censorship in leviathan

7/29/2019 Censorship in Leviathan

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4/22/2012 10:38:00 AM

Hobbes- Leviathan 1-6, 11, 13-16, 17-20, 21, 22, 26,29, 30

1588 spanish armada. Spanish anglo wars (civil war life)

determinist individualist conception of society. No objective good or bad.

Considered atheist.Convention of language: state of nature

Obligation to authority, justification for political authority, obligation to

sovereign morality and prudence

Believed civil war occurs from beliefs taught, such as Aristotle.

Thought understood meaning of war, honour. Fear. Glory.

Thought could teach English obligation of duty. Certain and permanent.

1-6:

civil peace and social unity are best achieved by the establishmentof a commonwealth through Social Contract.

His ideal commonwealth is ruled by a sovereign powerresponsible for protecting the security of the commonwealth as an

artificial person and as a body politic that mimics the human

body. The sovereign is the head. = Leviathan. sea monster.

Hobbes begins his text by considering the elementart Motion ofMatter, arguing that every aspect of human nature can be deduced

from materialist principles.

He depicts the natural condition of mankindknow as the state ofnatureas a violent and awash with fear.

-SON: is the war of every man against every man, in whichpeople contantly seek to destroy one another.

This SON is so horrible that humans naturally seek peace, andthe best way to achieve peace is the construct of the Leviathan

through social contract.

Book two: process of erecting the leviathan: rights of thesovereign, and imagines the legislative and civil mechanics of the

commonwealth.

Book three: concerns the compatibility of Christian doctrine withHobbseian philosophy and the religious system of the Leviathan.

Book four: engages in debunking false religious beliefs and arguingthat the political implementation of the L state is necessary to

achieve a secure Christian commonwealth.


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Modelled after Geometic proof, found upon First Principles andestablished definitions, in which each step of argument makes

conclusions based upon the previous step.

1-3:

Mechanics of the human mind: Sense, imagination, and the train ofthought.

Knowledge of the world originates from external bodies

pressing against our sensory apparatus.

Objects continually bumping against each other and describes

passage of motion from one material body to the next. =

elementary motion of the universe transfers to:

o Eyes nose ears tongue and skin through physicalmovement.

Sense then, is the action of external bodies colliding with

our sensitive organs.

Matter cannot move itself, when a thing is in motion, it will

remain eternally be in motion, unless acted upon by another

body.

This continuance of motion is responsible for the transformation of

sense into thoughts or imagination, for when an external bodypresses against the human sense apparatus and sets off a series of

new motions, these motions will perpetuate until the meet a

hindrance.

The duration of sensory motion after the fact is call decaying

sense, which becomes hobbess definition of imagination.

o ex. Eyes closed, still see image= ocular sensory apparatus isstill in motion; no longer immediate sense, but imagination.

o This imagination over time is the same as Memory.=experience.

o While sensation of internal movements of the human body iscalled a dream when asleep, or a vision or apparition

when awake.

Understanding: particular form of imagination. Defined as theidea produced by the physical sensation of words or visible signs.


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train of thoughts or Mental discourse is complex variety ofunderstanding; in which the succession of one imagination upon

another; one internal sensation provoking the next one, initiates

the process of thinking.

Two possible trains of thought:o unguided= no particular direction, ex dreamso regulated= the thinker directs mental discourse in a specific

direction.

Conclusion:o Passage from sense to thought to train of thoughts.

4-5:

Speech: invented for purpose of putting mental discourse intoverbal discourse.

o Two benefits of speech: A) Words register a train of thoughts by giving name to

the thoughts conclusions, which can be remembered

w/o having to reconstruct the thrain of thought

continually

B) mental discourse can then be communicated toothers.

4 uses of speech:

o 1) record knowledge gained of things, acquisition ofarts.2) communicate this to knowledge to others, which is

counseling and teaching

3)to communicate intentions and desires to others and

elicit their help

4) entertain ourselves with word play.

4 abuseso 1) inconstant signification, careless let meaning of words

shift.

o 2) Metaphorical language- use words and apply othermeaning to trick or deceive.

o 3) Lieso 4) Language to injure others.


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o

Speech defined as consisting of names or appellations, and their

connexion. Truth and falsehood, which cannot exist outside of speech, are

consequent upon the nature of connection made between names.-need to use precise meaning of names for philosophy.

Beginning of meaning of words is general acceptance of the definition of its

terms.

He suggests that the observation of nature and the sensation of thematerial world is always affected by the individual character of the

observer, and therefore experience of natural phenomena and the

perception of reality do not constitute and adequate basis upon

which to ground philosophically true conclusions to train of thought.

