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PROCESS OPERATIONSPROCESS OPERATIONS



Editorial Director: Vern AnthonyAcquisitions Editor: David PloskonkaEditorial Assistant: Nancy KestersonDirector of Marketing: David GesellExecutive Marketing Manager: Derril TrakaloSenior Marketing Coordinator: Alicia WozniakSenior Marketing Assistant: Les RobertsProduction Manager: Holly ShufeldtArt Director: Jayne ConteCover Designer: Karen NoferiCover Art: Center for the Advancement of Process TechnologyFull-Service Project Management and Composition: IntegraPrinter/Binder: Edwards BrothersCover Printer: Lehigh-Phoenix Color

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle

River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected byCopyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage ina retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or

likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education,Inc., Permissions Department, Pearson Prentice Hall, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.

Many of the designations by manufacturers and seller to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Wherethose designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have beenprinted in initial caps or all caps.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Process operations / Center for the Advancement of Process Technology. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-700410-2 ISBN-10: 0-13-700410-9 1. Technical education—Study and teaching—United States. 2. Industrial arts—

Study and teaching—United States. 3. Technical education—Curricula—United States.4. Chemical processes—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Center for the Advancement of Process Technology

T73.P664 2012 660—dc23 2011018292

ISBN 10: 0-13-700410-9

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-700410-2

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1




Center for the Advancement of Process Technology

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River

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ContentsContents

Preface xi

Acknowledgements xiii

Industry Content Developers and Reviewers xiii

Education Content Developers and Reviewers xiv

Center for the Advancement of Process Technology Staff xv

Chapter 1 Introduction to Operations 1

Objectives 1

Key Terms 2

Introduction 2

Equipment Review 3

Systems Review 4

Instrumentation Review 5

Operations Organizational Structure 6

The Process Technicians’ Roles and Responsibilities 7

The Process Technician of the Future 9

Summary 9

Checking Your Knowledge 9

Activities 10

Chapter 2 Procedure Writing 11

Objectives 11

Key Terms 12

Introduction 12

Procedure Writing Principles and Techniques 12

Techniques for Effective Written Communication 16

Summary 23


Activity 25

Chapter 3 Reading Process Drawings 27

Objectives 27

Key Terms 28

Introduction 29

Uses for Common Process Drawings 29

Process Drawing Information 37

Symbols 41

Equipment Standards 49

v



vi Contents

Summary 50


Activities 52

Chapter 4 Complying with, Safety, Health, and Environmental Policies 53

Objectives 53

Key Terms 54

Introduction 54

Safety, Health, and Environmental Policies 55

The Process Technician’s Role in Safety, Health, and Environmental Policies 57

Safety Equipment 61

Environmental Hazards 64

Potential Hazards 65

Isolation Scenario 66

Routine Maintenance and Inspection 66

Summary 67Checking Your Knowledge 67

Activities 68

Chapter 5 Communication: Verbal, Nonverbal, and Written 69

Objectives 69

Key Terms 70

Introduction 70

Verbal Communication 71

Written Communication 72

Nonverbal Communication (NVC) 73Electronic Communication Devices 73

Communication during Start-Ups or Shutdowns 78

Communication during Routine Maintenance 79

Summary 80


Activities 81

Chapter 6 Shift Change/Relief 83

Objectives 83

Key Terms 84Introduction 84

Shift Change/Relief 84

Methods Used to Make Relief 85

Participants in the Shift Change 88

Making a Timely Relief 88

Establishing Good Relationships 90

Summary 90


Activities 91

Chapter 7 Abnormal and Emergency Operations 92

Objectives 92

Key Terms 93



Contents Vii

Introduction 93

Abnormal Operations 94

Emergency Operations 95

The Process Technician’s Role in Abnormal Operations 96

The Process Technician’s Role in Emergency Operations 97

Potential Hazards 99Technician Emergency Response Duties 99

Summary 104


Activities 105

Chapter 8 On-the-Job Training 106

Objectives 106

Key Terms 107

Introduction 107

Purpose and Importance of On-the-Job Training 107Training Methods, Skill Development, and Observing the Trainee 108

