with a

job and nearly one in three works full time. Concerning young workers under 25 years old, because of

their less stable and more precarious situation they are less protected by the French social model. Indeed,

by sequencing short-term assignments, active young people find it more difficult to build up rights to

unemployment benefit. Almost 40% of jobseekers receiving no benefits are aged under 30. These

difficulties lead to extreme situations and disturbing findings. 25% of the 140,000 homeless people in

France are young people under 30.

THE SENSITIVE URBAN ZONES (ZUS)

Emergency situation in the ZUS

There are around 750 ZUS in France. In 2006, residents of ZUS accounted for 4.4 million people. ZUS

experience more difficulty integrating into the labour market than anywhere else in the country. The

employment rate among women and foreigners is particularly low. 34.5% of foreigners between 25 and

49 in ZUS are employed, against 60.0% in the urban areas and 76.2% of French of the same age from the

same urban units. More worryingly, the employment rate, i.e. the ratio between the number of

employment aged people (employed and unemployed) and all of the corresponding population, from 25-

49 years old is lower by more than 7 points from that observed in the inclusive urban units. For all men,

French and foreign, the rate of activity in terms of training provided is very close in the ZUS and the

inclusive urban units. By contrast, women with little or no qualifications are usually inactive, that is to say

outside the scope of the labour market, both in ZUS and in urban units.

The inhabitants of the ZUS have little or no training

In the ZUS, half of the inhabitants have no qualification beyond the secondary school leaving certificate,

against a third in the inclusive urban units. The number of university graduates is twice as low in the ZUS.

Young residents in the ZUS are also poorly represented in the entries into apprenticeship, as they accoun-

ted for just 5% of entrants in 2009 according to DARES.

The unemployment rate in the ZUS

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The unemployment rate in the ZUS is close to that in young people: With an unemployment rate of almost

25%, this is two and half times higher than the rest of the territory. These ZUS are composed of social cat-

egories with the greatest difficulties (immigrants, young people without qualifications) and have experi-

enced a mass exodus of the middle class. As elsewhere, young people of 15 to 24 are the most affected by

unemployment. However, the contrast here is even more striking. 45% of this age group is involved in

sensitive urban areas, against 23.1% excluding ZUS in 2012. The 25-49 unemployment rate is 22.7% and

16.6% for 50-64 years old.

Unemployment rate by origin

In 2012, 26.2% of immigrant residents of ZUS were unemployed against only 15% of those of the same

origin living outside these neighbourhoods, nearly twice as many. They are also more unemployed than

non-immigrants in the ZUS, whose unemployment rate is 18.6%. Several factors come into play: Discrimin-

ation in hiring, lack of training, employment sectors in industry under threat... Another point, learning the

French language can also, to some extent, be a barrier to some foreigners or sons of immigrants to a suc-

cessful school career. Even more if the language used in the home is not French.

Disadvantaged and reproductive backgrounds

In the countries of the OECD often referred to as developed, nearly one schoolchild in five does not reach

a sufficient level of competency to develop normally in society. Personal and social circumstances facing

learners inevitably affect their chances of academic and consequently professional success. According to

the OECD, the probability that students from low-income and disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds

are less efficient is twice as high.

Will the child will resemble the parents?

This finding raised by the OECD pushes us to question the fairness of the education system and advancing

on the social ladder as things stand today. Secondly, the question naturally arises of the economic and

social impact of the reproduction of these social models. It is obvious to say that less educational

underachievement naturally leads to more chance to build a professional and stable social situation. From

a macroeconomic point of view underachievement is also a loss for the State. It means more social

benefits, less consumption and therefore less fiscal resources. The ethical and economic dimensions of

the subject inevitably lead us to have to deal with these issues head on.

The role of the school

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The school is finding it increasingly difficult to play its emancipating role. The promise of the social

hierarchy of the school is less and less convincing. Children who start with less chances seem to have

greater difficulty in using the school to catch up. All too often, during schooling, the gap widens instead of

narrowing. It would be a false to brush aside the close link between the socio-professional environment

into which children were born and academic achievement. The idea of total equality among learners is an

illusion. However, schools must play an emancipating role, and not reproduce the same issues. School

underachievement followed by unemployment affect certain categories of learners more and more. The

stakes are therefore high, hence the need to re-think apprenticeship methods.

RURAL AREAS

Learners in rural areas

In the 1960's, about 40% of students from the countryside, that is to say in municipalities of less than

2,000 inhabitants, went to college (up to 'o' level), against around 70% for the rest of the territory.

Although the proportion of rural students in the school population tends to decrease, 24% of school

children and 18% of college students still live in rural areas. Yves Alps, in 2006, in an article in the French

journal of pedagogy, tackled the subject of ‘cultural deficit’ among rural students and its impact on their

academic success. Indeed, a number of arguments can be put forward to explain possible ‘cultural deficit’

of this category of learners such as geographic location, school size or the lack of local resources for

extracurricular activities.

Although there are unfavourable factors, many studies have clearly shown that rural and urban students

have the same level out of primary school in spite of social origins and resources that are usually more

restricted than in urban areas. Nevertheless, access to general and technological A level standard is lower

among rural students. Not because they have lower levels but because their prospective career paths are

less ambitious and often dictated by a refusal of mobility.

In addition, the geographic influence on family cultural practices is very limited. They are more dependent

on the social origin of households. However, the geographical location affects cultural practices in school,

which are usually less developed. In the short term, we see no marked difference between urban and

rural. However, long term, especially in the poorest learners, lack of cultural practices in school and in the

family circle, weighs on educational projects, usually less ambitious and less mobile. Perhaps out of fear or

lack of openness bestowed on the learner. The trajectories of rural students differentiate after 'o' level,

with a far stronger orientation of these pupils to vocational courses or apprenticeships. For some families,

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the orientation choices are more modest than what school results would enable. It is difficult to define

this choice as being by default. Nevertheless, it is more consistent with the overall environment

surrounding the learner.

Many set ideas

These courses geared towards vocational courses or apprenticeship nevertheless prove to be a winning

choice. A study by the INSEE on the comparative unemployment rate between rural and urban areas

showed a significant difference between young rural communes and urban units, especially those with

between 20,000 and 200,000 inhabitants where the youth unemployment rate (and in general) is far

greater. The differential with the ZUS is doubled.

Unemployment ration in 2009 among youths aged 15 to 24 years old – Source OECD

This data undermines certain set ideas about the ‘countryside’ as compared with the city.

Whether in terms of education or opportunities in terms of employment. On the other side, French

society has many preconceptions about apprenticeship and vocational paths. Stubborn preconceptions

that have been largely encouraged by public educational policies fixated on the idea of 'A' levels for all, or

at least the vast majority of learners, and preferably in the general or technological courses. From the

early 1980's to the early 2000's, the number of 'A' level students has almost doubled. And what do we

have to show for it? At University, almost one out of two students does not pass into the second year.

Nearly 30% of these have quite simply left the university system, while others repeat their first year or try

their chances elsewhere.

The poor image of vocational courses and apprenticeship and the dumbing down of the 'A' level,

have inevitably led to the suitability problems of supply and demand in the labour market. While certain

sectors, considered to be worthy, continue to be blocked, some businesses are still struggling to recruit

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qualified profiles. The craftsmanship trades are the first to suffer from this lack of image. Indeed, they are

often considered tough, boring and poorly paid. All these feelings continue to fuel this paradox.

DISABILITY

In general, the Directorate for the Coordination of Research, Studies and Statistics of the Ministry of

Labour, Employment, Vocational Training and Social Dialogue encompasses in the disabled population:

Both the population with “an administrative recognition of a disability or loss of autonomy’

And also the population declaring ‘a disease or condition that is chronic or lifelong’ and “be

limited for at least six months, because of a health problem in the activities that people usually

do.”

In 2013, out of 39.4 million people of 15 to 64 years old, 5.5 million (14%) were considered disabled.

Education Level of the disabled in 2013

People with disabilities (15-64 years old) Overall population (15-64 years old)

2 years advanced education or more 16.5% 29%

Vocational equivalent to 'O' or 'A' level 14% 20%

CAP (Certificate of Professional

Aptitude), BEP (Diploma of professional

expertise)

28.5% 23%

School leaving certificate or without a

diploma

41% 28%

Source: Dares

As shown in the table above, the share of disabled holders of the school leaving certificate alone or

without any qualification is much higher than the general population.

Employment rates, unemployment and activity

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People with disabilities (15-64 years old) Overall population (15-64 years old)

Activity rate 54% 72%

Employment rates 46% 65%

Unemployment rate 14% 10%

Source: Dares

As the above table clearly illustrates, people with disabilities have much more difficulty getting a place on

the labour market than the general population. The unemployment rate there is higher despite a much

lower employment rate.

The obligation to employ disabled workers in the private and the public sector covering industrial and

commercial

The obligation of employing disabled workers (OETH) concerns all establishments with 20 or more

employees in the private sector and the public sector in industry and commerce (Epic) with 20 or more

employees. Since the law of 11 February 2005, any establishment employing 20 or more employees at the

time of its creation or due to the increase in its workforce has to achieve compliance with the

employment obligation, within a time limit of three years. The OETH requires relevant institutions to

increase the share of workers with disabilities to 6% of their workforce.

Training for disabled people

In 2013, 8% of entries into training people looking for work involved disabled people, being

49,700 people. This share has remained virtually unchanged since 2009. The volume of disabled people

entering into job seeking training has increased by 30% since 2009, a slightly higher rate than for all the

other people looking for jobs.

Sandwich courses are organised around two contracts, the contract of apprenticeship as part of

the initial training and professional contract which comes within continuing vocational training. Each of

the two contracts is the subject of specific provisions for the disabled. In the case of the

professionalization contract, people with disabilities are among the priority groups. The share of workers

with disabilities in all entries into sandwich course contracts is very marginal, about 1% in 2014. However,

the number of entries, especially into apprenticeships, has been progressing at a steady pace since 2012.

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As of 16 years old disabled workers can benefit from an apprenticeship contract that is the subject of

special arrangements: duration and modalities of training, pedagogical adaptation to their needs.

In 2014, 2,600 new contracts for disabled workers were recorded. That number increased sharply

between 2012 and 2014 (+50%). Actions in favour of sandwich courses conducted by the Agefiph since

2013 have contributed to this increase. The share of new contracts for disabled workers in all new training

contracts remains very marginal (less than 1%).

While companies with fewer than 10 employees of craftsmanship type do not have any legal

obligation to have a share of employees with disabilities, half the apprenticeship contracts signed in 2014

by young people with disabilities were with TPE. The apprenticeship contract is a work contract. It is

intended for young people from 16 to 25 years of age, this age limit is waived for persons received official

recognition of disability entitlement to the OETH the obligation to employ disabled workers. In case of

disability-related difficulties, several measures can be implemented:

educational facilities, authorised by the rector of academy or the Regional Director of Agriculture

and Forestry and following the opinion of the Committee on rights and autonomy of persons

with disabilities (CDAPH);

organisation of training in an apprentice training centre (CFA) or the apprenticeship section for

the disabled, approved for this purpose by the State or region;

a development of correspondence courses authorised by the Rector or the Regional Director of

Agriculture and Forestry. In addition, when the status of the disabled apprentice requires, the

teaching given in the CFA or the apprenticeship section to lead to the diploma required by the

contract, is spread over a period of time equal to the duration of normal apprenticeship for the

training in question, increased by one extra year. The maximum duration of 3 years of the

contract may be extended to four years if the disabled worker is recognised as an apprentice.

Since March 2014, the apprenticeship contract may be open ended.

Aid for the recruitment of a disabled worker

In addition to aid granted under any apprenticeship, businesses can benefit from:

a grant from the State to the amount of 520 times the gross hourly minimum wage applicable on

1 July within the first year of apprenticeship, paid in two instalments, at the end of the 1st and

2nd year of apprenticeship;

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Agefiph aid (flat-rate grant, apprenticeship master training, accessibility of workplaces,

adjustment of work situations). Specific support for the CFA, allocated by Agefiph is also available

for the reception and integration of disabled young people, as well as the adaptation of teaching

materials and training content. At the end of the apprenticeship contract, if the employer signs a

permanent work contract with the young person or a fixed term contract of at least twelve

months Agefiph may pay a hiring bonus of Euro 1,600.

The network of CMA Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes is very active on the subject of disability

The network of Chambers of Trades and Craftsmanship of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes in collaboration

with Agefiph implements actions to promote the signing of apprenticeship contracts between young

people with disabilities and the businesses in the Region.

The network of CMA has a mission to enterprises to:

To hook them up with candidates

Support in the implementation of the apprenticeship contract

Inform on any counter-indications related to the disability

Help in finding solutions to compensate for disability and to secure financing

Offer support in the drawing up of aid application files

Support in the search for enterprises and selection of CFA

Help draw up the apprenticeship contract

Validate the apprenticeship contract

Be a mediator between the company, the candidate and their CFA

Monitor throughout training

The network of CMA has a mission to applicants to:

Evaluate skills and guide the learner towards the skill sector and enterprise most suitable for

him/her

Make recommendations on adaptations of the course with the training centre and the employer.

Be a mediator between the apprentice, the CFA and the host company

Monitor throughout training

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SECTION 2: LABOUR MARKET ISSUES IN UNITED KINGDOM, TURKEY AND ROMANIA

UNITED KINGDOM

The UK economy is now returning to sustained recovery but there is some distance to make up

after such a sharp recession and delayed return to growth. Recovery has taken longer than before, not

helped by severe problems in the Eurozone, one of the UK’s largest export markets. The UK labour mar-

ket, however, is performing much better than that in many EU countries, and has been relatively efficient

in keeping people in work. Nonetheless, while the rise in unemployment was smaller than expected, it

was still substantial, and hit hardest upon those at the margins, including those with low skills and young

people.

Unemployment amongst the 16-24 year olds, at almost 22 per cent, is four times that for the rest

of the working age population. There have also been changes in the nature of employment. The UK has

seen a sustained growth in self-employment, accounting for 83% of the net gains in employment since

2007. There has also been an increase in ‘precarious’ forms of employment, including casual, very short-

term arrangements or those with ‘zero hours’ guaranteed. Young people are particularly vulnerable and

susceptible to precarious practices such as those used by employers wanting to exploit their naivety

through low pay and informal working arrangements.

There are now over 30 million people in employment in the UK. Employment in traditional

middle-level jobs (administrative and secretarial) is facing a long-term decline across many industries as

certain functions become automated or off-shored. Where the UK’s competitive position is strong is in the

pharmaceuticals, advanced manufacturing, and digital and creative sectors.

The UK Commission for Employment and Skills indicated the following policy moves were needed to

ensure the UK achieved its economic potential:

Skills need to sit at the heart of economic policy in order to improve productivity and maintain

competiveness. This requires creating and retaining high skill jobs in those areas where the UK’s

competitiveness is strong such as the creative sector.

30


Collective approaches (such as professional standards, employer networks and training levies)

were necessary to help to break through the barriers that prevent employers from pursuing

more ambitious plans for workforce development.

Employer networks at sector or local level should be encouraged to help smaller business

enterprises access the training provision for their workers and the financial support they need for

growth.

Approaches to economic growth were needed to take account of local and sectoral variations in

the economy and labour market, especially where the recession has had a disproportionate

impact on young people and those with low skills, which in turn has tended to reinforce

disadvantagement.

There needs to be greater connectivity between education and work, so that the skills that the

education system provides are the skills that employers need. This requires a better alignment of

the skills system and labour market.

There is a need to increase young people’s exposure to the world of work, through work

experience placements, part-time jobs, and sandwich courses. Individuals will also need to take

more responsibility for investing in and developing their skills.

The UK needs to expand post-secondary education and build vocational pathways that lead all

the way up from school to craft, professional and degree level qualifications, so that employees

can retrain and develop new skills throughout their working lives.

There needs to be adaptability, readiness for change and being prepared to meet future labour

market needs.