No such thing as objective nature. Always filtered through screen ofsubjectivity.

Therefore: need the leviathano but no one mans Reason, nor the Reason of any one

number of men, make the certaintie; no more than an

account is therefore well cast up, because a great many men

have unanimously approved it. And therefore, as when there

is a controversy in an account, the parties must by their own

accord, set up for right Reason, the Reason of someArbitrator, or Judge, to whose sentence they will both

stand, or their controversy must either come to blows,

or be undecided, for want of right reason constituted

by Nature; and so it is also in all debates of what kind

soever.

Judge appointed by their own accord everyone has agreed touphold the judges decision.

reason is nothing but reckoning (that is, adding and subtracting_of the consequences of general names agreed upon.

Science, that is, knowledge of consequences; which is also calledPHILOSOPHY = geometric, deductive philosophy that is

demonstrable to everyone.

He believes his approach to science is necessary for thepreservation of peace.


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He denies using nature as the foundation of philosophicalknowledge.= must be grounded in language.

6:

Beginning of voluntary motion, commonly called the passions. Andthe speeches by which they are expressed.

Two types of motion particular to animals: Vital andvoluntary.

Vital: innate and automatic to all animals and continue throughoutlife; the include flow of blood, breathing, digestion, excretion, and

the like.

Voluntary: are active and directed, such as walking, speaking, andthe moving of the limbs.

Causal motions for voluntary action: imagination and thoughts. Endeavour: when it is toward something which causes it, is

Appetite or desire and when the endeavor is fromward something,

it is generally called Aversion. = products of transferred motion,

and the interplay of appetites and aversions constitutes Hobbes

depiction of human nature.

Human nature: is a direct mechanic product of physical processe. Appetites and avesions:born with men (caused by internal

motions, some proceeding from Experience (caused by external

motions).

-deliberation of the will is purely subjective to the persondeliberating and therefore cannot be considered a science.

11: Difference in manners arise from our lack of precise phil knowledge

about the best and most expedient way to negotiate between power and

fear.

-people are in constant fear of possible dangers, evil turns of event, or

sudden death, due to not knowing the outcome of actions or forsee the

future.: he believes fear stems from ignorance of cuases that religions have

been invented to posit causal forces in an effort to dispel fear.

-universe was first set into motion by a Prime mover.


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13: Natural state of man: before society, gnmt, and the invention of law.

Free from all artificial interferences= continuous war and violence, of death

and fear. state of nature

Famous Line

during the time men live without a common power to keepthem all in awe, they are in condition which is called warre,

and such a warre, as in of everyman against every man,.. in

such condition, there is no place for industry, no culture of

the earth, no navigation .. no commodious building; no

instruments of moving no knowledge of the face of the

earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and

which is worst ofall; continual fear; and danger of violent

death; and the life of man, solidarity, poor, nasty, brutish,

and short.

Didnt actually exist ever but can be deduces and seen fromsavages of America and our lack of trust in others, criminal

behavior, and in domination of weak countries by strong contries.

Fear and Reason** allow us to escape. Fear makes us want to andReason gives us the tools to escape. Reason provides NLaws that

he has explained.

14-16: First law of nature:

everyman ought to endeavor peace, as farre as he can hope ofobtaining it = can use war to obtain it.

Second: all right to defend peace. defend ourselves. Must divert ourselves of the right to take another persons life. In

order to escape natural war.

That a man be willing, when others are so too (as farre-forth, asfor peace, and defence of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay

down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty

against other men, as he would allow other men against himself-

mutual transfer or rights is calledCONTRACT. Basis of moral

obligation.

CAN NEVER GIVE UP RIGHT OF SELF PRESERVATION.


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3RD:NOT enough to make contract, we need to uphold them. =justice.- people naturally seek power however. Sovereignty

needed to uphold this 3rd law.

-set up escape of law of nature. 4th: show gratitude towards those who maintain contract so no one

regrets it.

5th: accomidating to others to protect the contract and not quarrelover minor isssues lest the contract collapse.

6) pardon those who have commited offences in the past 7) punish only to correct the offender and to protect the contract.

(not an eye for an eye- retribution)

etc.. The contract, symbolizing social unity, is an artificial person, and

with this equation hobbes launches the powerful oconography of the

Leviathan.

17-19:

need common power, sovereign, to force people to uphold thecontract- ppl seek power.

-be established by people as part of the contract, endowed with theindividual powers and wills of all, the authorized to punish anyone

who breaks the convenant. = operates through fear. I authorize and give up thy right of governing my selfe, ot this

man

-power to do whatever he deems necessary in orer to protect thecommonwealth.