Training Materials 110

Summary 113


Activities 115

Chapter 9 Maintenance 116

Objectives 116

Key Terms 117

Introduction 117

Routine Maintenance 118

Predictive Maintenance 118

Reactive Maintenance 119

Preventive Maintenance 119

The Process Technician’s Role in Maintenance 120

Lubrication 124

Lubricant Storage, Handling, and Disposal 125

The Process Technician’s Role in Lubrication 127

Turnarounds and Turnaround Maintenance 128

The Process Technician’s Role in Turnarounds 130

Shutdowns and Start-Ups 133

Summary 134


Activities 135

Chapter 10 Unit Commissioning 137

Objectives 137

Key Terms 138

Introduction 138

Unit Commissioning 138Summary 143


Activities 145



viii Contents

Chapter 11 Unit Start-Up 146

Objectives 146

Key Terms 147

Introduction 147

Normal/Routine Start-Up 148

Start-Up after an Emergency Shutdown 149Equipment Start-Up after Maintenance Activities 150

Unit Start-Up 151

The Process Technician’s Role in Planning and Executing Start-Ups 152


Summary 156


Activity 157

Chapter 12 Lock-Out/Tag-Out 158

Objectives 158Key Terms 159

Introduction 159

Lock-Out/Tag-Out 160

Lock-Out and Isolating Devices 162

Types of Energy Requiring Isolation 167

Removing Lock-Out/Tag-Out Devices 167

Summary 168


Activities 169

Reference 169

Chapter 13 Utility and Auxiliary Systems 170

Objectives 170

Key Terms 171

Introduction 171

Steam Generation and Distribution 171

Water Systems 176

Firewater 178

Potable Water 179

Sanitary Sewer System 180

Wastewater 182

Refrigeration Systems 183

Cooling Towers 185

Electricity 187

Air Systems 189

Pressure Relief and Flare System 190

Nitrogen 192

Natural Gas 193

Summary 193Checking Your Knowledge 194

Activities 194



Contents ix

Chapter 14 Process Technician Routine Duties: Normal Operations 195

Objectives 195

Key Terms 196

Introduction 196

Routine Duties 196

Tools 198Equipment Monitoring 199

Equipment Health Monitoring (EHM) 200

Starting/Stopping Equipment 201

Personal Protective Equipment 202

Procedures 204

Documenting Routine Duties 204

Summary 204


Activities 206

Chapter 15 Sampling 207

Objectives 207

Key Terms 208

Introduction 208

The Importance of Sampling 208

Following Proper Sampling Procedure 209

Sample Points, Sample Loops, and Sample Containers 209

Wearing Proper PPE 211

Contamination, Consistency, and Reliability 213

Proper Labeling and Quantity 213

Sample Analysis 214

Summary 215


Activities 216

Chapter 16 Unit Shutdown 217

Objectives 217

Key Terms 218

Introduction 218

Normal or Routine Shutdowns 219

Emergency Shutdown 220

Shutdown for Equipment Maintenance 220

Entire Unit Shutdown for Turnaround 221

The Process Technician’s Role in the Planning and Execution of Shutdowns 221


Summary 225


Activity 226

Glossary 227

Index 233



PrefacePreface

The Process Industries Challenge

In the early 1990s, the process industries recognized that they would face a major short-age in human resources due to the large number of employees retiring. Industry part-

nered with community colleges, technical colleges, and universities to provide trainingfor their process technicians, recognizing that substantial savings on training and tradi-tional hiring costs could be realized. In addition, the consistency of curriculum contentand exit competencies of process technology graduates could be ensured if industrycollaborated with education.

To achieve this consistency of graduates’ exit competencies, the Center for theAdvancement of Process Technology and its partner alliances identified a core techni-cal curriculum for the Associate Degree in Process Technology. This core, consisting ofeight technical courses, is taught in partner member institutions throughout the UnitedStates. This textbook provides a common standard reference for the Process Operations course that serves as part of the core technical courses in the degree program.