Policy makers therefore need to: ensure that public investment supports skills provision that meets

employer needs; encourage employers to take ownership of skills and develop training solutions; support

those with lower-level skills to reskill and take opportunities in a changing labour market; and mitigate

local, regional and demographic disparities in access to jobs and skills. A redesign of the skills system in

this way will rely on much greater employer involvement, which will take time in order to realise full

benefits and achieve financial sustainability. The analysis of labour market issues portrays a UK economy

and labour market that has suffered substantial shocks over the past five years, but has significant

potential to emerge as a strong player in the global economy if it can meet the challenges ahead.

One way the government has responded to these challenges and provided real answers to the

significant social and environmental problems being faced in the UK is through the development of social

31


enterprises. Social enterprises in the UK are defined as businesses that trade for a social and/or

environmental purpose. In this respect, it will have a clear sense of its social mission and how it uses the

profits it generates to further this mission.

There are an estimated 70,000 social enterprises in the UK, generating nearly £25bn and employing

nearly 1m people. This number has grown by over 10% in the past two years. They come in all shapes and

sizes from large national and international businesses to small community-based enterprises. Examples of

social enterprises in the UK include:

The Big Issue (A magazine produced and sold by people who are homeless)

The Eden Project (A major tourist attraction that focuses on environmental issues)

Divine Chocolates (A fair trade chocolate company)

Cafedirect (the UK’s largest fair trade hot drinks company)

Hill Holt Wood (A training company that educates at-risk young people)

The 2015 State of Social Enterprise Report indicated that social enterprises in the UK are thriving and

outperforming mainstream small medium enterprises in turnover, workforce growth, job creation,

innovation and start-up rates. Key statistics to emerge from this report include:

Almost half of UK social enterprises are five years old or less.

Just over half of social enterprises had increased their turnover in 2014, compared with the 40%

of mainstream SMEs

Three-quarters of all social enterprises broke even or made a profit in 2014

Almost all social enterprises used the majority of their profits to pursue their social mission.

Just less than a third of social enterprises operate in the top fifth most disadvantaged

communities in the UK.

Just over a quarter of social enterprises have the public sector as their main source of income.

The number of social enterprises developing new products or services in 2014 has increased to

59% compared to mainstream SMEs which have fallen to 38%.

The number of social enterprises creating jobs in 2014 has increased to 41% compared to

mainstream SMEs which have fallen to 22%.

40% of social enterprises are led by women.

31% of social enterprises have black or minority ethnic (BME) directors.

40% of social enterprises have a director with a disability.

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59% of social enterprises employ at least one person who is disadvantaged in the labour market.

In 16% of these social enterprises, at least half of their workforce are considered disadvantaged.

44% of social enterprises sought funding or financial support in 2014.

39% of social enterprises believe lack of funding or financial support is a major barrier to their

sustainability (compared to just 5% of mainstream SMEs).

Gaining access to capital is a huge issue for social enterprises, particularly when the enterprise is one

based on creative arts. Most investors are risk adverse: Banks are unwilling to take risks on creative entre-

preneurs with weak credit histories. Venture capitalists are not interested in funding community-oriented

arts and craft start-ups that intend to stay small and local. Philanthropists direct their capital to social ser -

vice agencies and other non-profit activities.

When considering the creative industries as an investment opportunity, it’s important therefore to

debunk the myth that there is a pecuniary difference between the business objectives of the CREATIVE

ENTREPRENEUR and the SOCIAL ENTREPRENEUR. Many investors have the view that the creative entre-

preneur is concerned first and foremost with the creation and exploitation of creative and intellectual

capital, whereas the social entrepreneur is more interested in creating an enterprise that is both mission

driven and market focused. As a result of this the creative industries sector suffers from the following:

the misperception of being a risky, transitory sector,

lack of awareness by the financial community and a subsequent reluctance to invest in a sector

that they do not understand or know much about,

lack of clarity on what constitutes the creative industries,

research gaps in how artistic and cultural activities contribute to economic innovation and quality

of life especially its impact in local communities.

In order to address the above, creative enterprises must stay focused on the market in

order to remain financially viable. For the most part, the impact investing community seems primarily

interested in the altruistic form of entrepreneurship that focuses on the benefits that society may reap.

Entrepreneurship in this case becomes a social endeavour when it transforms social capital in a way that

affects society positively. For example, Elvis & Kresse is a social enterprise that makes lifestyle accessories

using industrial waste that is diverted from landfills. The business provides 50 percent of its profits to the

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Fire Fighters Charity. They also employ workers from a local Remploy factory (an organisation that helps

people with disabilities find work).

TURKEY

Turkey has a strategic geographic location and an open, and increasingly liberal, trade and

investment climate. A young and rapidly growing population provides a key ingredient for robust long-

term growth potential. Turkey is still a major convergence play for investors, despite brewing political

risks and a lack of progress in the EU accession process.

Turkey has 77.7 million of population and half of this under the age of 30.7 has a labour force of

over 28.1 million people. Turkey’s young population is an important contributor to labour force growth

and has contributed to Turkey's rank over its competitors. The labour force's dedication to work is shown

via Turkey's high productivity, low absenteeism, and its status as one of the countries with the highest

annual working hour rates. The low labour force participation rate for women and the high youth

unemployment rate are the most serious problems faced by the Turkish labour market.

Turkey's labour market inhibits the business environment due to a general lack of education

among the workforce and low levels of participation in the formal labour market, particularly female

participation. In addition, labour force participation is yet to recover its pre-2008 crisis peak. This means

that Turkey is currently unable to harness its favourable demographic situation by turning its large, young

population into skilled-workers. Consequently, businesses face a heightened need to import foreign

professionals, which increases risks of additional costs and bureaucratic obstacles.

In terms of labour costs, Turkey stands in the middle of the regional pack. Turkey has the

costliest severance packages in Emerging Europe, which means that companies are less able to respond to

market fluctuations by increasing or decreasing the size of their workforce. However, Turkey's minimum

wage workers are the third most productive in the region. This means that, though relatively expensive,

investing in the domestic workforce can offer a healthy return on investment.

Differences in education turn out to be an important source of wage dispersion, especially in the

private sector. Although slow but steady improvements over time are evident, the educational profile in

Turkey at the end of the 20th century was still highly skewed to the right, and the average member of the

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labour force only had about 6 years of education. Nationwide survey data from the late 80s and mid 90s

reveal that the rewards to education increase with additional levels of schooling.

Education in Turkey are mitigated to some extent by the country's regionally competitive tertiary

education system, which comprises five of the top 400 universities worldwide. In addition, Turkey

produces a large number of graduates in technical subjects such as science and engineering. Technical

graduates are highly valued by foreign investors thanks to their applicable knowledge and expertise in

high-tech industries. This reduces overall input costs through further minimizing the need for companies

to import skilled-labour. Turkey’s labour force is characterized by a low level of schooling, despite

improvements in younger cohorts.

According to these circumstances, ISMEK which has various branches for those who want to

become professional, provides more effective ways to Istanbul residents. Additionally, The Retailing

School started in 2015 summer. The main branches are warehouse attendant, real estate consultancy,

meat and meat product salesperson, cashier, salesperson, fruit and vegetable salesperson, mortgage

brokering, store attendant, seafood salesperson, delicatessen salesperson, technology market salesperson

and basic retailing training. When trainees graduate from the Retail School, they can be employed

permanently at contacted companies. By this way, ISMEK aims to increase employment, and provide well-

trained workers to related sectors.

ROMANIA

According to European Commission - Country Report Romania 20163, labour market conditions

have been broadly stable, but the employment rate is still below targets. The Romanian labour market is

faring overall better than in previous years. The unemployment rate remained broadly stable just below

7% and well below the EU average of 9.5%. The employment rate has been on an upward trend over the

last 10 years (67.8 % in the third quarter of 2015), but remains below the EU average and the national

Europe 2020 target (both at 70 %). The labour market was rather resilient during the crisis, as

employment in subsistence agriculture often acted as a buffer in recession periods.

Romania is facing strong outward migration weighs on human capital and adds to the

challenges of an ageing society. In 2013 2.5 million Romanians (about 12.5 % of the population) were

3 European Commission (2016) - Country Report Romania 2016, available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/pdf/csr2016/cr2016_romania_en.pdf

35


estimated to be living abroad. Emigrants are frequently low-skilled and come from rural areas, but also

many high-skilled workers have left the country. This adds to the challenges of a shrinking working-age

population due to an ageing society.

Employment growth is concentrated mainly in high value-added sectors. The highest

employment increases in 2015 were in ICT and professional, scientific and technical activities as well as in

industry and construction. In contrast, agriculture and manufacturing account for 29% and 21% of

employment respectively, and have been shrinking in recent years

Integration of young people in the labour market remains a challenge. In 2015, youth

unemployment decreased to 22%, but remains slightly above the EU average.

The employment potential of the long-term unemployed, older workers, Roma and people

with disabilities is largely untapped. The long-term unemployment rate is 2.8 %, around half of EU

average. Its proportion in unemployment decreased from 45% in 2013 to 41% in 2014. However, only 15%

of those unemployed for one to two years found a job in 2014. The employment rate for older workers

increased gradually between 2011 and 2014. It has returned to its pre-crisis levels at 4% thanks to the

adoption of supporting measures, but remains below the EU average of 52%. The employment rate of

Roma is estimated at 30%. Discrimination, limited job opportunities, low physical accessibility, and fiscal

disincentives affect the employment rate of people with disabilities (38.8% in 2013).

When seeking employment people still face inadequate public services and support, because, as

stated in EC report, the National Employment Agency is lagging behind in offering personalized services

to jobseekers and employers. Only 3.1% of those wanting to work participated in active labour market

programmes in 2013 (most recent available data). The range of active labour market measures is

insufficient to address the specific needs of different groups in the labour market.

In the bellow table we provide the key indicators for Romanian labour market for the period

2003 - 2014:

Table no.1: Key indicators for the Romanian labour market

Indicator 2003 -

2007

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

36


Unemployment rate 7,3 5,6 6,5 7,0 7,2 6,8 7,1 6,8

Long-term unemployment rate (% of

active population)

4,2 2,3 2,1 2,4 2,9 3,0 3,2 2,8

Youth unemployment rate (% of

active population in the same age

group)

19,5 17,6 20,0 22,1 23,9 22,6 23,7 24,0

Activity rate (15 - 64 years old) 63,2 62,9 63,1 64,9 64,1 64,8 64,9 65,7

Persons living in households with

very low work intensity (% of total

population aged below 60)

8,4 8,3 7,7 6,9 6,7 7,4 6,4 6,4

Source: European Commission 2016 winter forecast; ECB (quoted from European Commission (2016) -

Country Report Romania 2016, p.13)

Considering Romanian social enterprises, the most recent statistical data are available in Atlas of Social

Economy 2014 Edition4, periodical publication of the Institute of Social Economy - Civil Society

Development Foundation, which aims to offer a statistical dimension and analyse of the sector of social

economy in Romania and of its main actors. We provide below the key indicators for Romanian social

economy organizations in 2012.

Table no.2: Indicators of social economy organizations in Romania in 2012

2012 Number of

active

organizations

Fixed assets

(thousands

RON)

Revenues

(thousands

RON)

No. of

Employees

Member

(thousands)

Associations and foundations 33,670 7,198,847 7,742,043 76,902 -

Cooperatives, out of which: 2,228 1,122,805 1,764,363 31,428 n.a.

Craft/worker cooperatives 846 599,352 719,036 22,082 n.a.

4 Barna C. (2014), Atlas of Social Economy, Institute of Social Economy - Civil Society Development Foundation

37


Consumer cooperatives 940 265,295 571,711 7,050 n.a.

Credit cooperatives 86 86,371 156,339 2,049 n.a.

Agricultural cooperatives 356 171,787 317,277 247 n.a.

Credit unions, out of which: 2,767 3,624,190 589,143 5,403 3,028

Credit unions of Pensioners 198 768,865 159,879 2,240 1,811*

Credit unions of Employees 2,569 2,855,325 429,264 3,163 1,217**

Commercial companies held by social

economy organizations

682 1,971,666 2,202,562 17,394 -

Total 39,347 13,917,508 12,298,111 131,127 -

Source: Atlas of Social Economy 2014 Edition, FDSC - IES

According to the same source, during the period 2010 - 2012 all main indicators of social

economy organizations registered accelerated growth tendencies: the number of organizations increased

in 2012 by 25.62% compared to 2010, the fixed assets increased by 40.32%, the revenues increased by

59.27%, and the number of employees increased by 30.35%. The social economy sector employed in

2012 1.9% of the total number of employees, going up from 2011 when it was 1.75%, and 2010 (1.7%). Of

course, this is not a high percentage comparing with EU average percentage (6%), but the positive trends

and the role of social economy for the employment of vulnerable groups are very important.

Work integration of the vulnerable persons excluded from the labour market is in present the

most visible component of the social economy in Romania, especially in the form of WISEs - Work

Integration Social Enterprises and Sheltered Workshops (open forms of organizations). Social economy

has a more and more important role in the employment policies which aim work integration of the

persons with severe difficulties or a high risk in accessing a job.

Considering the situation of the labour market described above, we may assume that art and

crafts based enterprise learning, could have a contribution besides other measures and initiatives in

tackling structural imbalances of the labour market, especially in rural areas.

38


SECTION 3: AN EXAMINATION OF THE TEACH PROJECT PARTNERS’ PEDAGOGIES. PROVISION OF STATUTORY AND NON-STATUTORY EDUCATION IN UNITED KINGDOM, TURKEY, ROMANIA AND FRANCE, AND THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE LEARNER

UNITED KINGDOM

The 2013 OECD Survey of Adult Skills shows that England and Northern Ireland rank 13th on

literacy and 16th on numeracy out of 22 developed OECD countries. Young people aged 16- 24 rank 21st

out of 23 developed OECD countries for literacy and 20th out of 23 countries for numeracy. Literacy and

numeracy capability is usually lower for older age groups (who on average left formal education at an

earlier age), but in the UK young people aged 16-24 have literacy scores which are no better than those

aged 55-64. The likely consequence is that literacy, numeracy and problem-solving proficiency will not

grow as fast in the UK as in other countries, unless steps are taken to reinforce these skills in adulthood.

This evidence implies that the talent pipeline entering the labour market in many competitor

countries is better equipped in functional skills such as literacy and numeracy. In addition, people’s skills

decline if they are not used. This suggests that the current cohort of young people will need to have

opportunities to use their skills at work if they are to retain the skills that they have, as well as if they are

to progress in their careers. Effective skills use at work will also contribute to firm-level productivity.

In recent years, education curricula in the UK have shifted heavily towards the common core

subjects of literacy, numeracy and IT. This has been at the cost of learning in the creative arts and crafts.

Although some may regard art education as a luxury, simple creative activities are some of the building

blocks of child development. Learning to create and appreciate visual aesthetics may be more important

than ever to the development of the next generation of children as they grow up. Some of the

development benefits of learning creative arts and crafts include:

• Motor skills: Many of the motions involved in making art, such as holding a paintbrush or

scribbling with a crayon, are essential to the growth of fine motor skills in young learners.

• Language development: For very young learners, making art, or just talking about it, provides

opportunities to learn words for colours, shapes and actions.

• Decision-making: The experience of making decisions and choices in the course of creating art

carries over into other parts of life.

39


• Visual learning: Drawing, sculpting with clay and threading beads on a string all develop visual-

spatial skills, which are more important than ever.

• Inventiveness: When young learners are encouraged to express themselves and take risks in

creating art, they develop a sense of innovation that will be important in adulthood.

• Cultural awareness: As we live in an increasingly diverse society, the images of different groups in

the media may be used to promote positive messages of different cultures.

• Self-regulation: Crafts are a great way to promote flexibility of thought. There is no right or

wrong way in exploring one’s own creativity.

• Self-esteem booster: Completing the crafts successfully will give the learner a great sense of

accomplishment and pride.

• Teamwork: Learners will love spending time with their peers and creating something together.

The Praxis Europe Creative Minds (PECM) project provides disadvantaged inner city young people

with the opportunity to learn from, and share their learning of creative and performing arts with, other

countries. Teaching is very much informal (with a heavy emphasis on mentoring), although it does provide

a springboard for learners to progress to more formal qualifications through the project’s close links with

local colleges.