-only right retained is self preservation.- original reason for startingcommon wealth

o 2 ways to commonwealth: -Force or agreement. Both have same function. To

protect society and secure peace

Rights of Sovereign:

1) sole loyalty 2) no freedom from obligation 3) ppl must submit to majority


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4) cannot be unjust or injure any innocent subject 5) cannot be put to death 6) acceptable ideas (ultimate judge) 7) prescribe legislative rules 8) judicial power in both civil and intellectual 9) make war and peace with other commonwealths 10) choose councilors 11) reward and punish 12) militia and civil appointments\

-All apart of law of nature; owes power to laws of nature.

Monarchy is best (5)

o interests are the same as his ppls. his body is the body of thestate.

o Can accept experts and take private advice.o More consistent because he is one mindo Less civil war; cannot disagree with himself.o Sucession is stable cause he can choose heir and method of

sucession.

20-22:

-power by instituation, or universal consent, gains support of pplbecause they fear each other.

-by acquisition they fear him; gain support. -both consented by social contract.= both by fear. Familiar power is matrilineal in state of nature; only she knows who

father is of child- give power to father in SON because of fear of

protection- paternal.

-this is accident due to power of men; should naturally be women.-dictate of religion

despotic power- acquisition; master and servant. But also bycontract. Therefore paternal and despotic are one in the same

cause of contract. Not like master and slave.

Liberty: ability to act ones will w/o being physically hindered from

perfroming the act. Therefore absolute liberty under sovereign= no

chains. Just artificial chains of mandate and legislature. From

contract.- they create own chains


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Liberty did not exist in SON. fear and power still present in

commonwealth but given as tools to sovereign to protect.- you are

responsible for own fate if killed and imprisoned by sovereign.

Only right to self preservation; no disobedience.- can punish for it

but can run from death.If sovereign no longer can fulfill than back to SON.

Poliitcal systems are established by the sovereign, private systems

are unlawful violations.

-public ministers are set up by sovereign. Administer certain sets of affairs.-

joints of leviathans body.

-goods produces are the nutrition for the leviathan body. Money is the blood

that circulates throughout the body. Keeping it animated. Finally the

leviathan produces itself by bearing children: plantations or colonies

26, 29, 30:

Civil Laws: are those rules commanded by the sovereign throughword, writing, or other sign of his will. Laws must be made known

in order to be laws and if they cannot be known (not told, child,

idiot,) then cannot be justly enforced.

Laws of nature not subject to communication for they are knowablethrough reason alone.

29: an unhealthy L:1) if sovereign lacks absolute powers2) actions determined good or bad by every

private individual, rather than civil law

3) ppl hold mistaken beliefs that onesconscience should always take precedence

over civil duty

4) faith in super natural phenomena ratherthan learned doctrine inst. By sov.-

challeges his knowledge

5) if he subject to laws he creates6) divide up sovereign power amongselves.7) Commonwealth imitates gvnt of other

nations

8) Imitates greek or romans


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9) Maintain a sense of individual proprietyover personal goods, thus resisting claim

to sovereings rightful claim to all

properties of the commonwealth

10) Divides civil spiritual religious authority11) Mixed gvnt. Of varying modes of

administration

30:

o office is design to procure the safety of the people- souldisappears when office is no longer fulfilled. Civil war fucks

shit up. Also if in international war enemy is victorious.


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Second Treatise Of Government 4/22/2012 10:38:00 AM

Locke- second treatise of government

-justify rule of king William. Speak against intellectual and moral failings of

sir Robert Filmers writings.

What is political power? Who has and who has not the right to political

power? Who naturally or originally possesses political power?

adam was not given absolute authority over the world and his children by

God. adams heirs therefore, did not have this authority. no one can claim

rights since it is impossible to identify adams heirs today.

Refutes Filmer divine right of sovereignty Pol. Power: -right to make laws for the protection and

regulation of property; these laws are backed by the

community, for the public good.

What is so distinctive about Lockes conception of political power?

How does it contrast with the natural subjection tradition?

How does Lockes theory fit within the natural freedom tradition?

nature?

State ofequality in which no one has power over another, and allare free to do as the please. This liberty does not equal license to

abuse others, and the natural law exists even in the state of nature.

-every individual has the power to execute NLs, which areuniversal.

Proof of this natural law lies in the fact that, even though a personcannot reasonably be under the power of a foreign king, if a person

commits a crime in a foreign country, they can still be punished.

NL simply demands that punishment fit the crime- can address anycrime to discourage the offender from repeating it.


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-only once people in SON make a special compact or agreementbetween them are they anything, makes them memberes of a

political society.

r individuals to be equal and independent in thestate of nature?

- assume rights and moral code.