Purpose of the Textbook

Instructors who teach the process technology core curriculum, and who are recognizedin the industry for their years of experience and their depth of subject-matter expertise,requested that a textbook be developed to match the standardized curriculum. Reviewersfrom a broad array of process industries and educational institutions participated in theproduction of these materials so that the widest audience possible would be representedin the presentation of the content.

This textbook is intended for use in community colleges, technical colleges,universities, and corporate settings in which process technology is taught. However,educators in many disciplines will find these materials useful as a complete refer-

ence for both theory and practical application. Students will find this textbook to be avaluable resource throughout their process technology career.

Organization of the Textbook

Process Operations has been organized into 16 chapters. Chapter 1 provides anoverview to the operations process and reviews related concepts from systems andinstrumentation. Chapters 2, 3, and 5 preview some of the skills involved in interpret-ing and communicating functional operability. Safety policy is presented in Chapter 4.Chapters 6, 8, 9, 14, and 15 expand on issues related to process technician roles. And,emergency-related operations are discussed in Chapters 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 16. Eachchapter is organized in the following way:

• Objectives

• Key terms

• Introduction

xi



xii Preface

• Summary

• Checking Your Knowledge

• Activities

The Objectives for a chapter may cover one or more sessions in a course. For example,some chapters may take 2 weeks (or 2 sessions) to complete in the classroom setting.

The Key Terms are a listing of important terms and their respective definitions thatstudents should know and understand before proceeding to the next chapter.

The Introduction may be a simple introductory paragraph or may introduce conceptsnecessary to the development of the content of the chapter itself.

The Summary is a restatement of the learning outcomes of the chapter.

The Checking Your Knowledge questions are designed to help students to self-test onpotential learning points from the chapter.

The Activities section contains activities that can be performed by students on theirown or with other students in small groups, as well as activities that should be performedwith instructor involvement.

Chapter Summaries

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO OPERATIONS

Roles of the process technician are reviewed as well as the importance of graspingkey concepts of equipment, instrumentation, and systems involved in functioningoperability.

CHAPTER 2: PROCEDURE WRITING

This chapter discusses writing techniques as they pertain to developing and conveying

operations procedures.

CHAPTER 3: READING PROCESS DRAWINGS

Drawings within the process industries, which include diagrams, plans, and symbols, aredescribed and explained.

CHAPTER 4: COMPLYING WITH SAFETY, HEALTH, AND ENVIRONMENTAL

POLICIES

Readers are shown how to understand and properly execute policies and proceduresrelated to safety, health, and environmental issues.

CHAPTER 5: COMMUNICATION: VERBAL, NONVERBAL, AND WRITTENCommunication is explained in terms of information sharing in verbal, nonverbal, andtechnical styles.

CHAPTER 6: SHIFT CHANGE/RELIEF

Information is provided regarding protocol for proper exchange of informationbetween shifts.

CHAPTER 7: ABNORMAL AND EMERGENCY OPERATIONS

This chapter focuses on examining the risks and hazards experienced by processtechnicians during abnormal operations.

CHAPTER 8: ON-THE-JOB TRAINING

New employee skills are reviewed with particular focus on preparation, organization,and training involved in the on-boarding process.



Preface xiii

CHAPTER 9: MAINTENANCE

The importance of appropriate and proper communication with maintenance techni-cians is discussed.

CHAPTER 10: UNIT COMMISSIONING

Process technicians review their roles during design, construction, and initial start-up

of a new process unit.

CHAPTER 11: UNIT START-UP

The unique expertise required of the process technician during unit start-up is dis-cussed, focusing on equipment safety and maintenance.

CHAPTER 12: LOCK-OUT/TAG-OUT

The control of hazardous energy is explained through isolation techniques.

CHAPTER 13: UTILITY AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

The role of utilities is reviewed, providing understanding of steam, water, fuel, com-

pressed air, inert gases, and cooling systems.

CHAPTER 14: PROCESS TECHNICIAN’S ROUTINE DUTIES:

NORMAL OPERATIONS

A wide range of process technician expertise is discussed to effect safe, efficient, andreliable operation of the process unit.

CHAPTER 15: SAMPLING

Proper sampling and testing techniques are presented to verify analyzers, diagnoseoperating problems, and allow process technicians’ reaction time during problematicsituations.