The project works with around eighty 16-21 disadvantaged young people each year on

programmes such as photography, dance and music. Beneficiaries are mostly those not engaged in

employment, education or training (NEET). They rely heavily on word-of-mouth recruitment and social

media, such as facebook, to attract young people on to their programmes but have been experiencing

problems meeting recruitment targets over the past year. Retention levels however, at around 80%, are

reasonable given the background of the beneficiaries.

The project offers careers advice to beneficiaries and there is an emphasis in the project on

encouraging young people to be independent and to look for employment opportunities, including self-

employment. There are no formal procedures for embedding enterprise-based training in the project’s

programmes but advice and support from self-employed people who act as enterprise mentors is

available. Two of the project beneficiaries have recently set up part-time enterprises, working as

photographers and dance performers, using skills acquired on the project.

40


TURKEY

ISMEK carries on its trainings pursuant to above 7/v section titled the duties and responsibilities of

metropolitan, district and first degree municipalities of Metropolitan Municipality Law numbered 5216;

“To execute all types of social and cultural services to adults, old and disabled people, women, young people and children with health centres, hospitals, mobile health units; and with this purpose establish social facilities, provide occupational and skill training courses, exploit these or get them exploited; during the execution of these services make cooperation with the universities, faculties, occupational high schools, public foundations and civil public organizations.”

ISMEK provides its trainings in compliance with the provisions of Ministry of National Education,

Common Public Education General Directorate Regulations, Municipalities Law numbered 5393, Provincial

Directorate of Education Regulations and the Protocol that Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and

Istanbul Governorate (City Public Education Directorate) have jointly agreed upon.

ISMEK provides various training services for the disabled citizens of society to be self-sufficient,

enhance personal self-confidence, adapt to the social life more easily, to have social contacts and to

acquire a profession. Three course centres only serve the disabled people right now. These training

programs include specific programs such as sign language for sight-disabled - independent move, hearing

disabled people – literacy apart from general artistic and vocational branches.

All the Residents in Istanbul on condition that they complete obligatory primary school, can be an

ISMEK trainee. The minimum age limit so as to be able to attend ISMEK courses is sixteen. There is no

upper age limit. The course graduation certificates approved by Ministry of National Education are valid in

every part of Turkey. Moreover, for some branches ISMEK starts to issue certificates that are valid

overseas in collaboration with the foreign institutions having international accreditation.

ISMEK started its activities as a social structuring project in 1996. The educational activities which

began with 141 trainees on 3 branches in 3 teaching centres in the first year, reached 2.000.000 trainees

on 412 branches in 235 teaching centres. Today, ISMEK has become a model organization both

nationwide, and worldwide.

Production and Sale shops are one of the most important projects recently being conducted at

ISMEK. It has been planned to make contribution to the sales of the productions with these shops.

Moreover; the samples of the arts manufactured by the trainees are exhibited for the visitors in these

shops. In the shops within the body of ISMEK, our experienced trainees make production under the

supervision of the qualified instructors. The prestigious productions manufactured in our shops are met

41


with great favour. Another project being successfully implemented by ISMEK is Speciality Centres. The

selected trainees by exams that undergo an advanced level of training for a year find the opportunity to

participate in the business life by improving their knowledge, ability and visions according to the

expectations of real economy. The trainees at the Speciality Centres prepare the orders received from

various individual clients, corporations and institutions and convert their efforts into money thereby.

ISMEK has been taken as a model by a lot of domestic and foreign institutions because of the

number of course-takers, branch diversity and activity range have reached to every neighbourhood of

Istanbul. Many local administrations have opened similar artistic and vocational training programs by

adopting ISMEK’s operating system and activities as the basis. Moreover; a lot of committees from

Germany, Holland, Sweden, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Bosnia Herzegovina, Syria, Morocco, Ethiopia, Dagestan

and Kazakhstan have visited ISMEK and gathered information so far. They declared that they would like to

constitute similar structures and collaborate within joint projects.

The basic structure of the National Education system is outlined by the Basic Law. The

educational system is divided into two main sections as Formal Education and Non-Formal Education.

Non-formal education is organized educational activity outside formal systems. Informal education is the

life-long process in which people learn from everyday experience, informal education covers interactions

with friends, family, work colleagues, etc. Formal education is linked with schools and training institutions.

ROMANIA

FRANCE

THE ROLE OF CAD

The Decision Making Help Centre (CAD) is a point of reception, information, guidance and

recruitment assistance for young people. This service is also open to adults and businessmen. Within the

chambers of trade and crafts, this service helps young people find their way, informs them on contracts,

trades and diplomas. It works in partnership with professional organisations and local stakeholders in

guidance and vocational training, professional and social integration. The Chamber of Trade and Crafts

also has, in its decision making aid centres, a specific method to support a young person in their career

42


choices: the Crafts Orientation method. This method is unique and created by the chambers of trades for

young people deciding on their career path, is a tool that is available at the CAD of the chamber of trades

and crafts.

FOCUS ON 3 CATEGORIES OF PUBLIC

Beyond the vulnerable groups mentioned in themes 1 and 2, three types of apprentice are targeted by

CAD:

The ‘no school’ public, having difficulty succeeding in traditional and theoretical schooling.

Young people with disabilities (including mental or emotional) that may be affected by a

recognised disability. These people can benefit from personalised support. The disability can be

subject to a diagnostic assessment for the insertion of a disabled person into a normal working

environment.

Young people, both with major learning difficulties and who, at the same time, are severely

lacking in life skills. These shortcomings are a real obstacle to socialisation at school and in a

professional environment. Not being recognised as disabled, they do not receive special

monitoring.

FOCUS ON THE ROLE AND ACTION OF 'MAISONS FAMILIALES RURALES' OF THE RHONE

11 MFR in the Rhône welcome 2,000 young people into Sandwich courses in many professional

fields, from 2nd year to BTS, with school student status, by apprenticeship with a professionalization

contract or continuous training. Since their inception, the Maisons Familiales Rurales (Rural Family

Homes) have devised a training and education programme that relies both on the synergy of school,

family, professional and cultural spaces and on the group dynamic. This special sandwich course system

allows each young person to achieve their project with the support of those surrounding them. Shared

responsibility, the relationship of proximity and trust, the ties between the different actors of training and

education are guarantors of the effectiveness of the approach of the MFR that, beyond the necessary

acquisition of knowledge, encourages the spirit of initiative and commitment to serving the public

interest.

An association of families

Each Maison Familiale Rurale is a 1901 law association that brings together families and professionals. Its

main objectives are to contribute to education, and Sandwich courses for adolescents and adults, to

43

http://www.mfr69.asso.fr/

http://www.rhonealpes-orientation.org/aio/public/repertoire/prestation_detail.php?id=41




render them employable and at the same time promote sustainable development of their territory. The

MFR have a specific project that gives them a framework of actions.

A specific alternating pedagogy in order to succeed otherwise

Sandwich courses are a way of learning what is not taught, developing skills, gaining knowledge and

know-how, integrating into society and the working world. By offering sandwich courses, the MFR open

new prospects to young people. The school/work rhythm motivates them to continue learning, to get a

qualification, to enter working life and achieve their life plan. In a difficult economic context in which the

issue of employment is a major concern, the network of MFR offers training to meet the demand of

territories and professionals.

By favouring human scale classes, the MFR have opted for individualised monitoring of each student to:

Support and listen to them

Given them back confidence in themselves and taste for learning

Take pride in their work

Help them build their life project.

An educational project

The educational project is built around three pillars:

Promoting education that places priority on human values and solidarity,

Developing a sense of responsibility and parental

involvement in the education of their children,

Allowing each young person to build a

personality and acquire recognised skills, a job, a place in

society.

With a pleasant and safe atmosphere, residential life

promotes socialisation and the development of

autonomy and responsibility. The individual support of

each young person, with listening and discussion time,

strengthens ties and mutual trust.

44


SECTION 4: SOCIETAL PRESSURES (ECONOMIC, HEALTH, WELFARE)

UNITED KINGDOM

Societal pressure is the force that those considered to be “the norm” in society exerts on those

considered to be disadvantaged to conform to certain expectations. Although it has wider implications,

this section of the report focuses on the social pressures exerted through poverty, disability and welfare

systems.

1. Poverty

Poverty is defined by the UK government as when someone lives in a household in which the weekly

income is at least 60% of the median equivalised (taking into account the number and ages of people in

the household) household income (approximately £453 p.w. in 2015). Currently there is one in four

children in the UK who, on the basis of this definition, are growing up in poverty.

According to the England and Wales Child Poverty Act (2010) there are four measures of poverty:

Relative poverty: Where the net income of the family is below 60% of the UK median.

Absolute poverty: Where the net income of the family is below 60% of the median rate for

2010/11.

Persistent poverty: Where they live in poverty for a period of three years or more.

Material deprivation: Where the net income of the family is below 70% of the UK median.

There are many factors that may affect someone from a low-income family from achieving academically:

Lack of exposure to reading material.

Lack of stability in the household.

Malnutrition due to lack of food or unhealthy diets.

Poor health care.

Lack of suitable role models in the households.

Being teased or bullied because they don’t have the latest fashion accessories.

The impact of poverty on someone’s chances of success in education is significant. There are large

differences in educational achievement according to socio-economic standing, with children as young as

three years old from poor families displaying cognitive ability well below that of children from better-off

families.

45


Children and young people experience the consequences of poverty and inequality differently from

adults. While poverty may be a temporary experience for an adult, experiencing poverty as a child or

young person will have a significant effect on their health and education. It’s not the purpose of the

education system to alleviate poverty in a household but they can make the child or young person’s

experiences of school as free from the stigma of poverty as possible.

2. Disability

In order to be classified as a disabled person under the 2010 Equality Act, an individual has to

demonstrate that they have a physical or mental impairment and that the impairment has a substantial

and long-term effect on their ability to carry out normal day-to-day activities. The focus of the statute is

therefore on the individual and not on the disability. Within the Act there is not a list of disabilities that

are categorised as automatically enabling a person with that disability to be classified as a disabled

person.

According to UK disability statistics published in 2014 by The Family Resources Survey there are just

over 12 million people with disabilities in the UK. This represents nearly one-fifth of the total population in

the UK. Approximately 80% of people with disabilities acquire their disability after birth and many have to

make serious adjustments to their lives as a result of this.

Government figures (GOV.UK) indicate that there is currently nearly seven million people with

disabilities who are of working age, of which 44% are economically active. This compares to almost a

quarter of that figure for people without disabilities (Papworth Trust; 2013, Rowntree Foundation; 2014).

In terms of learning, adults with disabilities are 33% more likely to experience barriers to educational

opportunities and 16% more likely to experience barriers to training opportunities (Office for National

Statistics). As a consequence of this, adults with disabilities are between two and three times more likely

to have to have no formal qualifications than adults with no disabilities (Papworth Trust; 2013 and The

Office for Disability Issues; 2012) with 14.9% of working age people with disabilities having degree-level

qualifications, compared with the national average of 28.1% (GOV.UK).

People with disabilities in work are more likely to be in low status, unskilled employment with only

12% in professional or managerial positions compared to 21% of able-bodied workers. They are estimated

to be paid about 10% less than non-disabled people (Scope 2014) and one in six of people with disabilities

who become disabled while in work lose their employment within the first year of acquiring the disability

(Papworth Trust; 2013).

46


3. Welfare Systems

The Welfare Reform Act 2012 gained Royal Assent on 8 th March 2012. The Act facilitates the greatest

shake-up of the benefits system in the UK for over 60 years. It introduces changes to virtually every form

of benefit including the way benefits are paid. The scope of the Act changes the design of the UK benefit

system with the aims of achieving simplification and transparency, incentivising (and smoothing)

progression into work and contributing to, along with the work programme, an initial £18bn in savings

from welfare.

In introducing the Act, the government set its store on streamlining the unemployment benefits

system and to make it more readily understandable. It considered the complexity of the system as a

barrier to work, and claimed that benefit claimants are reluctant to work additional hours because they

cannot be certain about the effect of any change on their benefit award, due to the number of different

benefits and administration bodies involved. The government believed that the previous system trapped

people on benefits. The Act and its implementation has elicited considerable concerns, condemnation and

anxiety across the welfare and disability rights sector as the impact on disadvantaged people has been

significant.

TURKEY

Turkish welfare level is mixed, starting with the analysis of the social protection system, when it

is said societal protection system, in Turkey it is understand as the formal institutions established by the

state in order to protect individuals against risks related to sickness, invalidity, old age, unemployment,

etc.

In this regime, employment status is the main mechanism of insurance but it is highly

fragmented as different degrees of protection coexist: The generous protection given to core workers

contrasts with the low benefits received by the rest. As a consequence, family is central as a welfare

producing unit for the protection of household members. Despite the degree of fragmentation, the health

system is supposed to be universal, based on citizen’s rights. The state is permeated by particular

interests and patronage, but public intervention in the realm of social assistance remains low.

The family and the market are the main pillars of welfare policies that have different

configurations from one country to another. In Turkey, the state and its formal institutions of social

security are as important as informal mechanisms deployed by family relationships and political patronage

47


in the production of welfare. The family seems unable to extend protection beyond the nuclear

household. In addition to that, support to rural employment and urban housing, deployed through

clientele networks, decline.

The Turkish welfare regime is characterized by the role of employment as a central determinant

of welfare provision. Besides, while some individuals receive large levels of protection other receive little

insurance or assistance. However, in the case of health a few steps have been given to provide some

minimum level of security. Finally, family and others informal arrangements also intervene as welfare

production mechanisms. For the purpose of this paper we will like to emphasis the fact that employment

insurance is at the basis of the welfare regime. In practice, this mechanism fails due to insufficient

employment creation and a large informal sector. There is an incompatibility of employment forms and

the organization of social protection, compelling individuals to look for alternative means of welfare

provision. Employment is the main determinant for accessing the social protection system. If we consider

the number of regimes before the 2006 reform, we can say that Turkey has a “middle level” of

fragmentation, with separate funds for private and public employees and for other categories.

The “Health Transformation Program” (HTP), proposed by the AK Parti (the political party

currently running Turkish Government) in 2003, finally paved the way for current changes. The major

transformations that aimed at guaranteeing universal access include the separation of regulation,

provision and insurance functions. The Ministry of Health should be in charge of management, planning,

control and surveillance and abandon its role of provider. The Social Security Institution is in charge of

insurance and should affiliate all citizens, even those without contribution capacity through a non-

contributive system. Provision is in the hand of hospitals and medical facilities that should gain financial

autonomy and offer quality services. Other measures aimed at rationalizing the use of care services are

being implemented like family medicine or human resources training programs.

Welfare regimes are essentially political constructions and the country’s socio-economic forces

will draw up the path to follow. Labour market flexibility will probably continue, availability of private

insurance mechanisms might increase and the public sector might diminish its intervention in social

assistance. In any case, it is sure that current pressures favour an adjustment of the current regime that

we qualified as conservative-informal. The three possible evolutions and consequences do not exclude

one another. Market instruments could become pervasive, flexible employment prevail and social

assistance become marginal. This will shape a residual welfare state.

48


ROMANIA

In base of European Commission - Country Report Romania 20165, we summarize bellow key

issues regarding general situation in Romania and the biggest societal pressures:

ECONOMIC

Economic growth has been strong over the last three years, gradually broadening its base. The

main challenge will be to ensure balanced and durable growth in the future.

The effectiveness and efficiency of the public administration are limited and the business

environment has hardly improved. Inconsistent human and financial resources management weakens

the capacity of the public administration to develop and implement policies in a strategic and coordinated

manner. Despite important steps to tackle corruption, this persists as a systemic problem.

Rural areas face particular challenges such as severe under-utilization of human capital and

deeply embedded pockets of poverty and social exclusion. Agriculture, the typical occupation in rural

areas, accounts for 29% of total employment in Romania, but only 5 % of GDP. A high proportion of the

rural labour force works in subsistence or semi-subsistence agriculture, associated with informal work or

non-remunerated family work, low productivity and poverty. Rural areas face a multitude of challenges

related to education, health, social inclusion, basic infrastructure, diversification of employment,

outwards migration, and population ageing.