-governs and renders all people equal, and every individual hold the

executive power of NL.

are our natural duties and natural rights?

and the state of war?

- War: enmity and destruction

-brought about by one persons pre-meditated attempts to upon anothers

life.

Law ofSelf preservation: integral to the law of nature, dictates that a

person may kill another person in self defense; any agreesion by one person

against another constitutes a challenge by that persons freedom. Canjustificably kill a theif. Threat property is a threat on ones liberty.

SON: - involves ppl living together, gonvered by reason, without a common

superior, whereas the state of war

Sow: occurs when people make designs of force upon another without

common authority. right to war of attacked party.

Want of common judge or authority; is the defining characteristic of the

SON- force without right is adequate basis for the state of war.

In society: war ends when the actual force is over because both parties

can then resort to the common authorities for arbitration of past wrongs.

In nature: war does not end unitil the one aggressive party offers peace

and reparations for the damage done; until then, the innocent party has a

right to try to destroy the aggressor.

-that in the presence of a common authority that fails to act justly,the only possible state is a state of war. Because arbitrating


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power in place to stop war is itself in violation of the laws of nature

and justice

one major reason people enter society is to avoid the state of war,for the presence of a supreme power limits the necessity for war

and increase stability and security.

Natural liberty: persons right to be ruled solely by the laws of nature,

and

social liberty as the right to be under no legislative power other than that

founded by the consent of the common wealth, functioning for the

commonwealths benefit.

-slavery: the freedom from arbitrary, absolute power is so fundamental that,

even if one sought to, one could not relinquish it. Impossible to enlist into

slavery voluntarily.

Only possible extension of slavery is the state of war: between a lawful

conqueror and a captive. Forced into obedience.

Ex. Jews in exodus; did not sell selves into slavery; but simply into

drudgery, for their masters did not have full power over their lives, and

therefore did not have full control over their liberty.

War= conflict.

Vs Filmer and

nature?

- hobbes: because people are so base and destructive, gnmt must

keep them in line by exerting absolute control.

Lock: ppl have right to respond to offensive incursions by unjust leadership

as they would to offensive incursions by other people in the state of nature

**

-unlike hobbes, locke does not believe that people must have power over

themselves wrested from them in order to create functional societies, on the

contrary locke sees personal liberty as the key component of society

that workds towards the individuals and the commonwealths best

interest.


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government?

-gvmts are institute by the people and derive their just powers from

the consent of the governed.

political society? Is it one of natural subjection, alienation, or trust?

regime?

is the difference between express and tacit consent?

nature)?

justification of capitalist accumulation and private property?

-one can only take so much as one can use. Ex. Land : a person in a

state of nature can claim land by adding labor to itbuilding a house on it or

farming it. Only so much as it is not wasteful. Over extended natural rights.

Labour is a determining factor of value, the tool by which humans make

their world a more advantageous and rewarding place to inhabit


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-can acquire to much resource and then use it to trade and barter.

-property: each person owns his or her body, and all the labour that they

perfrom with the body. When an individual adds their own labor, their ownproperty, to a foreing object or good, the object becomes their own because

they have added their labour.

-ex. Picking an apple; it is mine for I have used my labour to pick it.-does

not require approval of humankind- each person has license to

appropriate things in this way by individual initiative

and property rights in political society? What does it mean that government

has no other end but the preservation of property (paragraph 94)?

te the provisos on property rights?

peoples in North

America from their lands, and European colonialism?

- born without reason; need parents. Until child is grown old enough.

Reason leads to personal freedom: commonwealth attributes the

responsibilities and duties of an adult to a person who reaches this age.

-problem: equation of monarchal power with paternal power.

If include maternal w/ paternal the mistake of associating parental power

with the political power would not happen. Totally different powers.

-ch7: first society: between man and woman. Then descrive conjugal society

as separate from political society; in it the master and mistress of the

household have power over everyone in that household, althought hat power

is neither absolute (they lack the power of life and death) or political.


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Civil society: as a nunited body of individuals under the power of an

executire that protects their property and well being, and designs legislation

to govern their behavior. Commonwealth combines the leg. Power to make laws and the

executive power to enforce laws, with the publics support. The

difference between this and the paternalistic society, in which

people are born into filial obligations that ehn extend throughout

their adulthood.

Violation of Absolute monarchy: no common authority over all. By investing

authority in one person the entire system suffers.

Since the monarch can impinge on ppls property and welfarewithout fear of retribution, the ppl lack the comfort, protection and

incentive to contribute to the good of the commonwealth.

Therefore to avoid this:o Legislature and executive must be placed in a collective body.

Thus no individual is exempted from or above the laws of the

commonwealth.