CHAPTER 16: UNIT SHUTDOWN

Situations surrounding shutdowns highlight appropriate equipment maintenance andrepair techniques as well as the importance of technology in safe, reliable operations.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The following organizations and their dedicated personnel voluntarily participatedin the production of this textbook. Their contributions to making this a successfulproject are greatly appreciated. Perhaps our gratitude for their involvement can best beexpressed by this sentiment:

The credit belongs to those people who are actually in the arena . . . who knowthe great enthusiams, the great devotions to a worthy cause; who at best,know the triumph of high achievement; and who, at worst, fail while daringgreatly . . . so that their place shall never be with those cold and timid soulswho know neither victory nor defeat.—Theodore Roosevelt

INDUSTRY CONTENT DEVELOPERS AND REVIEWERS

Charles Baukal, John Zink InstituteHenry Bell, GNS TechnologiesAnthony Bhola, HovensaTed Borel, TPC

Linda Brown, Pasadena Refining System, Inc.Gayle Cannon, Conoco PhilipsLewis Davis, Chemetall Foote Corp.Rawlin Delaughter, Exxon-Mobil



xiv Preface

Dan Durham, TotalCleve Fontenot, BASFEddie Gibbs, ShellTodd Griffen, Conoco PhillipsJay Gross, BASFRoy Guerra, MEMC

Kyle Hart, EnbridgeGlenn Johnson, Sun Products Corp.Bharat Kamdar, Ingenious, Inc.Robin Knowles, TDSDouglas Kubala, NalcoPam Lindsey, DuPontDennis Link, BPPerry Lovelace, John M. Campbell & CompanyDiane McGinn, IneosDan McKenzie, EnbridgeBernell Nettles, BPDon Parsley, Valero

Stephen Pehnec, John M. Campbell & CompanyBruce Raiff, Dow Chemical CompanyKim Roberts, Ascent MaterialsRay Schemanski, MarathonCarley Sherry, Sinclair OilPat Silvas, Flint Hills ResourcesChris Stewts, LanxessLee Trent, Future Tek, Inc.Mark Varner, RTCAMichael Wense, Marathon

EDUCATION CONTENT DEVELOPERS AND REVIEWERSLouis Babin, ITI Technical CollegeChuck Beck, Red Rocks Community CollegeJames Bowley, Kanawha Valley Community and Technical CollegeDonald Capone, Navarro CollegeRobert Chaffins, Ashland Community and Technical CollegeTommy Conerly, Mississippi Gulf Coast Community CollegeJerry Duncan, College of the MainlandBrian Ellingson, University of Alaska, FairbanksAlan Foster, Lewis and Clark CollegeDewey Greer, Kilgore CollegeRonald Grubb, Bellingham Technical CollegeHenry W. Haney, Kenai Peninsula CollegeFrank Huckabee, Remington CollegeBobby Key, Texas State Technical College, MarshallKaren Kupsa, College of the MainlandLinton Lecompte, Sowela Technical Community CollegeJoey Leonard, Nashville State Community CollegeRichard Love, West Virginia UniversityRocky Melder, Lamar UniversityKyren Miller, Bismarck State CollegeJuanita Naranjo, Louisiana Harbor CollegeJon Prater, Colorado Mountain College

Denise Rector, Del Mar CollegePaul Rodriguez, Lamar Institute of TechnologyVicki Rowlett, Lamar Institute of TechnologyDale Smith, Alabama Southern Community College



Preface xv

Wayne Stephens, Wharton County Junior CollegeKeith Tolleson, Nunez Community CollegeSteve Wethington, College of the MainlandJerry Wilkinson, Southwest Mississippi Community CollegeBennett Willis, Brazosport CollegeWilliam Wolf, Fayetteville Technical Community College

CENTER FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY STAFF

Anne Bechard, Education DeveloperChris Carpenter, Web Applications DeveloperMelissa Collins, DirectorKimberly Davis, Instructional DesignerJerry Duncan, Associate ProfessorMadi Elkins, Administrative AssistantBill Raley, Principal InvestigatorAngelica Toupard, Senior Instructional DesignerScott Turnbough, Graphic ArtistProcess Operations

This material is based upon work supported, in part, by the National ScienceFoundation under Grant No. DUE 0532652. Any opinions, findings, and conclusionsor recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do notnecessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.