Inflation has been falling in recent years, plunging to historical lows in 2015. Annual average

inflation has been on a downward trend since 2013 as a consequence of abundant harvests (in 2013 and

2014), falling global oil prices and consecutive reductions in VAT rates for different categories of products

and services. In 2015, inflation turned negative after the cut of the VAT rate for all food items and non-

alcoholic beverages from 24 % to 9% from 1 June. In August 2015 inflation recorded a historical low of -

1.7 % (year-on-year), ending 2015 at an annual average of -0.4 %.

A credit boom supported unsustainably high GDP growth rates in Romania during 2001-2008.

Annual real GDP growth averaged 6.5 % in this period. Such growth rates, supported by higher levels of

5 European Commission (2016) - Country Report Romania 2016, available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/pdf/csr2016/cr2016_romania_en.pdf

49


debt, proved unsustainable as the increasing levels of imports brought about substantial external

imbalances, which were financed by volatile capital inflows. After several years of decline, credit to

households returned to positive growth rates in 2015.

Insufficient or low-quality infrastructure reduces accessibility and may limit investment. The

inadequate supply of infrastructure is among the most problematic factors for doing business in Romania.

Despite various efforts, Romania's capacity to absorb EU structural funds remains constrained.

Romania has absorbed less than two-thirds of the total funds (SCF and EAFRD) allocated under the 2007-

2013 programming period (69% in December 2015).

R&D and innovation expenditure is low and inefficient. R&D intensity has been continuously

falling since 2011, reaching 0.38 % of GDP in 2014. This is the lowest level in the EU and far away from the

Europe2020 target of 2 %.

Access to credit for SMEs is difficult and support for knowledge-based start-ups and product

development is still at an early stage. A Business Angels Law was adopted in 2015 and support for other

new forms of financing is being exploited. The creation of two investment funds is envisaged — one with

opening and seed capital for entrepreneurs with innovative ideas and one with venture and growth

capital for innovative start-ups.

Corruption persists at all levels of public administration. Corruption is present in many

economic sectors and involves appointed and elected officials at all levels of government as well as civil

servants and employees of public institutions. This is borne out by the record of criminal investigations

and convictions for corruption.

The tax system is relatively favourable to business and growth, but some risks of aggressive tax

planning exist. The standard corporate income tax rate of 16 % is among the lowest in EU and second

lowest in the region.

Frequent changes to tax legislation are a source of concern and uncertainty for businesses. In

2015, Romania's key piece of tax policy legislation, the Fiscal Code, was substantially amended and

adopted.

HEALTH AND LONG-TERM CARE

50


Health outcomes in Romania are poor. Life expectancy at birth is well below the EU average

both for men (71.6 years compared with 77.8) and women (78.7 years compared with 83.3). The mortality

rates linked to the circulatory system and infant mortality (74) are particularly high. There is a high gap

between healthy life years at birth and life expectancy, showing that people spend a substantial period of

life in morbidity and disability (13.0 years for men and 20.8 years for women). Only 55% of the

populations have access to water supply and its quality is sub-standard. In addition, Romania has one of

the highest rates of potentially amenable and potentially preventable deaths, which should not occur with

timely and effective health care.

Access to healthcare remains a major concern. Despite a mandatory health insurance system,

only 86% of the population was insured in 2014. Romanians are among the Europeans with the worst

perception of their health status. Compared with an EU average of 3.7 %, 10.4% of the Romanians report

having had an unmet healthcare needs due to cost, distance or waiting times. Widespread informal

payments add to the costs and are among the main reasons for limited access to healthcare, especially for

patients with low income.

The number of physicians and nurses per inhabitant is very low compared with the EU average,

mainly due to the emigration of qualified physicians to other EU countries, poor working conditions and

low salaries. Despite this situation, there is no formal strategy on healthcare human resources in place.

Low funding and inefficient use of public resources continue to affect the healthcare system.

The reforms implemented through the balance-of-payments programmes have secured the short-term

viability of the system, but key measures remain unfinished. Corruption remains a challenge in the health

sector, despite some recent action to combat the problem.

Romania still lacks an integrated system of long-term care. There is no clear governance of long-

term care services (residential and home care), with different components dealt with by different

authorities. Integration is made difficult by fragmented sources of funding for different components of the

service. Funding is also low. Public expenditure on long-term care was 0.7 % of GDP in 2014.

WELFARE

Although declining, in 2014 the rate of people at risk of poverty or social exclusion in Romania

(40 %) was the highest in the EU. Despite the declining trend, more people are facing monetary poverty

against the background of increasing inequalities and a limited impact of social transfers on reducing

51


poverty. Severe material deprivation continues to be a challenge: 26% of the population (three times the

EU average) and 31% of people with disabilities cannot afford items considered to be desirable or

necessary to lead an adequate life. In 2014, almost a third (32%) of Romanian children were living in

severe material deprivation and one in two children was at risk of poverty or social exclusion. In-work

poverty remains the highest in the EU.

The capacity of the social protection system to reduce poverty is limited. Social assistance is

mostly limited to cash benefits, while the provision of services is insufficient. To deliver services, local

authorities are required to establish a public social assistance service at community level.

The lack of a coherent mechanism to adjust social transfers to the economic context diminishes

their impact on reducing poverty and the overall adequacy of income support schemes. Spending on

social protection as a percentage of GDP and the effectiveness of social transfers are among the lowest in

the EU.

The low coverage of means-tested benefits is expected to improve with the introduction of the

minimum social inclusion income. The law on the minimum social inclusion income is expected to be

adopted in the first half of 2016. It will streamline the existing social benefit system and make it more

targeted to those in need. Its provisions, however, are expected to take effect only from 2017.

At present, the activation of people on social benefits is low. Although beneficiaries of the

guaranteed minimum income are required to register with the National Employment Agency, they are not

offered tailor-made activation measures. Job-search requirements are not adequately checked and

enforced. About 80 % of beneficiaries are in rural areas, where employment opportunities outside

(semi-)subsistence agriculture are rather limited.

Institutionalized children and people with disabilities are at higher risk of poverty. In June 2015

there were approx. 58 000 children in the child protection system, of which one third in residential

institutions. Poverty is the main cause of separation from parents. Prevention remains a key challenge

considering that approximately 5 000 children enter the system every year. There are plans to revise the

quality standards for childcare services and to simplify and speed up national adoption procedures.

Authorities are developing a deinstitutionalization plan to run from 2016 to 2020.

The situation of Roma is especially problematic. Roma have a much higher risk of poverty,

considerably worse educational attainment, much lower employment rates and low participation in early

52


education and care. All these factors act as an obstacle to increasing Roma participation on the labour

market and make it difficult to break the cycle of poverty and exclusion

FRANCE

To assess the health of a country, analyses are often based on indices, results and purely economic

criteria. Since 2001, Globeco has provided an index of human happiness (IBM) in an attempt to measure

the happiness of a country. The goal is far from simple and can never be 100% representative. However,

this index is based on many indicators from sources such as Coface, the World Bank, UNDP and many

others that help provide concrete evidence on the economic and social health of a country. Note that the

work done by Globeco is regularly taken up by the OECD. The World Happiness Index is constructed from

40 statistical data items grouped into four chapters:

Peace and Security;

Freedom, democracy and rights of man;

Quality of life;

Intelligence, communication and culture.

These statistics have higher or lower coefficients which are more or less aggregated in order to be able to

classify the countries studied.

PEACE AND SECURITY

On this chapter, some indicators do not refer directly to our subject. Many issues are evoked relating to

war and the military. In addition, certain items such as the Corruption Perceptions Index enable

assessment of the state of mind of a society.

Peace (Sources: 2014, ‘The Economist’ and ISPRI)

The ranking by The Economist since 2007, taken over by the SIPRI Yearbook, considers 22 significant

elements of the more or less pacific situation in each country. It includes for example the study of political

stability, respect for human rights, terrorism, violent demonstrations, the number of prisoners, etc.

Violent deaths (Source: 2012 WHO)

53

http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/violence/violence_facts/fr/

https://www.sipri.org/yearbook

https://www.sipri.org/yearbook

http://www.globeco.fr/


Violent deaths, according to the WHO, are all unnatural deaths, caused by injuries. These include road

accidents, victims of natural disasters, armed conflicts, etc. It is therefore a very important criterion for

judging the greater or lesser security of the inhabitants of any country.

Corruption (Source: 2014 Transparency International)

There is no measure in itself of corruption because it is, for obvious reasons, difficult to measure. That is

why Transparency International uses an index measuring the level of corruption perceived by citizens. The

greater the perception of corruption the more the feeling of injustice will be consequent.

Economic and financial security (Source: 2014 COFACE)

For this criterion, Globeco resume the COFACE ‘Country Rating Score’ and the ‘Business Environment

Rating’. This is defined as country risk. It assesses recurring economic elements including the investment

security perspective. COFACE mainly studies: political and institutional fragility, the vulnerability of the

economy, the risk of foreign currency liquidity crisis, external debt, the financial vulnerability of the State,

the fragility of the banking sector, the behaviour patterns of corporate payment.

All elements placed end to end to give a true representation of the security and the economic health of a

country over the long term.

Homicides (Sources: 2012 & 2013 UN)

The number of homicides is a particularly important criterion for the safety of the inhabitants of any

country. The figures, relating mostly to 2012 and 2013, come from the United Nations Office for the fight

against narcotics and crime.

How does France rate among the 60 countries surveyed?

Peace Violent deaths Corruption

Economic and

financial securityHomicides

France 26th 40th 17th 1st (ex aequo) 2nd

TOP 5

Denmark

Austria

Switzerland

Denmark

Ireland

Israel

Denmark

Finland

Sweden

Sweden

Canada

Norway

Japan

Algeria

Germany

54

https://www.unodc.org/gsh/

http://www.coface.fr/

http://www.transparency.org/research/cpi/overview


Finland

Canada

Norway

Switzerland

Norway

Switzerland

Switzerland

Japan

Australia

Austria

FLOP 5

Columbia

Nigeria Russia

Pakistan

DR Congo

United States

Russia

Nigeria

China

India

Bangladesh

DR Congo

Burma

Venezuela

Uzbekistan

Bangladesh

Uzbekistan Burma

Venezuela

Cuba

Mexico

Brazil

South Africa

Columbia

Venezuela

FREEDOM, DEMOCRACY AND THE RIGHTS OF MAN

The themes here linger more on respect for the rights of man within a country. The five criteria used in

this area are as follows.

Democracy (Source: 2014 Freedom House)

Freedom House statistics classify countries according to their respect for democracy.

Press Freedom (Source: 2013 Freedom House)

Freedom House measures the level of press freedom in a country.

Women's Rights (Source: 2014 UNDP)

Inequality between men and women is measured with an index developed by UNDP, namely ‘Gender

Inequality Index‘.

Children's Rights (Source: 2013 World Bank)

The study considers that the first right of children is to live and thus retains child mortality under 5 years

old as a basic indicator, made available by the World Bank.

Capital punishment (Source: 2014 Amnesty International)

Fairly binary ranking between countries that have abolished the death penalty and the others.


Democracy Freedom of the Women’s rights Children’s rights Capital

55

https://www.amnesty.org/fr/what-we-do/death-penalty/

http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators

http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/gender-inequality-index-gii

http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/gender-inequality-index-gii

https://www.google.fr/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjH2Yepy73NAhWF2RoKHXypDz4QFgghMAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.undp.org%2Fcontent%2Fundp%2Ffr%2Fhome%2Fsdgoverview%2Fpost-2015-development-agenda%2Fgoal-5.html&usg=AFQjCNHXTflFdk-e7Yo9M_GRo_dC1pP2bg&sig2=NC7WEXjGUIJq5z74yTzArg&bvm=bv.125221236,d.d2s

https://freedomhouse.org/


press punishment

France

1st (ex aequo) 15th 16th 5th 1st (ex aequo)

TOP 5

Norway

Australia

Ireland

Sweden

Canada

Sweden

Norway

Netherlands

Finland

Belgium

Norway

Australia

Switzerland

Denmark

Netherlands

Sweden

Finland

Norway

Japan

Netherlands

Japan

Algeria

Germany

Australia

Austria

FLOP 5

DR Congo

China

Cuba

Saudi Arabia

Uzbekistan

Viet Nam

China

Iran

Cuba

Uzbekistan

Burma

Nigeria

Senegal

Ethiopia

DR Congo

Senegal

Ethiopia

Pakistan

Nigeria

DR Congo

Egypt

United States

Saudi Arabia

Iran

China

QUALITY OF LIFE

This chapter studies classical wealth indicators such as gross income per capita. In addition, Globeco

attempts to measure inequality levels and the distribution of wealth in a society at the same time.

Health levels (both physical and mental) are also addressed via the calculation of life expectancy and the

number of suicides. The five criteria used in this area are as follows.

Gross income per capita (Source: 2013 World Bank)

In contrast to the overall GDP level, gross income per capita is used to compare countries, especially when

it is calculated by parity of purchasing power. While the growth rate expresses a trend rather than a level

of development at the moment.

GINI coefficient (Source: 2013 - mondiales.com statistics)

The GINI coefficient, published by ‘Statistiques-mondiales.com’ classifies countries according to the

inequality in internal income. A relevant way to measure the distribution of wealth, even indirectly, is the

feeling of social justice in a society.

56

http://www.statistiques-mondiales.com/gini.htm

http://donnees.banquemondiale.org/indicateur/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD


Life expectancy (Source: 2013 UNDP)

This criterion speaks for itself. However, let us remember that this is an average.

Suicides (Source: 2012 WHO)

Mental disorders (depression, personality disorders, alcohol dependence and schizophrenia, for example),

certain physical diseases such as neurological disorders, cancer and HIV infection are risk factors for

suicide. Monitoring the evolution of the suicide rate is also a way of monitoring the mental state of a

society.

Clean air (Source: 2010 The little green data book)

Measure the purity of the air in the cities of over one hundred thousand inhabitants, is both a measure of

the quality of life and also the level of risk to which the population is exposed. An estimated 48,000

deaths are caused by fine particles.


GDP / capita in PPP

dollars

GINI Life expectancy Suicides Air purity

France 15th 20th 3rd 50th 24th

TOP 5

Norway

Switzerland

United States

Saudi Arabia

Netherlands

Czech Rep.

Japan

Ukraine

Norway

Denmark

Japan

Switzerland

Italy

Spain

Israel

Saudi Arabia

Tunisia

Senegal

Greece

Ireland

Norway

Argentina

Finland

Brazil

Columbia

FLOP 5

Pakistan

Bangladesh

Senegal

Ethiopia

DR Congo

Chile

Brazil

Columbia

China

South Africa

Senegal

Ethiopia

DR Congo

South Africa

Nigeria

Japan

Russia

United States

China

India

Pakistan

S. Korea

Senegal

Saudi Arabia

China

57

http://data.worldbank.org/products/data-books/little-data-book/little-green-data-book

http://www.who.int/topics/suicide/fr/

http://hdr.undp.org/fr/content/indice-de-d%C3%A9veloppement-humain-idh


INTELLIGENCE, COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE.

Research and development (Source: 2005 - 2014 World Bank)

The World Bank, in its WDI, gives the yearly percentage of funding for research and development in

relation to the GDP of each country. The long-term vision of this criterion highlights the innovation and

evolution of a country.

Training (Sources: 2013 UNESCO and UNDP)

Using the Human Development Index (HDI), the UNDP in particular publishes the figures concerning the

average duration of schooling by country. This indicator is backed up by UNESCO data on the rate of

access to higher education.

Internet users (2013, ITU)

The International Union of Telecommunications publishes statistics concerning Internet access and use.

Remember that the Internet is now considered a fundamental right and a human right in itself according

to the UN. It also helps to gauge the level of information of a society.