Political power cannot be paternal: assumes that ppl either arewithout reason, or recognizes their reason and thus becomespowerless.

Same as conjugal : master slave; both poor models of civil society;slavery as an extension of the state of war.

8-9:

-governing factor must be Majority. For pratical reasons.

=submits self to majority by entering civiil society, and agree to abide by

rules and decisions of majority.

the beginning of politic society depends upon the concsent of individuals, to

join into, and make one society historical submit to father of own family

or groups of families. = even this is consent.

Since born under some form of gvnt. They are not infact free and at liberty

to unite together to change that gvmt.


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-one may bidn to that gvnt but cant force child to.

Give up natural freedom to enter society because they want toassure protection of their lives, liberties and estates all of which

considered property.

Nature Lacks 3 things: all of which just civil society provides: established, settled, known law a known and indifferent judge power to back and support the sentence to gain three: must relinquish their natural rights 1) submitting oneself to the laws of civil society, stricter

than those of nature.

2) in favour of putting onself under the protection of theexecutive power of the society.

All working to no other end, but the peace, safety, andpublic good of the people.

10-11:

majority enter CW choose their form of gvmt. Democracy, retain leg. Power to theselves Oligarchy, in which they submit that leg. Power to a few select

persons

Monarchy, give power to a single person. Can be hereditary orelected by majority.

Majority always has power to change gvmt. Legislative power is supreme power which constitutes which

gvmt is in place.

All types exist for commonwealth, hense the term. LP:

o Fisrt rule: preservation of the society. No one can challengeLP or pass laws of their own; all such power is invested in this

body bt the majority. Majority can challenge leg. Only.

o Limits to their power LP: Leg must govern by fixed promulgated established

laws that apply equally to everyone; these laws must

be designed solely for the good of the people, and the


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leg. Must not raise taxes on the property of the people

w/o their consent.

Concern: long term office holders.o may think themselves as separate from society, and start

working for their own best interests rather than for societys.o Leg does not have power to transfer its power it cannot

give the right o make laws to anyone else since the ppls

majority have placed this power with the legislative and the

majority will, being the only force more powerful than the

legislature, cannot contradict.

12-13

o No point for leg to always be in session. No need for constantflow ofnew laws. carries risk of abuse when always in

session.

o Executive must always be active, because the laws that legpasses must always be enforced. Therefore both need to be

separate Leg an Ex.

o International civ state. : the individuals and gvmt formingcivil state are one single body; in eyes of other state they are

in state of nature. International relations are gvnd by

natural law.o Often governed by executive power. Manages society

within.

oo 13:

despite the high powers of leg. The popel are stillsupreme over all. And have the power to remove or

alter the legislature as the deem best. Community is

always true supreme power.

o W/in gvnt, leg is always supreme.o Ex. Only has supreme execution, not supreme control of the

gvmt.

Does not control legislature; If impede the meeting and acting of the leg.

When it is required, this constitutes an act of war


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against the people, since the have a right to the

protection and work of that body when the state

requires it.

Control of the ex. Over leg. Then is anecessary trust placed in the executive: theleg cannot meet constantly and the

executive presides in its absence.

Ex must deal with number changes inpopulation also when disorder springs up.

14:

situations will have to be dealt with before leg can assemble toprovide laws for situation. Here the Ex may exercise ex prerogative,

or simply Good judgment. The ex is qualified to take actions

that are outside the framework of the laws, (not breaking them,

just not provided for by them).

o If the actions advance the societies best interest.o nothing but the power of doing public good without rule.

Encroachments can only be made on the public good, not on

executive privilege or rights. the ex only has power inasmuch as the

people invest it. Trust placed in the ex by people, free to use as long as it isused fairly.

reigns of good princes have always most dangerous theliberties to people threat form his heir cause people allowed him

to exercise rights because he was fair- seen as giving to much

power once heir comes.

If to much power taken;People can and must invoke that ultimate determination

to themselves which belongs to all mankind whether

they have just cause to make their appeal to heave

and act agains the ex in these cases.

18-19:

Tyranny:the exercise of power beyond right. -leader bound by laws of leg and works for the ppl.


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Tyrant: breaks the laws an acts on his own behalf. Any gvnt body,not just monarch.

Factors that limit the ppl from hastily opposing the gvmt.o Sancity of the executive; faith that laws will prevent necessity

of force.o Fear that small group of individuals will never overthrow

powerful leader with success.

oo Forming new government:

When the state ceases to function for the people, it isdissolved, and may be replaced.