1

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

■ Identify key concepts from the Introduction to Process Technology course.

■ Identify key concepts from the Process Technology Systems course.

■ Identify key concepts from the Instrumentation course.

■ Discuss the term operations and its process industries synonyms.

■ List the various process technician roles and responsibilities within an operating unit:

• Operate and monitor the unit from the control room

• Operate and monitor the unit from the outside

• Take and analyze samples

• Perform housekeeping activities

• Conduct safety inspections

• Handle materials

• Prepare for, assist with, and/or perform maintenance as required

■ Discuss the activities that may be the responsibility of the process technician ofthe future.

Introduction to Operations1C H A P T E R



2 Process Operations

Key Terms

Distributed Control System (DCS)—automated control system consisting of fieldinstruments and field controllers connected by wiring that carries a signal fromthe controller transmitter to a central control monitoring screen.

Hazard and Operability (HAZOP)—formal and structured review and studymethod used to determine potential hazards associated with process systems,equipment, process materials, and work processes.

Instrumentation system of pneumatics, electronic instruments, digital logic devices,and computer-based process controls that make up the measurement and controlsystems for process equipment for the purpose of safe, efficient, and cost-effectiveunit operation.

Lock-out/Tag-out (LOTO)—procedure used in industry to isolate energy sourcesfrom a piece of equipment.

Pre-Start-Up Safety Review (PSSR)—comprehensive review process, including alist of criteria and activities that must be reviewed and performed by a start-upteam to determine whether or not a unit or piece of process equipment is readyfor a safe start-up.

Procedure—specific series of actions that must be executed (followed) in the speci-fied manner to obtain the desired result under the same circumstances each timethe work is performed.

Process Hazard Analysis (PHA)—systematic assessment of the potential hazardsassociated with an industrial process, taking into account specific hazards andlocations of highest potential for exposure.

Process Technician—worker in a process facility who monitors and controlsmechanical, physical, and/or chemical changes throughout a process in order tocreate a product from raw materials.

Systems—set of interacting or interdependent equipment and process elements thatwork together to deliver a specific process function.

Introduction

Within the refining and petrochemical process environment, the term operations refersto the personnel group that makes up the facility operating team and includes pro-cess technicians, process engineers, and management. Other personnel such as main-tenance, safety, human resources, and information technology are often supportinggroups to the operations team.

In this chapter, we will focus on the process technician’s role in operations. Process

technicians are workers in a process facility who monitor and control mechanical,physical, and/or chemical changes throughout a process in order to create a productfrom raw materials. They perform the tasks required to operate a process facility safelyand to maintain product yield and unit parameters. The process technician may also bereferred to as an operator or a plant operator.

Process technicians receive site and unit-specific training for the area, or areas,of the facility to which they are assigned to work. Performance reviews, writtenexams, and other testing methods are used to evaluate the technician’s understand-ing of process operations within his or her area of responsibility, and to determinethe qualifications to operate specific areas within the facility. The qualified processtechnician is responsible for monitoring the process operation, making necessaryprocess adjustments, and maintaining desired unit conditions throughout his or herdesignated shift period.

The role of the process technician is extremely important in the safe and effi-cient operation of these process facilities. The technician needs to be familiar with

all aspects of the assigned area and is responsible for the safety of any personnel inthe area and for any of the work being done in that section of the process, even if thework is actually being performed by someone else.



CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Operations 3

Equipment Review

Various pieces of equipment, piping systems, instrumentation, and vessels makeup a process unit. It is the process technician’s responsibility to have a clear under-standing of the equipment associated with her or his assigned process area—its com-ponents, operating limits, and how they function together to produce the desiredend product(s)—in order to safely operate and maintain the equipment. Commonequipment used in process industries include: Distributed Control System (DCS),valves, pumps, compressors, turbines, motors, heat exchangers, cooling towers, fur-naces, boilers, reactors, tanks, separators, distillation towers, absorbers, strippers,extraction vessels, adsorbers, rotary kilns, calciners, control systems, laboratoryfacilities, and filters.