R&D Education Internet

France 13th 27th 14th

TOP 5 Israel

S. Korea

Japan

Finland

Sweden

United States

Australia

Denmark

S. Korea

Norway

Norway

Sweden

Denmark

Netherlands

Finland

58

https://www.google.fr/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwip1t7d2b3NAhXGOBoKHYPoDccQFggcMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fhdr.undp.org%2Ffr%2Fcontent%2Findice-de-d%25C3%25A9veloppement-humain-idh&usg=AFQjCNEmTfnS9sF_eLE1rXrUctdsCAfAQg&sig2=nTewS6TDaYA2q0tyGd36HQ&bvm=bv.125221236,d.d2s

http://www.uis.unesco.org/education/pages/tertiary-education.aspx

http://donnees.banquemondiale.org/indicateur/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS


FLOP 5 Philippines

DR Congo

Indonesia

Algeria

Saudi Arabia

DR Congo

Pakistan

Burma

Senegal

Ethiopia

Pakistan

Bangladesh

DR Congo

Ethiopia

Burma

WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM ALL THIS DATA?

Obviously some issues concern us more than others, such as the relatively high level of

perception of corruption. Same for the right of women, where France is still far from the lead. Often

considered the country of freedom of expression, France is also far from the leading group concerning

freedom of the press.

On relative criteria and indicators, as defined by Globeco, concerning quality of life, some of

them raise troubling questions. This is particularly true of the GINI coefficient, measuring internal

inequalities of income, which ranks France only 20th place in this ranking. In addition, on the duration of

schooling and the rate of access to higher education, France is ranked 27th between Venezuela and Cuba.

Finally, a society often prone to depression, France is ranked 50 th concerning suicide. France has

one of the best life expectancy rates in the European Union, but it is in the high average for suicide

mortality.

After aggregation of the various results, France is still in 15th place overall. Widely outrun by the countries

of northern Europe and particularly Scandinavia.

59


Parallel index of human happiness, Globeco developed the ‘French BNB.’ Namely the Gross

National Happiness. This is for the moment specific to France. Although this study covers a large majority

of the points seen before, some different indicators are also exposed. The rate of participation in elections

averages slightly over 60% across all elections.

It includes an update on the wage difference between full-time men and women and its evolution.

The percentages of median wages of full-time women compared with men (source: 2011 INSEE):

In 2000: 81.6%

In 2011: 84.12%

The poverty rate is highlighted (Source: 2011 INSEE):

This is calculated by INSEE according to the method of 60% of median income:

In 2000: 16.6%

60

http://www.insee.fr/fr/methodes/default.asp?page=definitions/taux-pauvrete.htm

http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATTEF04154


In 2011: 14.3%

SOCIAL ASSISTANCE

Not always 1st ranking in the index of human happiness, France remains the champion of social

aid. Welfarein France brings together all the services and benefits for individuals and families living in

poverty or at risk. One of the main bodies distributing aid is the Family Allowance Fund (CAF). According

to OECD, France dedicated approximately 32% of GDP (gross domestic product) to welfare spending in

2014, more than 10 points over the average of OECD countries, followed by Finland with 31% and Belgium

30%. Health and pensions are positions that weigh heaviest. The use of welfare in relation to resources is

a big difference between the continental European countries, notably France, and English-speaking and

non-European countries. In countries like Australia, this practice is much more widespread with over 40%

of social benefits that go for example to the poorest 20% of the population. This percentage drops to

about 17% in France where aid recipients are much less targeted.

HEALTH

Relatively few indicators are used by Globeco to assess and compare health systems. Many

conclusions are drawn from life expectancy, or even suicide as regards the issue of mental health. The

French enjoy relatively long life expectancy compared to other OECD countries (82.3 years against 80.5

years on average in OECD countries), but significant differences persist between men and women.

Although France is often cited as being particularly good student regarding health, due to an

advantageous system, the OECD urges France to continue its efforts and to go further on issues related to

smoking and the consumption of alcohol. The percentage of the population that smokes daily in France

remains well above the average of OECD countries (24% in 2013 compared to an average of 20% for the

OECD) and is almost twice that in Sweden.

Although alcohol consumption has declined in France over the last 30 years, it remains among

the highest in the OECD countries, with an average of 11.1 litres of pure alcohol per capita against 8.8

litres on average in the OECD countries. The number of overweight or obese adults in France is lower than

in most other OECD countries, but it is gaining ground. One adult out of 7 in France was obese in 2012,

against only one in 9 in 2000. The likelihood of being obese varies by socioeconomic status: women and

men with low levels of education in France are about twice as likely to be obese than the most educated.

61

http://www.oecd.org/fr/social/depenses.htm


The French generally have good access to care at relatively low cost compared to other OECD

countries. Nevertheless, a certain proportion of the population (particularly those with lower incomes)

report having unmet health needs either for financial reasons or because the services are not available

nearby, or because of waiting time considered too high. Social security and additional blankets devices

help maintain a level of expenditure that is borne of the weakest patients in OECD countries.

As for the rest of the OECD countries, the number of doctors per capita inevitably tends to grow

in urban areas, leaving an increasing number of rural areas with the phenomena of ‘medical desert’. The

use of emergency and hospitalisation is regarded by the OECD as too systematic. The aim is to make

things better to manage chronic diseases or elderly people outside the hospital, especially from an

economic viewpoint but also in terms of efficiency.

SECTION 5: THE ARTS AND CRAFTS BASED ENTERPRISE LEARNING. IMPLICATIONS TO FAMILIES AND COMMUNITIES

UNITED KINGDOM

The Cabinet Office’s Families at Risk Review estimated that many families in the UK are

disadvantaged, with around 2% of families facing multiple and complex problems such as stress, debt,

disability, harmful family relationships, substance misuse or poor mental health. The review also

concluded that existing support for many of these families failed to result in positive outcomes because of

a lack of coordination between supporting agencies and a failure to account for the wider problems faced

by family members.

In 2007, in an effort to address this failure, the Government launched its £16m Family Pathfinder

programme. The programme was designed to work with families who:

Are at risk of referral to the statutory services.

Have experienced existing interventions that have been unsuccessful

Fall below existing threshold levels for intervention.

The aim of the programme was to try to work with disadvantaged families who fail to meet the

threshold level for, or refuse to engage with, existing services and to prevent an escalation of needs that

will require statutory service involvement. The nature of the support provided through the programme

included:

62


Intensive one-to-one support.

Minimising the number of professionals involved with a family at any given moment in time.

Out of hours support.

A coordinated and integrated response to the wider family needs.

Solution-focused approaches.

Partnership working.

The York Consulting review of the Pathfinder programme presented a compelling case for Local

Authorities and their partners to develop and implement a programme of intensive support for families

with multiple and complex needs. Their review demonstrated that family-focused support led to

significant improvements in outcomes for 46% of families supported by the Family Pathfinder programme.

The review indicated that for every £1 spent on the pathfinder projects, a financial return of nearly double

that amount was generated.

The Family Action Young Person Building Bridges (YPBB) report indicated that stigma of

disadvantagement can often be a barrier to families seeking help and support. This was considered to be

more prevalent amongst Black and minority ethnic (BME) families who according to the report were often

reluctant to use existing services because they were not perceived to be culturally sensitive to their needs.

It is clear that a number of the issues affecting families facing multiple and complex problems, such

as stress, debt and harmful family relationships can be addressed if a member of the household is in

meaningful employment. While self-employment is not the universal panacea to those who through dis -

advantagement may not present as good recruitment prospects, it does offer a viable alternative to un-

employment. Nearly a third of social enterprises are from the BME communities who according to the

YPBB report have disenfranchised themselves from existing service provisions.

In 2015, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and European

Commission examined how social enterprise and entrepreneurship interacts with and support

disadvantaged family groups. Their report, The Missing Entrepreneurs 2015, indicated that:

Less than three per cent of the unemployed people in the European Union successfully entered

self-employment in 2013.

63


Disadvantaged families facing social exclusion in the European Union are less likely to have a

member of the household who is in legitimate self-employment and if they do, they often oper-

ate low quality businesses or work in the informal economy.

Key barriers are faced by these groups in the areas of accessing finance, acquiring entrepreneur-

ship skills and building entrepreneurial networks.

The OECD recommended a number of policy moves to address these issues:

Promote successful role models from disadvantaged social backgrounds.

Train enterprise coaches and mentors to work with new entrepreneurs.

Establish entrepreneurial networks to create a community of support for entrepreneurs from dis-

advantaged backgrounds.

It is clear from the OECD report that inclusive entrepreneurship polices have an important role to play

in overcoming the barriers to quality business start-ups and to reduce the levels of disadvantagement.

There is however, according to the OECD, no silver bullet solution to addressing this challenge and a multi-

pronged approach is necessary that addresses both the macro issues of policy formation and the micro is -

sues of barriers posed through background and individual characteristics.

TURKEY

To stand and exist within the increasing competitive environment of today’s knowledge age

depends on level of economic development of societies. Entrepreneurship has gain great importance to

development of civilization through especially development of transformation of industrialized societies

into knowledge societies. With entrepreneurship, new, ideas that create new opportunities, production

means to be gathered together and production has been realized. Production in parallel with the

economic development, employment creation and social development has been provided to increase the

level of welfare of societies. The concept of entrepreneurship that is as old as human history, has

continued its journey until today winning different features at different times, as for today, namely the

information society, were encouraged in completely different dimensions. In this regard in this work firstly

stages of development of entrepreneurship on the earth have examined and later its development stages

in our country up today have been focused.

64


Production and Sale shops are one of the most important projects recently conducted at ISMEK.

It is planned to make contribution to the sales of the productions with these shops. Moreover; the

samples of the arts manufactured by the trainees are exhibited for the visitors in these shops. In the shops

that are within the body of ISMEK our experienced trainees make production under the supervision of the

qualified instructors. The prestigious productions manufactured in our shops are met with great

favour. Another project successfully implemented by ISMEK recently is Application Centres. In these

places the trainees of ISMEK course centres that spread all around Istanbul are employed with a practical

exam. The selected trainees that undergo an advanced level of training for a year, find the opportunity to

participate in the business life by improving their knowledge, ability and visions according to the

expectations of real economy. The trainees at the Application Centres prepare the orders received from

various individuals, corporations and institutions and convert their efforts into money thereby.

TURKEY: IMPLICATIONS TO FAMILIES AND COMMUNITIES

There are many significant functions on people as economically, educationally, psychologically

and socio-culturally. Some of the parents can oppose to participate in adult education because of

traditional beliefs. Campaigns, promotional events, the success stories in media by ISMEK contribute to

break of these beliefs. People who do not have vocational training and wish to continue their careers in

different fields can benefit from the training courses provided by ISMEK.

One of the most important influences of ISMEK on the Turkish society is that the people who

come from different socio-economic and cultural sectors have a meet up place in ISMEK. We contribute to

the creation of social interaction and peace. Another important effect of the ISMEK courses are the

psychological functions of rehabilitation.

ISMEK provides many different branches which enormously effect people’s life. These branches

have impressed to families and communities inevitably science of family and consumer, child growth and

training, personal growth, nursing of old and ill persons. These branches are effected people’s life directly.

When a housewife attends to a training, she can learn how to raise a child professionally and consciously.

This is also beneficial to mentee’s self-esteem and self-confidence. For instance, a mother who does not

well-educated or non-experimented can sign up for child growth and training branches. By this way, the

mother has an idea about raising a child properly. Additionally, the child can be guided in the future by his

own parents.

65


ROMANIA

Social enterprises, acting locally, are possible to solve major Romanian socio-economic

challenges: big gaps in living standards between rural and urban areas, poverty and social exclusion,

unemployment and substantial informal and black economy, and even the future consequences of an

ageing population. The main key actors of Romanian social economy are: associations and foundations,

cooperatives (craftsmen’s cooperatives, consumers’ cooperatives, credit cooperatives) and credit unions

(credit unions of employees and of pensioners). Also, Romania has another forms of social economy

entities, like authorized sheltered workshops and commercial subsidiaries of NGOs.

For example, considering associations and foundations in the social sector, they have been a

subject of great interest in Romania in the recent period, in the context of a developing mixed welfare

market in which private non-profit providers emerge as innovators and promoters of a variety of

alternative services, in particular non-residential, mainly with private support, have been formally

recognized as social service providers by the public system but yet receive very little public funding.

Institute of Social Economy - Civil Society Development Foundation launched in 2013 the results of an in-

depth research on this topic6, based on official and field research data that measure and describe the role,

market share, social impact and revenues sources of private non-profit providers of social services in

Romania, and also includes a comparative perspective with the public sector providers. In 2011 the

associations and foundations represented almost half of total accredited suppliers of social services

(47%) in Romania, while local public providers of social services represented 40%. The study has revealed

the most interesting figures: from 2010 to 2011, with an increase of economic crisis and public budget

cuts, the public sector has significantly reduced its number of beneficiaries both as a whole sector and by

institution, while the private non-profit sector has increased the number of beneficiaries it served both

overall and as average by organization. While the public allocations for private providers has actually

decreased this proves that have stepped in “to save” beneficiaries abandoned by the public sector.

These numbers could increase significantly with the condition of opening the public market of social

services to private non-profit providers ensuring that social needs are properly met.

Cooperatives are a real opportunity for small local producers or consumers with no sufficient

economic force in the global competition, to act jointly with more success in market failure situations, and

6 Dima G. (coord), Barna C. - Social services in Romania - the role of social economy actors, Institute of Social Economy – CSDF, Bucharest, 2013.

66


gain improved access on oligopolistic markets, an instrument for promoting local development, and for

developing agriculture – a strategic sector for Romania, cooperatives could play a significant role in the

socio-economic development of Romania, in particular of its rural areas.

Sheltered workshops are considered to be part of social economy, in particular those functioning

in the framework of associations and foundations that thus meet the social economy / social enterprise

criteria. They are in many ways similar to Work Integration Social Enterprises - WISE. Sheltered

workshops, organizations with an important role in work integration of people with disabilities , are

organizational forms very close to the model of work integration social enterprise. They are established,

authorized and function according to the Law 448 / 6 December 2006 regarding the protection and the

promotion of the rights of persons with disabilities. According to this law, sheltered workshops are

independent organizations or sections with own management in organizations, which has at least 30%

employees with disabilities working with individual labour contract in the total number of employees.

Sheltered workshops are accessible to different legal forms (for profit companies, associations,

foundations, authorized physical persons, public institutions) on the condition of respecting the quota of

30% disabled workers. As there is no reference regarding the social economy principles in the legal

regulations for sheltered workshops, in a report7 issued by Institute of Social Economy (CSDF) in August

2013 it is considered that only sheltered workshops organized in traditional forms of social economy could

be included in the field of work integration social enterprise. The sheltered workshops have the benefit of

reserved markets as all employers in Romania have to either hire disabled employees or to buy services of

goods from protected workshops. At the end of 2012, sheltered workshops employed an approximate

number of 4.600 persons, from which approximate 2.000 persons with disabilities, representing 42% in

total employees for this type of organization. Besides the role of creating jobs for people with disabilities,

according to the research results of IES report 2013, 47% of total sheltered workshops provide

supplementary services for employees with disabilities like: professional training (27% from total

sheltered workshops, 37% from sheltered workshops developed by social economy organizations),

counselling and information services (14% from total sheltered workshops, 25% from sheltered

workshops developed by social economy organization).

Credit unions are established as non-profit associations, and are divided in two categories: credit

unions of employees (established according to the law no. 122/1996) and credit unions of pensioners

7 Constantinescu St. (coord.), Social Economy and working force employment. Integration of vulnerable groups on labor market, Institute of Social Economy (CSDF), 2013

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(established according to the law no. 540/2002). Credit unions can be considered as being part from

category mutual saving societies or credit unions, having the main aim to raise funds from members in

“social fund” and to provide them loans at affordable interests (sometimes also financial help in special

situations - funeral expenses etc.), contributing in this way to preventing social exclusion.