Occurs when Leg is replaced or usurped by tyrannicalex power. When the legislative or Ex. Breaches its

trust, or when the ex. Ignores its own duties and

renders the law meaningless, reducing socity to chaos

When dissolved. Ppl free to reform the leg. In order to re

create a civil state that works in their best interest b4 they

fall under tyrannical rule

Why does this doctrine not lead to excessive unrest and

frequent rebellion?

-people are to slow to change their old habits andcustoms.

If ppl are miserable, they will rebel under andsystem.

Finally, revolutions occur only in the event of theleaderships flagrant abuse of power or breach of trust.

o This system, lock argues, protects against rebellion becauseit allows the ppl to change their leg and law rather than

resorting to force to overthrow them.

o All concerns about revolution are foolish. b/c theyrepresent a fear of a righteous process: it is rightful and

difnified for people to rebel against unjust oppression.

o Barclay: uses this dude to describe situations in which ppl may

overthrow the kings.


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o Even a great defender of royal priviledge concedes that kingmay abdicate himself by abusing the power of his position,

and that at that point people have the right to overthrow hi.

oo The ppl judge when the leader has abused his power to

such an extent that he may be overthrown

oPpl always being free toerect a new form, or under old

form place it in new hands, as they think good.


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4/22/2012 10:38:00 AM

Marx/ Engels- The communist Manifesto

A spectre is haunting Europe--- the spectre of Communism make public their views aims and tendencies and to dispel the

maliciously implanted misconceptions.

Begins with issue ofclass antagonism the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class

struggle. Oppressor and oppressed in constant stuggle. Sometimes

hidden sometimes open. Each time the fight ends in either

revolutionary reconstruction of society or in the classes common

ruin.

Medieval times: feudal lords, vassals, guild masters, journeymen,apprentices and sefs.

Modern : bourgeois society sporuted form the ruins of feudalsociety. Has class antagonism as well, but is also unique: class

antagonisms have become simplified, as society increasingly

splits into two rival camps- bourgeoisie and Proletariat.

Modern is product of several revolutions in the mode ofproductionand of exchange.

Began in earlier towns, and gained momentum witht eh age ofExploration. Feudal guilds couldnt provide for increasing markets.

So manufacturing middle class took its place.

Markets kept growing and manufacture couldnt keep up. Lead to Industrial Revolution.- replace middle class with

industrial millionaires, the modern bourgeoisie.

Development of Modern industry and the world-market,bourgeoisie gained exclusive political sway.

State serve solely B interests.

All remaining relations between men are characterized by self-interest alone.

Religious fervor, chivalry and sentimentalism have all beensacrificed.

Personal worth measured by exchange value, and the only freedomis that ofFree Trade.

Before was religious illusions, not exploiatation is brutal and direct. All occupation has changed into wage laboring profession, even

those honoured such as doctor.


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Also family relations have lost their veil of sentimentality and havebeen reduced to pure money relations.

B are unique; cannot continue to exist withoutrevolutionizing the instruments of production.- and all the

relations of society. Need a constantly expanding market, it settles and established

markets all over the globe.

Even intellectual production: national sovereignty andisolationism becomes less and less possible to sustain.

create a world after its own image forcing uncivilized statesinto their world.

Modern B society is in the process ofturning on itself

Modern productive forces are revolting against the moderncondition of production.

Commercial crisis- over production (ironic). The weapons by which the bourgeoisie overcame feudalism

are now being turned on the bourgeoisie themselves.-

production

Proletariat:

Live only as long as they can find work, and they can find work onlyas long as their labor increases capitol.

-they are a commondity and vulnerable to all fluctuations of themarket.

Machines and the division of labour: work has lost all charm. Theyare simply and appendage of the machine.

Work becomes more repulsive and wages become lower. soldier and a slave distinction of sex and age less important. Not only exploited through wages paided by boss, but also

landlord bourgeoisie.

Trades people slowly shrink into proletariat. they lack sufficientcapitol; and skills rendered useless from technology

Individual struggle at first, became groups against B whodirectly exploited them.

Divided by geography and competition with one another = P


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Once in unions they were under the influence of the B and actuallyserved to further the objectives of the B.

Now; increase in numbers and become stronger and concentrated. All share equally low wages and unsure livelihoods.= begin to form

trade unions Increase in communication; helps make them stronger.= can

take on national character.

o As long as B uses P to further their own political ends, givesthem tools to become stronger- despite constant competition

between P.- just becoming stronger and stronger.

Shopkeeper is conservative fighting for existence, so notrevolutionary like P.

Law morality religion, are to hium so many B prejudices,behind which lurk in ambush just as many B interests. Old

society long past.

unique: Lack any property of their own; even though have

upperhand now, cant force their own mode of appropriation.