Process technicians must have a practical understanding of each piece of equip-ment within the assigned area of responsibility—its function, potential problems,environmental and safety concerns, potential quality issues, related operating andemergency procedures, and their role as a process technician according to standardoperating procedures and company requirements. Knowledge of how each piece ofequipment, piping systems, and associated instrumentation is integrated to make up

the process is crucial to the process technician’s overall understanding of his or herarea of responsibility. To further this understanding, the process technician mustbe proficient in reading process flow diagrams (PFDs), piping and instrumentationdiagrams (P&IDs), shown in Figure 1.1, and be able to identify the symbols used inthese types of drawings for various types of equipment in actual application, shownin Figure 1.2.

The process technician trains on equipment-specific procedures relative to start-up, normal operation, and shutdown, along with emergency operating proceduresand responding to abnormal equipment conditions. A procedure is a specific seriesof actions that must be executed in the specified manner to obtain the desired resultunder the same circumstances each time the work is performed. Part of the train-ing process includes procedure rehearsals, or “walk-throughs,” to develop under-

standing and proficiency in all phases of operation. Knowledge of the process, theequipment, and how each part affects upstream and downstream equipment andprocesses, along with understanding of equipment procedures, is crucial to safe andefficient operation.

FIGURE 1.1 P&ID

of Flow Orifice andControl Valve

FIGURE 1.2 Image of FlowOrifice and Control Valve asshown in P&ID in Figure 1.1




Additionally, process technicians should be trained to follow routine operat-ing procedures by following the steps exactly as written, unless otherwise instructedby supervisors. However, it is important to note that in an emergency situation, theinitial steps to secure a piece of equipment or a portion of the process may have tobe performed without a written procedure in hand so that the unit/equipment canbe safely secured until a procedure can be obtained. Procedure walk-throughs and

scenario-based training exercises prepare the process technician to respond to emer-gency situations and prevent personnel injury or equipment damage.The process technician is also responsible for lock-out/tag-out (LOTO), a pro-

cedure used in industry to isolate energy sources from a piece of equipment. Thetechnician must understand lock-out/tag-out procedures for the various pieces ofprocess equipment and piping in her or his assigned area to ensure personnel safetywhen maintenance is to be performed.

Systems Review

Systems are defined as a set of interacting or interdependent equipment and processelements that work together to deliver a specific process function. Depending on

how a facility is laid out, a process technician may be assigned to an area that hasmultiple systems.

For example, Unit A feeds its by-product stream to Unit B, which refines the UnitA by-product into one or more products for marketing. Hence, Unit A and B are bothinteracting and interdependent systems that are part of the whole process facility.There may also be several systems within a single unit, such as a cooling or refrigera-tion system. The coolant is piped from a pump or compressor through various pieces ofequipment to exchange heat and cool the process in that system. Both are interdepen-dent and interact with one another to achieve the desired process temperature.

During the Process Technology Systems course, the process technician learnsabout key systems within a process facility. Systems discussed include:

• Distillation System—process that separates feed stream components by repeatedvaporization and condensation with separate recovery of vapor and liquids. Dis-tillation systems work well where the boiling points for the separated componentsare not too close.

• Reactor System—process that chemically alters materials by the application ofheat and pressure, usually in the presence of a specific catalyst that initiates,speeds, or intensifies the chemical reaction.

• Steam Generation System—process that converts high-purity water to high-pressure, high-temperature steam for heating process streams, used as amotive agent for electrical power generation systems and/or a motive agent formechanical drives.

• Refrigeration System—system designed for the removal of heat. The system typi-cally consists of a compressor that circulates a refrigerant through a condenser, anexpansion valve or orifice, and an evaporator. The refrigerant may provide processcooling or cool a secondary system, such as water. A pump circulates the chilledwater for process cooling.

• Water System—system that includes fire water, process water, potable water,cooling water, demineralized water, and boiler feed water systems, among others.All of these water systems serve unique purposes within the process and areequally important to unit and process operation.