The poverty among pensioners from Romania is above average. The minim pension did not keep

the pace with the wage increase and with the inflation rate. According to Econtext, Romania is situated on

the 3rd place in European Union with a rate of pensioners who must live at the limit of poverty of 41,7%

(after Bulgaria 55%, Cyprus 49,9%). In total, in Romania live 5 million pensioners, approximately 2 million

pensioners in poverty. In 2012, 1,8 millions of pensioners were members in credit unions for

pensioners, and benefited of affordable loans, financial aid in different situations, and a lot of social

services - social shop, social hairdresser and barber, discounted trips, discounted services in surgery and

physiotherapy clinic etc. Credit unions for pensioners’ means mutual help, social services, but in the same

time they mean active ageing for many Romanian pensioners. Credit unions for pensioners succeeded to

enhance the quality of life of these persons, optimizing opportunities for financial needs and social

services, acting as the main driver of social innovation for an important part the category of elderly people

in Romania lost by the state and social policies.

Like in other European Union countries, in Romania many people have difficulties in accessing or

in using the financial services on the general public market. The financial exclusion is strongly connected

with social exclusion. In 2012 credit unions for employees offered considerable support for 1,2 million

Romanians. They offer affordable loans but also financial education for their members.

EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL ENTERPRISES IN THE ART AND CRAFTS FIELD IN ROMANIA

1. “Alaturi de Voi” Romania Foundation – the Util Deco sheltered workshop

The Util Deco sheltered workshop is an internal section of the “Alaturi de Voi” Romania Foundation (ADV) located in Iasi county. Also, the Util Deco has workshops in Targu Mures and Constanta. ADV is a Foundation registered as social service provider. The economic activity of ADV began in 2004 with the organizing of some vocational therapy workshops. The social economy activities of ADV started from the need to offer social services to the association’s beneficiaries. In 2005-2006 ADV organized several professional therapy workshops and training sessions, having as a goal to support beneficiaries to become employees. Many beneficiaries of ADV, people with disabilities, attended special schools. Since 2006 the law has allowed the employment of persons with disabilities and the possibility to create sheltered workshops, but ADV noticed at that time that employers had great difficulties in accepting a person with disabilities as their employees, or even in maintaining a person with disabilities as their employee for a

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longer period of time. ADV reached the conclusion that there must be created a dedicated path to enable and prove that a person with disabilities can be a successful employee, if offered the proper package of assistance at the workplace. This is how they reached the idea of creating protected workplaces and the development of sheltered workshops, in the lines of work in which they had trained some of their beneficiaries.

More info:

Util Deco sheltered workshop’s website: http://www.utildeco.ro/

ADV Romania’s website: http://www.alaturidevoi.ro/

2. “Ateliere fara Frontiere” - Work Integration program

The employees undergoing to work integration program at AFF are motivated, despite having a wrong start or a life accident, making it difficult for them to find and keep a job, are working to rebuild their life regardless of the obstacles presented by discrimination and other difficulties they are facing. Throughout the program, AFF works on integration, training and career counseling, while the social partners of AFF keep following up on social, medical and psychological matters. (AFF Annual Report 2014)

More info:

Ateliere fara Frontiere Romania’s website: http://atelierefarafrontiere.ro/

3. The Romano ButiQ Cooperatives - A network of social economy enterprises aiming to revalue traditional Roma craftsmanship.

The “Romano ButiQ” Association was created in 2011, in order to promote non-discrimination by developing cultural and educational activities. The association was founded out of the need to present in a realistic way the Roma minority and to create the space for people to discover experimentally the value they bring to society, beyond the negative stereotype or the victim paradigm. The main purpose of the “Romano ButiQ" Association is to study, grow, develop and promote, nationally and abroad, the cultural and the artistic heritage of vulnerable communities, multicultural and ethnic, particularly the Roma community in Romania and also of the people that find themselves at risk of being discriminated or excluded socially. The contribution to economic autonomy of Romani communities, through promoting and supporting the initiatives of social economy such as cooperatives, is one of the pillars of intervention of Romano ButiQ. (Romano ButiQ Association Report 2013)

More info:

Romano ButiQ Romania’s website: http://romanobutiq.ro/

FRANCE

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOCIALISATION

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http://romanobutiq.ro/

http://atelierefarafrontiere.ro/

http://www.alaturidevoi.ro/

http://www.utildeco.ro/%20


As we have seen throughout this document, the first issue of the so-called vulnerable groups is

their integration into the labour market. Difficulties associated naturally to questions of access to training

and a successful school career.

Socialisation defines the process by which the individual acquires the values, standards and

culture of a society. This process is first carried out within the family and the school, this is what the

sociologist Emile Durkheim called primary socialisation. This first stage of socialisation is topped up and

continues throughout life, through a secondary socialisation. The latter is notably fuelled by work, social

life, information, etc.

Struggling learners undergo two breaks that occur at both levels of socialisation as defined by

Durkheim. First in a difficult school career and/or integration into the labour market, which is just as

complicated. The risk inherent in this missing socialisation is social exclusion. It is the result of a slow

process by which the individual withdraws from social ties and ceases to think of themselves as part of

society. The proliferation of these social exclusions is dangerous for society because it can create, as was

defined Jacques Chirac during the 1995 presidential campaign, a social divide in society. That is to say a

gap between the excluded and the others, generating the lack of social coherence between them. Rising

unemployment and the employment crisis that has bogged down France for several years, does not allow

work to play its integrating role. Especially among the most vulnerable groups.

HOW SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP CAN HELP TO INTEGRATE DISADVANTAGED PEOPLE

For the OECD, social entrepreneurship means, ‘any private activity of general interest, organised

using an entrepreneurial approach and not being principally concerned with maximisation of profits but

the satisfaction of certain economic and social objectives, the ability to establish, in the production of

goods and services, innovative solutions to the problems of exclusion and unemployment. ’Social

entrepreneurship seeks to solve social problems rather than exploit market opportunities for profit,

although it operates in the market and is subject to its constraints.

In France, social entrepreneurship is rooted in the tradition of the social and solidarity economy

(SSE). Historically, ESS focuses on the non-profit aspect of the work, through several specific legal

statuses, while social entrepreneurship emphasises the social impact of work, regardless of the status. We

are then in the framework of a private initiative. Unlike the strategy of a business enterprise based on the

search for a sustainable competitive advantage, the strategy of a social enterprise is based on the search

for a lasting solution to the problem it addresses. Nothing so far prevents it from pursuing two objectives,

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both social and economic. In all cases, economic sustainability is necessary to fulfil the social mission of

the initiatives that are implemented. Social entrepreneurship creates a value composed of economic,

social and even environmental components (even if the latter affects our problem to a lesser extent).

More than a targeted approach, social entrepreneurship fights inequalities from within the

initiatives. These promote the employability of disadvantaged workers, who, as seen above, find it difficult

to sustainably integrate into the labour market.

THE INEVITABLE QUESTION OF FUNDING

Many social enterprises are now ready to change scale and to do so need capital. ‘Classic’

venture capital companies have so far been unwilling to commit funds there, particularly because of the

limited remuneration of capital that they can hope for. For this reason, the social sector worth is

struggling to access capital, which id hindering the use of assets for large-scale actions. From this fact, the

creation of social enterprises really needs to be encouraged. Certainly, they are eligible for the granting of

funds from the EaSI programme, of the European Social Fund as well as numerous European programmes,

but these financial facilities are not only still unknown to many entrepreneurs, but are generally not

sufficient to ensure sustainable development of social enterprises.

Several possibilities therefore need to be studied. First raising funds through crowd funding. With

a strong pitch around their social dimension, projects could quite easily arouse the interest of

contributors. In the same way that ‘Made in France’ made its re-entry into the collective mindset.

Disseminated via social networks, these new financing approaches can be viral.

To facilitate access to public procurement, the EU proposed that the national authorities adapt

their rules on these markets in order to take account of social enterprises, allowing for example, social

factors to be taken into account. The legislative project also provides for reserved contracts related to the

integration of 30% of people with disabilities. These contracts could be extended to all disadvantaged

groups. Knowing that the implementation of the social clause can be entrusted to outsourcing.

While France, and a number of its European neighbours, are going all out to reduce public

spending, the future of social enterprise must place its priorities on private funding, especially if it is to be

lasting. It must ensure an economic sustainability that drives these companies to respect the laws of the

market as they are. Nevertheless, the social aspect is not in contradiction to the market aspect.

Craftsmanship is a perfect example.

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http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1081


THE NEED TO CREATE LINKS BETWEEN CRAFTSMANSHIP AND SOCIAL ENTERPRISE

Craftsmanship is primarily a social dimension of the economy. This is a labour force that cannot be

relocated, or copied, that perpetuates a culture, a territory and especially know-how. Today, the link

between craftsmanship and the concept of social enterprise is weak and the fabric needs weaving. The

objective must be twofold:

Promoting the development of social enterprise initiatives around the craft trades.

Reintegration and training of vulnerable groups in craft skills and thus respond to labour needs in

the much belaboured craftsmanship trades.

Subsidised employment policies have demonstrated some limitations, especially over the medium-

long term. Craftsmanship trades, as a market activity, have an inclusive and also sustainable dimension.

This is particularly the approach of the SOS group, at European level, which has diversified and today

meets the challenges of society through 5 sectors: youth, employment, solidarity, health and seniors.

With 14,000 employees and 405 facilities and services, it is thus the leading European social enterprise. By

placing social innovation at the heart of its practices, the group demonstrates that it is possible to build a

strong organisation, capable of creating and sustaining economic activities, while at the same time having

a strong social impact. Vitamin T, leaders of integration through economic activity in France, is going in

the same direction by sharing economic efficiency and general interest. Reconciliations between such

organisations and commercial enterprises could also be studied. Social enterprise offers employment to

categories of people most often excluded from the free labour market, thus contributing to solidarity and

social cohesion as well as economic growth. The more we have the means to facilitate the return to work

of people, the more national economies will benefit.

THE ROLE OF TRAINING ORGANISATIONS WITH FAMILIES

Fewer young people have entered apprenticeships in recent years, although the fall in numbers

seems to have abated since 2015 In 2014, 265,000 new contracts were signed, 3% less than the previous

year. And apprenticeship contracts were even lower for BEP and CAP type sandwich courses (- 5%). In

fact, apprenticeship contracts rose more than advanced training schemes lasting 2 years after 'A' level. In

2015, over a third (34%) of young people in apprenticeships were preparing an advanced level of training.

Yet according to a survey Opinion Way for Agefa-SME, published early 2016, apprenticeship is

becoming really widely appreciated by young people. Nearly 9 out of 10 (88%) have a favourable opinion

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http://www.groupevitaminet.com/le-groupe-vitamine-t/entreprise-sociale/

http://www.groupe-sos.org/


of apprenticeship and sandwich courses. The main virtues that come spontaneously to mind? The ability

to directly enter the world of work and business (22%), the acquisition of professional experience (15%)

and the ability to combine theory and practice (14%) make up the top three.

On the issue of making a period of apprenticeship compulsory, opinions are however more

divided: 55% for, 45% against. To boost apprenticeship, first of all, according to the young people

surveyed, we need to improve its image among adults, beginning with teachers and the education system.

However, they do not have a purely utilitarian view of learning: according to them, if the priority is to

prepare employees for direct entry into the world of work (66%), apprenticeship should also form turn

out professionally and socially integrated citizens (38%).

That is why, trainers must above all and as soon as possible play a role in promoting

craftsmanship trades, too often caricatured and prone to misconceptions. Show them the innovative and

creative dimension of the trades. Far away from what families and teachers have in mind and far from

traditional methods of school education they are so stuck on. Artistic trades, a new career in

craftsmanship trades, can play a crucial role in improving the image of crafts with this audience and

families. The diversity of jobs and opportunities should be further emphasised. The craftsmanship trades

need to be more visible to all learners and to the organisations to which they can be linked. Training

organisations must also specifically target the vulnerable public and implement projects in accordance

with each person's specific strong points and difficulties.

THE IDEAS OF YOUNG PEOPLE FOR APPRENTICESHIP

According to the survey Opinionway for AGEFA-SME ‘Ideal Apprenticeship’ carried out in December 2015

with 802 young people under 30 years old, to boost apprenticeship we should:

Upgrade its image among the general public

Sell the virtues of apprenticeship to the education system and teachers

Make it more attractive to young people

Increase aid to companies

Improve the training of apprentice masters and mentors in enterprise

Increase the amount apprentices are paid

Offer less restrictive educational sessions

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Making a period of apprenticeship compulsory during schooling

SECTION 6: WIDER NATIONAL AND EU WIDE IMPLICATIONS IN LIGHT OF POLICIES

UNITED KINGDOM

The 2010 Equality Act is the current statute of anti-discrimination law in the UK. Historically, it

follows laws on sex discrimination (1975) and race discrimination (1976) which were UK developments;

and the laws on sexual orientation (2003), religious beliefs (2003) and age (2006) which were the results

of European Union laws.

The Act includes a number of notable features drawn from previous laws. These include:

Direct Discrimination: This is direct discrimination against a person on the basis of their

disadvantage. For example, a person with a disability who is refused employment because of

their disability.

Indirect Discrimination: Where an act, although not with the deliberate intent of being

discriminatory, will put the individual at a serious disadvantage. For example, someone whose

religious convictions preclude them from working on a specific day in the week being expected to

work on that day.

Discrimination by Association: Discrimination against a person because they are associated with

someone who is disadvantaged. For example, a single parent who has to care for a disabled child.

Perception Discrimination: Someone is treated worse than their colleagues because of their

disadvantage. For example, the way they look, talk or dress as a result of a disability, poverty or

ethnicity.

Victimisation: An employee is treated badly because they complained about discrimination

against them.

Billed as a major step for discrimination law, the aim was to deliver a simple, modern and accessible

framework to protect individuals from unfair treatment and promote a fair and more equal society. Critics

of the Act however argue that there is little new in the Act and that an opportunity was missed to take

greater steps to protect employees. Certainly, some of the more controversial provisions of the Act, such

as combined discrimination, gender reporting requirements and positive discrimination in recruitment

and promotion languished in the employer’s "wait-and-see" basket with no clear indication as to when

they might be implemented in the future.

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For most purposes, the law has simply been codified and many employers might be tempted to

continue without making major changes to policies or behaviour. With employment law, though, as

always, it is the subtle changes that will catch out the unwary and for some employers the need to deal

with issues such as ‘associative discrimination’, ‘perceptive discrimination’ or “responsibility for the acts of

third parties” may come as a total shock.

From a pan European Union perspective, because disadvantage is a relative concept, there are few

reliable statistics relating to the extent of disadvantagement in the EU. There are however approximately

80 million persons with disabilities in the European Union (more than 15% of the EU population). It is the

equivalent of the population of Belgium, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary and the Netherlands all

together. The more severe the degree of disability, the lower the participation in the labour force (only 20

per cent of people with severe disabilities compared with 68% for those without disabilities). People with

disabilities are more than 50% less likely to reach tertiary education compared to non-disabled people and

38% of disabled young people (in the age range 16-34) across Europe are not, or have never been, in paid

employment.

The principle of equality has been an element of the EU’s goals, legislation and institutions from its

early days, and was first developed in the context of gender equality. The Treaty of Rome of 1957

required equal pay between men and women, and provided the framework for the development of the

first Equality Directives (the Equal Pay Directive of 1975 and the Equal Treatment Directive of 1976),

which prohibited discrimination on grounds of gender in access to employment, vocational training and

promotion, and working conditions.

It was not until the Treaty of Amsterdam in 1997, however, that the EU introduced a specific power

to combat discrimination on a wide range of grounds of sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief,

disability, age or sexual orientation. This power was set out in Article 13 of the Treaty of the European

Community and had a significant impact. It led both to the introduction of a series of new Equality

Directives as well as to the revision of the existing Gender Equality Directives.

In recent years there have also been two other major developments relating to anti-discrimination

law in the EU. Firstly, the powers and functions of the EU relating to equality and other human rights were

recently amended and enhanced by the ratification of the Lisbon Treaty which entered into force on 1

December 2009 and made significant changes to the constitutional framework of the EU. Secondly, as a

result of the Lisbon Treaty and other key decisions by the EU institutions, there is a growing convergence

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between the EU human rights frameworks and other intergovernmental human rights frameworks of the

Council of Europe and the United Nations.