Must destroy all ways of securing private property at all. Unique: they are a majority! Not minority movement. -first and foremost a national struggle. In order for a class to be able to be oppressed, h.e, its slavish

existence must be sustainable, held steady: in contrast, laborers

in modern industrial society are continually suffering a

deterioration of their status. They become poorer and poorer.

B are thus unfit to rule, because they cannot guarantee anexistence to its slave within its slavery.

Thus, development of modern industry, the B produces its owngrave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the P are equally

inevitable.

Communists:

formation of the P into a class, the overthrow of the B supremacy, and the

conquest of political power by the P.

-describes historical movement in process already in motion. Includes

abolition of private property.


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fruits of their own labour right to property (reason commisreproached)

yet he points out,o laborers do not acquire any property through their labour.o Property or capitol they produce serves to exploit

them.

o Property controlled by B represents a socialnot a personalpower.

o Changing it to common property does not abolish propertyas a right, but merely changes its social character, by

eliminating its class character.

o Commi: Labour will exist for the sake of the laborer Not for sake of producing B-controlled propery. Challenges Bs freedom idea. you are horrified at our intending to do away with

private property. But in your existing society,

private property is already done away with for

nine-tenths of the population.

Objections to commi:

No one will work if private property is abolished?o B society should have been overcome with laziness

long ago.

o Those who work dont acquire anything, those who dont workacquire everything.

Commi will destroy all intellectual productso Reflects B misunderstanding. Disappearance ofclass

culture is not the same as the disappearance of all culture

Abolish the family: he says baised on capital and private gain.o plead guilty to wanting to do away with present familial

relations in that they want to stop the exploitation of children

by their parents.

o Dont want to abolisheducation of children, but simply freeit from the control of the ruling class.


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o Industry increasingly destroys the family ties of the P; thus itrenders family and education as means for the

transformation of children into articles of commerce.

o Abolish country and nationality:

o Workingmen have no country; and we cant take what themwhat they dont have.

o National differences and antagonismslose significance asindustrialization increasingly standardizes life.

Religion, phil, ideology- not deserving of serious examination. the ruling ideas of each age have ever been the ideas of its ruling

class.- in response to certain universal ideas, =justice.

Only an apparent universality; reflecting an overriding history ofexploitation and class antagonism.

First step in working class Rev.

Make P ruling class. Political power to seize all capital from the B and to centralize all

instruments of production under the auspices of the state.

In beginning,not possible without despotic inroads on therights of property, an on the conditions of B production.

o Probably steps: Abolition ofownership of land The institution of a heavy progressive or

graduated income tax

Abolition of all inheritance rights. Confiscation of emigrants and rebels property Making all people liable to labour State centralization of credit of transport and communication appropriation of factories elimination of the distinction between town and

country

establishment of free education for children.


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when class distinctions have disappeared, public power will loseits political character.

Pol. Power : nothing more than the organized power of oneclass for oppressing another

-eliminate old conditions of production, they will render classantagonism impossible, and therby eliminate their own class

supremecy.

associationin which the free development of each is thecondition for the free development of all


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4/22/2012 10:38:00 AM

Rawls- A theory of Justice

-society based on equality

-argues for the principled reconciliation ofLiberty and Equality

-account of the circumstance of justice, and a fair choice situation for partiesfacing such circumstance.

Principles of justice are sought to guide the conduct of the parties.

-Parties are recognized to face moderate scarcity(shortage), and they are

neither naturally altruistic (unselfish) nor purely egoistic (self seeking).

They have ends which they seek to advance, but prefer to advancethem through cooperation with others on mutually acceptable

terms

-Rawls offers fair choice situation

The original position* with its Veil of Ignorance ** parties hypothetically choose mutually acceptableprinciples of

justice.

o under such constraints, Rawls believes that parties would findhis favored principles of justice to be especially attractive,

winning out over varied alternatives, including utilitarianism

and libertarian accounts

o1) the Original Position:

-social contract tradition- rawls.

-Principles of justice through artificial device he calls the OP* in which

everyone decidesprinciples of justicebehinda veil of ignorance.

Blinds them of facts about themselves; that might cloud whattheir notion of justice is.

"no one knows hisplace in society, his class position or social status, nor

does anyone knowhis fortune in the distribution of natural assets and

abilities, his intelligence, strength, and the like. I shall even assume that

the parties do not know their conceptions of the good ortheir special

psychological propensities. The principles of justice are chosen behind a

veil of ignorance."

Ignorance will lead to principles fair to all.


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Not know how he will end up in his own conceived society Likely not going to privilege any one class of people. But rather develop a scheme of justice that treats all fairly.

o Rawls claims would adapt a Maximim :would maximize theprospects of the least well-off.