• Utility Systems—system that may include nitrogen, steam, plant air, instrumentair, natural gas, compressed gas, and so on. The various utility systems withinthe facility are critical to the operating unit and facility. The utility systems also

include the waste water disposal, process sewer, and flare systems that safelydispose of liquid and gaseous wastes in an environmentally sound manner.The waste water and process sewer systems transfer waste liquids to a treatmentfacility (either local or offsite) where water and hydrocarbons (or chemicals) are




separated. The water is cleaned and distilled for reuse and the recovered pro-cess materials are either stored and processed or disposed of. The flare systemburns hydrocarbons and other flammable materials at a very high temperature toprevent their release to the atmosphere.

• Relief Valve—safety device designed to open if the pressure of a liquid in aclosed space, such as a vessel or a pipe, exceeds a preset level. It’s a system

designed to protect personnel, equipment, and the environment by ventingexcess equipment pressure through relief valves. Personnel and the environmentare protected from hazardous releases and equipment is protected from exceed-ing design pressure limits.

• Flare System—device to burn unwanted process gasses before they are releasedinto the atmosphere. Relief valves vent to the flare system, which is designed toprotect site personnel and the environment from exposure to harmful chemicalsor hydrocarbons.

There are many systems within a process facility that are interdependent. Unit-specific systems training gives the process technician a better understanding of theinterdependency of various systems.

Instrumentation Review

Instrumentation is a system of pneumatics, electronic instruments, digital logic devices,and computer-based process controls that make up the measurement and controlsystem for process equipment for the purpose of safe, efficient, and cost-effective unitoperation. Instruments include simple devices that measure, transmit, and indicatevariables such as flow, temperature, level, or pressure. Figure 1.3 shows an example ofa Temperature Indicator (TI).

Instrumentation also includes complex devices and configurations such asinterconnected multiple controllers, analyzers, logic devices, and computers that auto-matically operate valves to establish and maintain desired conditions. Process control

is one of the main branches of applied instrumentation.During the Instrumentation course, the process technician learns about differenttypes of instrumentation for the measurement of pressure, flow, level, and tempera-ture. The course includes control loop terminology, nomenclature, and symbolism asthey relate to the process technician.

Key Instrumentation course information includes:

• Control Loop—group of instruments working together to control a single processvariable such as temperature, flow, pressure, or level. Typical components in acontrol loop include a sensor/indicator; a controller; an I/P transducer, whichusually converts the signal from the controller to a pneumatic signal; and a finalcontrol element, such as a control valve, an electrical switch, or a motor.

FIGURE 1.3 SimpleTemperature Indicator (TI)




• Motor Control Center (MCC)—enclosure that houses the feeder breakers, motorcontrol units, variable frequency drives, programmable controllers, and meter-ing devices needed to supply power safely to unit equipment. Typically, theMCC provides a safe, pressurized enclosure with one or more sections having acommon power bus.

• Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)—computer-based controller that uses

multiple inputs to monitor processes and automated outputs to control processes atdesired parameters. These controllers are relatively low in cost and typically controlspecific pieces of equipment or systems within a process unit. Also, PLCs may oper-ate independently of a DCS, and most are local to the equipment being controlled.

• Transmitter—instrumentation device that transmits a specified measurementsignal form the measuring element to the control device, indicator, or recorder,such as from a temperature-sensing element to a DCS indicator.

• Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS)—auxiliary power supply consisting ofbatteries that automatically provide temporary power, typically for controlsystems and lighting, when the normal power supply is interrupted. In somecases, a generator may augment the UPS.

Many different types of transmitters and controllers are used in the process indus-tries. The process technician is required to have a working knowledge of the specificinstrumentation within his or her unit or facility.

Operations Organizational Structure

The process operations organizational structure (shown in Figure 1.4) is comparableacross most production facilities, although titles may vary. Most facilities include thefollowing:

• Facility Management Team—generally consists of the Plant Manager, OperationsManager, Safety, Health, & Environment Manager, Human Resources Manager,Information Technology Manager, Engineering Manager, Maintenance Manager,

Security manager (if the facility is large enough), and perhaps a Project Managerif applicable.