It was fifteen years ago when the Lisbon Summit first debated education’s role in European progress

and economic growth. At this stage nearly a third of the EU workforce had an insufficient education level

and, with only 15% of new available jobs expected to be available to them by 2010, risked exclusion from

the labour market. The summit concluded that the risk of increased social exclusion, unemployment and

social marginalisation of low levels of education amongst a significant segment of the workforce could

only be addressed by investing more and better in human capital. Despite the pressure from the summit

for the UK to invest more in human capital, unemployment overall in the UK from 2000 to the present day

has increased by 0.2%, from 5.4% to 5.6%, peaking at 8.1 percent in 2011.

TURKEY

Vocational education and training (VET) in Turkey is offered in VET programmes, including

apprenticeship programmes. According to Ministry sources, enrolment in VET has increased considerably

since 2003, from 36% of upper secondary students in 2003 to 51% in 2013. However, at 25%, secondary

VET graduation rates are still well below according to the OECD average of 47% (in 2011). Apprenticeship

programmes are available to students who left the education system after primary education; they last

two to three years, with most of the time spent in the workplace. Across OECD countries, workplace

training can provide a learning environment as well as the opportunity to match employer needs to the

supply of skilled students. The OECD 2007 review of basic education in Turkey found that communication

with key stakeholders such as employers is a challenge. According to Turkish government sources, co-

operation protocols have been signed with stakeholders to improve the co-operation and quality of VET.

In addition, education consultation meetings have been organised to align secondary VET to international

standards.

EU member countries are encouraged to develop national lifelong learning strategies which will

develop and progress the lifelong learning systems. In Turkey, the National Lifelong Learning Strategy

2009-2013 has been put into practice in 2009. Improving the performance of the educational system and

addressing the difficulties mentioned above are given in the action for all sections. There are the action

plans which will improve the access of pre-schoolers to education, reducing the turnover rates and

increasing the adult literacy rate. Additionally, various activities to improve the non-formal education and

vocational education and training have been mentioned. The 2014-2018 Strategic Plan aims to raise

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awareness among national priorities for lifelong learning, promote lifelong learning courses and services,

participate in lifelong learning for disadvantaged groups on various topics.

System-level policies, such as academic selection and multiple transitions can hinder equity in the

education system. To ensure higher upper secondary completion rates, Turkey has increased compulsory

schooling from 8 to 12 years, with a starting age of 5.5 years. The new legislation, Compulsory Education

for 12 years (4+4+4) (see below), can improve student transitions between educational levels, but if not

managed well, it can lead to more segregation among schools and further inequities. Currently, students

are academically selected at age 13.5 and sorted into upper secondary schools based on results in a

national examination. If the different pathways vary in quality, this can widen achievement gaps and

hinder equity. Parents, particularly those with higher education and higher income, seek tutoring to

prepare primary students for the national examination to improve their chances of entering top schools.

Although disadvantaged students face lower performance, as is the case in many OECD

countries, Turkey has an above-average percentage of students who succeed academically despite the

odds. Schools in Turkey tend to be homogenous in both student socio-economic background and

academic performance, indicating low levels of social and academic inclusion. PISA 2009 indicates that

most of the difference in academic performance between schools (51.7%) is explained by economic, social

and cultural status of schools and students. Nonetheless, 42% of 15-year-olds from low socio-economic

backgrounds performed better than predicted (compared to the OECD average of 30.8%). Targeted

policies should aim to systematically support and strengthen schools' capacity to address the impact of

low socio-economic background on performance.

ISMEK carries on its trainings pursuant to above 7/v section titled the duties and responsibilities

of metropolitan, district and first degree municipalities of Metropolitan Municipality Law numbered 5216.

ISMEK provides its trainings in compliance with the provisions of Ministry of National Education, Common

Public Education General Directorate Regulations, Municipalities Law numbered 5393, Provincial

Directorate of Education Regulations and the Protocol that Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and

Istanbul Governorate (City Public Education Directorate) have jointly agreed upon. The lessons and the

curriculum are also specified according to the foregoing regulations

ROMANIA

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Considering the problems described in the previous sections of this report, in February 2016 the

Romanian Government launched an integrated package of anti-poverty measures for all ages, which

entails 47 different measures, which worth over 1 billion Euros to be financed by the state budget and

European funds. These measures have the aim to meet some objectives of the Europe 2020 Strategy:

Objectives of the Strategy Europe 2020 European Union Romania

Objective 2020

1. Employment rate of the population of age 20 - 64 75% 70%

2. Early school leaving rate 10% 11,3%

3. Rate of the population of age 30 - 34 who graduated a tertiary

form of education

40% 26,7%

4. Promoting social inclusion, especially by reducing poverty - the

reduction of the number of persons who are at risk of poverty

and social exclusion

at least with 20 million

persons

at least with 580000 persons

We mention some from the objectives and measures of this program which we consider impact directly or

indirectly on the subject of this report:

Monitoring the law “Every child in kindergarten” (Law 248 / 2015 regarding stimulation of the

participation in pre-scholar education of the children from disadvantaged areas);

Requisites (through schools) and clothes (through city hall) for the pre-scholars who receive

social tickets;

School - inclusion engine in disadvantaged areas (centralizing social services around the school in

disadvantaged areas.);

School after school (national program in disadvantaged schools);

Second Chance - national program for disadvantaged schools. Growing the number of schools

which offer the program Second Chance - young people and adults coming back in school for

finalizing their studies;

Grants for the school from disadvantaged areas;

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National program ‘Teach for Romania’ - recruited talented young people who are trained, receive

scholarship and mentorship for teaching 2 years in disadvantaged schools;

National integrated program for young people who do not have a job, are not in education, are

not in training (NEETs);

Reviving professional and technical schools in urban and rural (scaling pilot schools on German

model, enterprise - based);

An integrated vision regarding the reform of the National Agency of Labour Force Employment);

Socio-professional insertion of the young people who come from the special protection system;

Active measures for employment, personalized function of the beneficiaries’ needs;

Rural entrepreneurship;

Social entrepreneurship;

Establishment of the community multi - functional centres;

Stimulation package for day labourers;

Financial guarantee for micro-credits - smaller interests for entrepreneurs from disadvantaged

areas;

Also, we mention the National Strategy for Labour Force Employment 2013 - 2020, with the

general objective of 70% - employment rate of the population aged 20 - 64 in 2020. The document

considers this target could be met in 2020 only by an integrated action which aims labour market,

education, economic growth, costs of the labour force utilization. In this context, lifelong learning has an

important role. We remind from the strategy’s recommendations: simplifying the legal provisions

regarding apprenticeship at work and the access of the enterprises to the subventions for apprentices,

stimulation for employers who hire the young people who finish the apprenticeship programs.

From 2015, Romania has the Law of social economy 219 / 2015. According to this law, social

enterprise in Romania is an accreditation given by the Local Employment Agency irrespective to the legal

form to legal entities that respect social economy principles. Similarly work integration social enterprises

WISE is a label given by the same agency for enterprises that have more than 30% disadvantaged workers.

For young employees a WISE may receive a subsidy for a job for one year. In present the methodological

norms of application of this law are in process of approving (by consultation and public debate).

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FRANCE

MULTI-YEAR PLAN AGAINST POVERTY AND FOR SOCIAL INCLUSION

In 2012, 8.5 million people lived below the poverty threshold, which was set at Euro 987 per

month, according to a study Insee, published in September 2014. And half of poor people living on less

than Euro 784 per month, or, in constant Euro, a level that had not plunged so low since 2006.

The INSEE study on living standards published in September 2015, showed this time that in 2013,

inequality had declined in France. This is a sharp decline, of a magnitude unobserved since 1996. In just

one year this decline erased the steady increase recorded since 2008. Similarly, the poverty rate, which

had risen sharply between 2008 and 2011 from 13 to 14.3%, has stabilised at 14%. The increase in the

poverty rate has been halted: the policies implemented are now cushioning the effects of the economic

crisis for the most vulnerable households and avoiding break ups for many of them.

This has resulted in a multi-year plan against poverty and for social inclusion. You will find below

the key measures that underline the subject of the work conducted to date, under the aegis of Jean-Marc

Ayrault and Manuel Valls.

AYRAULT 2013

The main measures of this scheme, adopted at the inter-ministerial committee against exclusion decided

in 2013.

RSA

The ‘RSA base’ was upgraded excluding inflation over ten years to regain its original level of 50% of SMIC.

The government wanted to lengthen the average duration of subsidised contracts (detailed below) so that

it reaches on average twelve months. More than two thirds of the potential recipients of the RSA-working

did not ask for it, so the government launched a communication campaign. Objective: lower the ratio of

non-application.

Health care

The income limits for access to the CMU-C, the universal supplementary health cover, and the acquisition

of complementary health (ACS), were increased by 7% to enable a further 750,000 people to benefit.

Young people under 25 are attached to their parents' home for the allocation of the CMU-C. However, in

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situations of isolation or family breakdown, students cannot benefit from the CMU-C due to the financial

situation of their parents, but are not able to benefit from their resources. As part of the Social Security

Financing Act for 2014, the government sought to address these situations: these students can now file an

individual application for CMU-C, regardless of the status of their parents.

Integration of young people

An integration contract, a ‘youth guarantee’ for 100,000 unskilled young people from 18 to 25 years old,

will be set up. They will receive proposals for employment or training, they will have to agree to receive

an amount equivalent to the RSA, or about Euro 450 a month. This contract was launched in September

2013 in ten pilot areas, to then be generalised. This measure follows directly from the European Youth

Guarantee established by Europe. To promote this system, Europe often emphasises the feedback of

Finland. Indeed, the country has implemented a massive guarantee scheme for youth. According to an

evaluation by Eurofound in 2011, 83.5% of young unemployed have found work thanks to an offer

received within three months of registering as unemployed. The Finnish system has helped prepare

personalised plans far more quickly and has reduced unemployment.

VALLS 2015

Work bonus

The work bonus, flagship reform of the Government deployed since early 2016, aims to support the

purchasing power of workers with modest resources and among them, young people from 18 years old.

Paid for the 1st time on 5 February, the work bonus is already a success, with a million and a half workers

modest beneficiaries, including about 225,000 young people under 25 years. At least 1.2 million young

people will be concerned, this year, by this substantial boost in purchasing power. It is in this context that

the Minister visited the Social Centre of the Faubourg de Bethune, where the work bonus simulator was

presented. In the Northern department, more than 81,000 people have already received the work bonus,

including 12.60% of young people under 25 years old.

Education for children under 3 years old

Schooling for children before 3 years old, one of the pillars of the overhaul of the School of the Republic,

has been identified as a powerful lever for the success of students, especially those from the least

advantaged backgrounds. That is why the government launched a mobilisation of all actors and families to

successfully develop the education of children under 3 years old and to increase the number of children

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enrolled in the 2016 school year. The reception of toddlers is being progressively acquired in

kindergartens in the 1,089 priority education networks, with the aim of bringing 30% of children under 3

years old in underprivileged areas into education by 2017. The enrolment target was increased to 50% of

children under 3 years old in school in the PWR (enhanced priority education networks) at the ‘Equality

and Citizenship’ Inter-ministerial Committee of 6 March 2015.

Subsidised contracts

The most isolated from the labour market (long term unemployed, young people in great difficulty ...)

have access to specific contracts where hiring and coaching is carried out in a framework and supported

financially by the State

They include:

The jobs of the future

The starter contract

The single integration contract - employment initiative contract

The single integration contract - assistance contract in employment

The single integration contract

Find the details of these assistance contracts here.

Integration through economic activity (IAE)

Integration through economic activity (IAE) allows people furthest from employment due to specific social

and professional difficulties (age, health status, insecurity) to benefit from a reinforced support that

should improve their employability. Specialised structures such as integration enterprises, intermediary

associations, temporary work integration enterprises or workshops and integration projects sign

agreements with the state that allow them to welcome and support these workers .

In the IAE, there are different types of structures and actions:

Integration company

Integration workshops and projects

The temporary work integration company

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The intermediary association

Hiring by a group of employers

Employer groups for integration and qualification

Find all the details here.

Professional training contract

This is a contract that allows complete initial training to get into a trade by obtaining a recognised

professional qualification. This concerns:

Young people under 26 without qualifications,

Young people under 26 years old, without consideration of level, who wish to complete their

initial training to access the desired trades,

Young people under 26 years old who are long-term unemployed.

Find all the details here.

SOLID TRAINING PLAN FOR THE UNEMPLOYED - HOLLANDE 2016

In January 2016, François Hollande announced a massive training plan to train 500,000 unemployed

in 2016. This scheme will take over from two other ‘priority’ training programmes launched since

2013.The regions are expected to maintain their training budget in 2016, but the state will compensate

any ‘extra effort’ related to the deployment of 500,000 internships for the unemployed. The 500,000

additional training schemes planned in 2016 will therefore be financed exclusively by the State, which ‘has

made an exceptional effort of one billion Euros.

Apprenticeship recovery plan

Only 426,000 young people are in apprenticeship training. That number is down 8% compared to 2013. It

is clear that despite good results in terms of employability, the scheme suffers from a poor image. Giving a

new dynamic to collective mobilisation for training 500,000 apprentices by 2017 is at the heart of

government action and the new information campaign launched by the Ministry of Employment. The

stakes? Successful professional integration of all the young people. The voluntary target of 500 000

apprentices in 2017, set by the President of the Republic, requires a collective mobilisation for this

training option that has proven effective.

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Various measures have been implemented to achieve this goal:

The foundation for apprenticeship innovations

‘TPE-young apprentices’ aid

The creation of the apprenticeship bonus

The apprenticeship grant

Find the details of these measures here.

THE FIGHT AGAINST DROPPING OUT OF SCHOOL

The Ministry of Education has set two clear objectives: to better prevent dropping out of school

in order to halve the number of young people leaving the system without qualifications by 2017 and

facilitate the return to school of young people that have already quit.

Projects in the year 2015-2016:

Developing cooperation of education teams within schools and with external partners

Strengthen dialogue between parents and the school

Boosting mobilisation in every academy in the fight against dropping out of school

Supporting training in prevention of dropping out of school

Personalised assistance and experienced career guidance

New provisions relating to the preparation of examinations of general, vocational and

technological education and issuance of the baccalaureate (A levels)

Details of these measures here.

Overall links with apprenticeship are relatively weak in this action plan. The craft trades are not

at any time discussed, particularly as alternative means to attract school leavers.

EUROPE 2020

More generally, the European Union is working to build a more competitive economy based notably

on higher employment rates to end this crisis in which many of the member countries have stalled. The

Europe 2020 strategy aims to stimulate growth that is intelligent by investing more effectively in

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http://www.gouvernement.fr/action/le-plan-de-relance-de-l-apprentissage


sustainable education, research and innovation; , placing priority on a low carbon economy; and also

inclusive by clearly focusing on job creation and a reduction in poverty. This strategy is built around five

pillars, each representing ambitious short-term ambitious goals.

1. Employment

Employment for 75% of the population aged 20 to 64 years’ old

2. Research and Development

Investing 3% of EU GDP in research and development

3. Climate change and sustainable energy

Reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases by 20% (or even 30%, if conditions allow) compared to 1990.

Use of 20% energy from sustainable sources. 20% increase in energy efficiency

4. Education

Lowering the early exit rate from school to less than 10%

A diploma of higher education for at least 40% of the population aged 30 to 34 years

5. The fight against poverty and social exclusion

Reduction of the number of people affected or at risk of poverty and social exclusion to under 20 million.

SECTION 7: IMPLICATION FOR ARTS AND CRAFTS SKILLS. ARE THEY FORMAL ENOUGH?

UNITED KINGDOM

The key components that make up the arts learning infrastructure in the UK are:

The public school system: This is the primary source of arts learning for the young. No other

system has so much access to the young, the resources with which to teach them, and the

responsibility for ensuring they have equal opportunity to become knowledgeable about the arts.

Further education: This is the source of arts learning that offers career opportunities in the arts

and crafts sector to young people and adults.