They are the principles that rational and free persons concerned tofurther their own interests would accept in an initial position of

equality as defining the fundamentals of the terms of their

association [Rawls, p 11]

Develop Two principles in this OP*:

Which would govern the assignment of rights and duties, andregulate the distribution of social and economic advantages

across society.

2) The difference Principle:

Permits inequalities in the distribution of goods only if thoseinequalities benefit the worst-off members of society.

Rational choice:o For members in OP* b/c:o each member of society has an equal claim on their societys

goods.

o Natural attributes should not affect this claim So the basic right of any individual, b4 further

considerations are taken into account, must be to an

equal share in material wealth.

o What could justify unequal distribution? R: that inequalityis acceptable only if it is to the

advantage ofthose who are worst off.

Hypothetical: they dont have to agree to these conditions, just most likely

they would. = therefore; principles have MORAL WEIGHT.

3) The First Principle of Justice


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First: each person is to havean equal right to the most extensive basic

libertycompatible with a similar liberty for others

Basic liberties:o Vote/run for officeo Freedom of speecho Assemblyo Liberty of consciousnesso Personal propertyo Arbitrary arresto

-freedoms not on the list are not protected for they are not basic:

ex.o Right to own certain kinds of property (means of production)o Freedom of contract as understood by the doctrine of

laissez-faire are not basic-

o Not protected by 1st P.4) Second Principle of Justice

Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that (a) they are to be of the greatest benefit to the least-

advantaged members of society (the difference principle).

(b) offices and positions must be open to everyone under

conditions offair equality of opportunity

a) departure from equality of a list of what he calls -primary goods

:things which rational man wants whatever else he wants

-justified only to the extent that they improve the lot of those whoare worst-off under that distribution in comparison witht eh

previous, equal distribution

o semi-egalitarian; with exception equality is not to be achieved by worsening the

position of the least advantaged.

Yet inequalities can be if they are to the benefit ofthe least well off.


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Argument rests on claim that morally arbitraryfactors such as

Ex. Familyone is born into, shouldnt determineones life chances or opportunities

Ex. Also one does not morally deserve theirinborn talents

Thus, that one is not entitled to all the benefitsthey could possible receive from them, hence

Atleast one of the criteria which couldprovide an alternative to equality in

assessing the justice of distrubtions is

eliminated.

B)

Fair equality of opp. Requires not merely that offices andpositions are distributed on the basis of merit, but that all have

reasonable opportunities to acquire the skills on the basis of

which merit is assesed

May require greater equality than the difference principle,because large social and economic inequalities, even when they are

to the advantage of the worst-off, will tend seriously to undermine

the value of the political liberties and any measures towards

fair equality of opportunity. Feminist critics of Rawls, such asSusan Moller Okin,[7]largely

focused on weakness of Rawls' in accounting for the injustices and

hierarchies embedded in familial relations. Rawls argued that

justice ought only to apply to the "basic structure of society."

Feminists, rallying around the theme of "the personal is political,"

took Rawls to task for failing to account for injustices found in

patriarchal social relations and the gendered division of labor,

especially in the household.

Since they know all the general facts about human societies,

however, the parties will realize that society might depart from this
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Moller_Okinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Moller_Okinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Moller_Okin


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starting point by instituting a system of social rules that

differentially reward the especially productive and could achieve

results that are better for everyone than are the results under rules

guaranteeing full equality. This is the kind of inequality that the

Difference Principle allows and requires: departures from fullequality that make some better off and no one worse off.

With this departure from Harsanyi in mind, we may finally explain

why the parties in the OP will prefer the principles of Justice as

Fairness, including the Difference Principle, to average

utilitarianism. In laying out the reasoning that favors the Difference

Principle, Rawls argues that the parties will have reason to use the

maximin rule. The maximin rule is a general rule for making

choices under conditions of uncertainty. It is markedly different

from the rule of maximizing expected value, the more averaging

sort of rule that Harsanyis parties employ. The maximin rule directs

one to select that alternative where the minimum place is higher (on

whatever the relevant measure is) than the minimum place in any

other alternative. Applied to the theory of social justice, maximin is

an approach a person would choose for the design of a society in

which his enemy is to assign him his place. TJ at 133.

But Rawlss parties instead know that the primary goods that they

are motivated to seek do not adequately match anyones conception

of the good. Accordingly, it is rational for them to take a cautious

approach. They must do what they can to assure to the persons they

represent have a sufficient supply of primary goods for those

persons to be able to pursue whatever it is that they do take to be

good.

What matters, rather, is whether the premises are ones that we do,

in fact, accept.

censorship in leviathan

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