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Adult & Community Centres: Arts learning in the community is offered to adults through

community centres and, to a lesser extent, arts organisations. Most of these programs focus on

artmaking and performance for learners pursuing art as a hobby.

Higher education: These are by far the most important sources of broad-based arts education for

adults. This is in addition to their primary focus on preparing professional artists, arts specialists,

general classroom teachers, and scholars.

Private training providers: Performing arts organisations are offering considerably more

educational programming than they did even ten years ago, but programmes for adult audiences

of arts organisations are still limited in scope and reach.

There are three reasons to be concerned about declining demand for the arts and the growing imbalance

between artistic supply and demand.

If demand for the arts, and therefore the earned income of arts organisations, keeps declining, it

is unlikely that government support and arts philanthropy will be able to take up the slack

Declining demand leads to a loss of the public and private benefits derived from the arts.

Declining demand is likely to be associated with increasing inequity in how the arts-derived

benefits are distributed.

When addressing the question of “is arts education formal enough”, there is something about being

caught in a vicious circle of events:

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Fewer quality art products being

produced

Reduced demand for art products

Less demand for training as artists

Decrease in employment

opportunities in the art sector


There is no easy answer to the above dilemma. The French have a saying, “ l’art pour l’art”, which

roughly translates to “arts for art sake”. This report takes this saying one step further by emphasising the

pedagogical provision of art training and the greater scope for transferable skills that accrue from art

training. All of this presupposes that potential art learners (children and adults) can be attracted to art

classes. Too much emphasis on the formal aspects of art learning, with little to offer in terms of

employment, can, in this respect, be a deterrent to all but those who have real artistic talent or a burning

desire to want to work in the arts & craft sectors. Learning the arts should therefore be fun and appealing:

informal in the first instance but offering opportunities for those who want more formal learning.

The Praxis Europe Creative Minds project attempts to do just that. Dance festivals that focus on

cultural exchange have been a great success, attracting contributions from a number of European

countries. They have proven that European partners have much to offer in terms of their indigenous

dance skills. This is a principle that can be extended to cover a much wider range of arts and crafts.

TURKEY

The modern local management concept seeks not only to improve the physical conditions in a

society, but also to help citizens become more urbanized, social and civilized by using educational

methods. ISMEK, The Art and Vocational Training courses of İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality, has

become an adult education organization which is praised highly both nationally, and internationally with 1

million and 175 thousand trainees it has educated as of the previous education period.

ISMEK, which helps individuals be more self-confident by enabling them to socialise with other

people to make new friends, and by rehabilitating them so they can be more hopeful of their future, has

an important function regarding preserving and developing our social structure.

In addition to this, ISMEK increases the individuals' chances of employability and helps them

acquire new courses of income with their labour. Each classroom in ISMEK serves almost as a workshop,

and very inexpensive materials turn into very valuable products by the help of the acquired hand skills, as

well as the inborn artistic talents of trainees. Trainees who produce new things thanks to the training they

have received from ISMEK, feel satisfied both financially and sentimentally, feeling happy that they are

fulfilling themselves. In addition to the training provided directly in ISMEK, many other supportive

activities and services are also provided free of charge.

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ISMEK, the innovations of which are being followed up closely by the world, and are adopted as

the best example by many countries continues to grow rapidly. Founded in 1996 by the Metropolitan

Municipality Istanbul of with the motivation that education is the first thing to succeed in order to achieve

the targets about a prosperous society, ISMEK has kept on growing with huge leaps until today. ISMEK

raises new artists to pass on to the next generations our traditional handicrafts that are facing the danger

of being forgotten. Not ignoring trainings in the fields of sports and health either, ISMEK, in addition to its

directly offered educative activities, also arranges supportive educative activities, free of charge, such as

public seminars, local exhibitions, thematic exhibitions, general exhibitions, interviews, symposiums, trips,

contests and publication.

Every year almost in a feast air, General Exhibition and Festival of ISMEK is opened with a

magnificent ceremony. The exhibition is being held in Feshane International Congress and Culture Centre.

The exhibition consists of more than 225.000 students’ works.

ISMEK has several achievements through mentees. There is a lot of important examples which

achieved by our trainees. ISMEK Make-up Techniques branch student, Abdullah Biltekin, won the category

of ‘Golden 20s’ award at Beauty and Care Fair. The other successful learner, Aylin Akdere, has opened her

own store on needlecrafts because of receiving a lot of orders. She decided to open a workshop. Perihan

Ak who completed the culinary arts opened her own restaurant.

Additionally, ISMEK shares its 20-year experience in adult learning with all the world. Countries

from all over the world have sent their representatives to Turkey in order to take a closer look at ISMEK

who has already trained trainers from Pakistan, Jordan, Azerbaijan, Egypt, Senegal, Britain and Guinea. On

the other hand, ISMEK also has been to lots of study visits in many different countries.

All these conditions, ISMEK is willing to expand its branches for the next training years. ISMEK

executives and trainers visit different countries’ courses or lifelong learning organisations and fields to

understand their education system and then to apply and overcome our deficiencies. They observe all

details while they meet up during the visit of the countries and listen to their lecturers. After completing

the study visit, mentors report what they notice and benefit for our schedules. ISMEK is always open to

new ideas and would follow global innovation and development around the world.

ROMANIA

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Even not so much developed, with an untapped potential, and not seen as an autonomous field,

we may say arts and crafts learning is formal to some extent in Romania:

1. In form of scholar entities: technical high schools, artistic high schools (art, music,

choreography, visual arts) and professional schools.

Probably the most important are professional schools, even if their educational mission

fulfilment is sometimes put under a question mark, because they do not assure in all cases skills validated

on the labour market and the real transition of the pupil to the job.

In the table below is presented the evolution of the number of such entities by type of entity, in

the period 2010 - 2014; even if the number is small, we can notice a good trend for 2014, when the

number of professional schools - secondary education cycle 2 increased substantially, especially in rural

areas, where, as we have already shown in the previous sections of the report, the learning and

employment needs are very high.

Table no. Number of professional schools, 2010 - 2014

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Number Number Number Number Number

Professional schools - secondary education

cycle 2

Total : : 5 2 17

Urban : : 3 1 3

Rural : : 2 1 14

Special professional schools - secondary

education cycle 2

Total 4 5 2 4 2

- Urban 4 5 2 4 2

Professional schools of re-education /

Scholar centres for inclusive education - -

secondary education cycle 2

Total 1 1 2 1 3

- Urban : : 2 1 3

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- Rural 1 1 : : :

Source: National Institute of Statistic, Romania, Tempo Series.

According to National Institute of Statistics, the total number of pupils enrolled in professional schools in

2014 was: 48784 in professional schools - secondary education cycle 2, 1309 - in special professional

schools - secondary education cycle 2, 538 - in professional schools of re-education / scholar centres for

inclusive education - secondary education cycle 2. We have to remind also the number of 157 persons

enrolled in professional schools - second chance program - a very important program for disadvantaged

learners.

2. In form of lifelong professional training organized by the National Agency of Labour

Employment for the persons who are in process of seeking a job, by its network of Counties Agencies for

Labour Employment. Also, there are beneficiaries of free professional training services the persons who

perform activities in rural areas and they did not have monthly incomes or have monthly incomes smaller

than the unemployment benefit and who are registered at the agency.

3. In form of lifelong professional training of workers, qualification and re-qualification courses

organized in the framework of projects financed by European Social Fund, Sectorial Operational

Programme - Human Resources.

According to a recent study of INCSMPS8 regarding the evolution of the lifelong professional

training considering the assumed objectives in projects ESF - SOPHR of the period 2007 - 2013, for the

programs of qualification / re-qualification for the vulnerable people, there were obtained good results,

here Romania obtained 95% of the assumed target. This shows a success of the programme in the

direction of enhancing the equity in the professional training field and supporting social inclusion in

Romania. Other relevant indicators for the programme are: the number of professional qualifications

developed in lifelong learning in 2012 year reached 43,6% of the target. Progress indicators at June 2012

8 Zamfir A. M. (coord.), Maer - Matei M., Mocanu C., Velciu M., Pirciog S., Lungu O.-E., Grecu L., Militaru E., Studiu privind evoluţia formării profesionale continue în România în perspectiva ţintelor asumate în domeniu şi identificării ariilor deficitare, Institutul Naţional de Cercetare Ştiinţifică în domeniul Muncii și Protecţiei Sociale, 2014

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shows: 14733 participants at lifelong learning programmes, 50288 participants at courses for actualization

and improvement of the competences, 12383 participants at qualification / re-qualification programmes

for vulnerable groups. Some of these programmes reached art and crafts skills and disadvantaged

learners.

FRANCE

BASIC KNOWLEDGE

The European Parliament defines basic knowledge as a base of skills necessary to guarantee every person

the conditions for personal development, their active citizenship, their social and cultural integration and

their working integration.

A significant number of people have left school with little or poorly learned basics in written or oral

communication and are struggling through adulthood. Reading, writing, counting, organising, knowing

how to express oneself orally are all essentials to enter the world of employment.

8 bases of knowledge according to Europe (source: Together against illiteracy, national framework,

ANLCI) :

1. Know how to communicate in one's mother tongue: listening, speaking, reading, writing

2. Know how to communicate in a foreign language

3. Mastering mathematics / learn or relearn the basics of calculation

4. Digital competence or mastery of IT

5. Learning to learn

6. Social and civic competences

7. The spirit of initiative and entrepreneurship

8. Sensitivity and cultural expression

These skills are essential to personal and professional life. They are the indispensable starting point for:

Access to employment

Facilitating certain professional situations

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Learning new skills or consolidating their knowledge

Professional development

THE LANGUAGE ISSUE

Some learners, foreigners or immigrants, who do not practice the French language in their

homes, have greater difficulties in school and the workplace. A lack of language mastery is a real obstacle

to the overall socialisation of such learners.

THE ISSUE OF LEVEL

It would first of all differentiate the career of an employee from that of an entrepreneur. To

become employable, the learner will have to at least master the basic skills to be successful learning his

craft. To become an entrepreneur, more specific and more complex skills and knowledge are required.

They are not available to everyone. The information days initially and internships prior to setting up, led

by the CMA are all used to inform and prepare entrepreneurs.

Is this enough? In France, 30% of small businesses do not survive the break even point of 3 years

of business. After 5 years, only half of them are still active. More reason to think that the future of

struggling learners can go through apprenticeship and craft trades, but that the future of craftsmanship

also requires more than ever the recruitment of the best profiles. For it to grow, craftsmanship should no

longer be considered as a dumping ground or a default choice. Today there is an increased need for

openness to new profiles of entrepreneurs, like young graduates, to ensure the resumption of craftsman

trades.

CRAFTSMANSHIP ARTS, A DIFFERENT KIND OF APPRENTICESHIP

The craftsmanship arts are ‘passion professions’, which may contrast with an apprenticeship

sometimes considered as arduous by apprentices. This is why training to craftsmanship arts are attractive.

Apprenticeship requires motivation and perseverance as the craftsmanship arts are a niche market and do

not offer significant career prospects. Of the 38,000 companies in the sector, VSE (very small companies)

dominate and it is often difficult to recruit a young apprentice, as this represents a significant cost. The

reception time is often incompatible with the production constraints of a large majority of artisans or

craftsmanship art professionals.

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SECOND CHANCE SCHOOLS (E2C)

Since 2004, Second Chance Schools (E2C) have been available to unemployed youth aged 18 to

25 years, who have left school with no qualifications. There are a hundred in France over 17 regions,

including the Auvergne Rhône-Alpes region. Young people aged 18-25 years, with no qualifications,

wishing to (re) enter the labour market may be supported by a second chance school (E2C). Depending on

the level of the young people on arrival and the project implemented, schooling can last 6 months to two

years. Applications, that rely primarily on volunteers, are proposed by the Local Missions, Job Centre and

integration structures. Difficulties or past mistakes are not an obstacle to entering a Second Chance

School. The only selection criterion is motivation. This is assessed in a personal interview. Another feature

of this type of school: you can enter throughout the year.

2nd Chance Schools offer innovative teaching practices, in the continuity of the principles

contained in the European Commission White Paper ‘Teaching and learning - Towards the learning

society’, prelude to launching the scheme. Given the width of the gap between corporate values and

aspirations of young people who have no experience of the working world, sandwich courses are the

keystone of E2C. The purpose of the 2nd Chance Schools is to bring young people into the working world.

To meet this goal, the originality of E2C is to refer and assemble several teaching methodologies. The

Schools thus practice:

active learning, with a strong opening to the life of the tower blocks, which leads the student to

discover by themselves, to define themselves as a citizen;

a contractual pedagogy, which aims to make the student responsible for their commitments;

a project pedagogy that makes the student aware of their skills and able to measure results;

a pedagogy of success, valuing the acquisitions and progress of each trainee.

Encouraging results in 2015

59% of trainees found a positive outcome to their course. Even better, 71% of young trainees have found

a way of integration, training or employment contract, which projects them more sustainably towards

employment. More information on the second chance schools here.

REFERENCES:

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http://www.reseau-e2c.fr/zoom/2846-taxe-dapprentissage-2015.html

http://europa.eu/documents/comm/white_papers/pdf/com95_590_fr.pdf

http://europa.eu/documents/comm/white_papers/pdf/com95_590_fr.pdf


Ateliere Fara Frontiere, Annual Report 2014

Barna C. (2014), Atlas of Social Economy, Institute of Social Economy - Civil Society Development

Foundation

Barna C., Vamesu A., Credit Unions in Romania – a strong social enterprise model to combat

financial exclusion and over indebtedness, CIRIEC (International Centre of Research and

Information on the Public, Social and Cooperative Economy) Working Paper no. 2015/11, ISSN

2070-8289, available online at http://www.ciriec.ulg.ac.be/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/WP15-

11.pdf

Barna C., Vamesu A., Reviving Social Economy in Romania – between emerging social enterprises

in all sectors, surviving communist coops, and subsidiaries of globalization actors , CIRIEC

(International Centre of Research and Information on the Public, Social and Cooperative

Economy) Working Paper no. 2014/07, ISSN 2070-8289, available online at

http://www.ciriec.ulg.ac.be/fr/telechargements/WORKING_PAPERS/WP14-07.pdf

Dima G. (coord), Barna C. - Social services in Romania - the role of social economy actors, Institute

of Social Economy – CSDF, Bucharest, 2013.

Fartusnic C.(coord.), Apostu O., Balica M., Caragea N., Florian B., Istrate G., Jigau M., Voinea L., All

children at school until 2015. Global initiative regarding the children outside the educational

system in Romania, UNICEF and Institute of Educational Science, p.37 - 42, available online at:

http://www.unicef.ro/wp-content/uploads/Toti-copiii-la-scoala-pt-web.pdf

Institute of Educational Sciences, And now? Where? Scholar route of the graduates of VIII class in

ZEP schools, available online at: http://www.ise.ro/iar-acum-incotro-parcursul-scolar-al-

absolventilor-clasei-a-viii-a-din-scolile-zep, extracted in March 2016

Institute of Social Economy - Civil Society Development Foundation (2016) - CASE STUDY “Alaturi

de Voi” Romania Foundation – the Util Deco sheltered workshop , elaborated in the framework of

the project New Crops - Social entrepreneurship to create new opportunities for socially

excluded in rural areas, contract 2014-1- RO01- KA204-002980

Romanian Government (2016) - Integrated package of anti-poverty measures for all ages

Romano ButiQ, Association Report 2013

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http://www.ciriec.ulg.ac.be/fr/telechargements/WORKING_PAPERS/WP14-07.pdf

http://www.ciriec.ulg.ac.be/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/WP15-11.pdf

http://www.ciriec.ulg.ac.be/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/WP15-11.pdf


Zamfir A. M. (coord.), Maer - Matei M., Mocanu C., Velciu M., Pirciog S., Lungu O.-E., Grecu L.,

Militaru E., Studiu privind evoluţia formării profesionale continue în România în perspectiva

ţintelor asumate în domeniu şi identificării ariilor deficitare, Institutul Naţional de Cercetare

Ştiinţifică în domeniul Muncii şi Protecţiei Sociale, 2014

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