FIGURE 1.4 Sample Operations Organizational Structure




• Operations Superintendent—reports directly to the Operations Manager. Inlarger process facilities, including refineries and petrochemical facilities, theremay be multiple superintendants assigned by directional orientation of the facility(i.e., north, west, etc.) or by unit. In some facilities, this layer of supervision maybe called the Operations Supervisor.

• Process Supervisor—directly responsible for unit operation. The process techni-

cians assigned to a shift report directly to the shift process supervisor, who, inturn, reports directly to the Operations Superintendent.• Process Technicians—directly responsible for running and maintaining the

process unit. Process technicians report directly to their team leader or processsupervisor.

• Process Engineering—determines operating parameters, makes and writesengineering recommendations, and may issue specific operating instructions fora work period—a shift, day, or week. The process engineer reports to the Engi-neering Manager or, in some locations, to the Operations Manager.

These positions make up the “operations” group. The remainder of the personnel insidean operating facility falls under different categories such as Maintenance, InformationTechnology Support, Safety, Human Resources, Security, Engineering (mechanical,electrical, civil), and Administration.

The Process Technician’s Roles and Responsibilities

Process technicians have different roles and responsibilities for each section of theoperating unit. For example, a process technician assigned to operate the controlboard has different responsibilities from a process technician assigned to monitor fieldactivities. In many facilities, process technicians cross-train to operate all areas of aunit, including the Distributed Control System (DCS).

The Distributed Control System (DCS) is an automated control system consist-ing of field instruments and field controllers connected by wiring that carries a signal

from the controller transmitter to a central control monitoring screen. The DCS is theinterface that allows the control board technician to monitor and control the processvia a computer graphics terminal or a PC where process diagrams and variables aredisplayed that can be manipulated by the DCS operator.

Automation systems such as the DCS allow greater control and optimization of oneor many processes simultaneously, ease of communication between the field and controlroom, and easy transmission of large amounts of data to and from a central location.Generally, the duties of a control board or DCS process technician are to optimize facil-ity operation to maximize production, minimize cost, and maintain product specifica-tions and personnel safety. More specifically, the duties include the following:

• Optimize facility operation to maximize production, minimize cost, and maintain

product specifications and personnel safety.• Perform necessary corrective actions when operating parameters exceed controlguidelines.

• Record performance data (readings) as required by the operating facility.• Interpret laboratory analysis and adjust process parameters to maintain product

quality specifications.• Participate in a thorough exchange of information from one shift or work team

to another (called shift change or turnover). The exchange should provide theoncoming shift with information regarding the following:• Safety and environmental issues that exist or were corrected• Process and equipment problems, including corrective actions taken• Material transfers in progress

• Special operating instructions• Items being coordinated with other process areas• Ongoing or upcoming unit maintenance or contract work• Technical support personnel working on the unit




• Monitor alarm reports and take corrective action as required.• Coordinate process activities with the field technician as required.• Coordinate maintenance, contractor and technical department activities with the

field technician as needed.• Record all laboratory analysis data as required.• Record shift activities in the unit logbook (paper or electronic).

• Participate in Process Hazard Analysis (PHA). A PHA is a systematic assess-ment of the potential hazards associated with an industrial process, taking intoaccount specific hazards and locations of highest potential for exposure. There ismore than one type of PHA.

• Participate in Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) studies, which are a formalreview and study method used to determine potential hazards associated withprocess systems, equipment, process materials, and work processes. HAZOP isonly one type of process hazards analysis.

• Participate in Pre-Start-Up Safety Review (PSSR), which is a comprehensivereview process, including a list of criteria and activities that must be reviewed andperformed by a start-up team to determine whether or not a piece of equipmentor process unit is ready for a safe start-up. The pre-start-up team is typically made

up of representatives from various departments or crafts, and each member mustsign off on the PSSR before start-up can be performed.

• Detect and troubleshoot process operation problems.• Maintain the qualifications and training requirements required by regulatory

agencies and assigned by each facility.• Perform other duties as directed by the facility management.

The field technicians have a wide range of duties to perform on a daily basis. Eachoperating facility develops guides and checklists that fit the facility operating require-ments. The field technician’s routine duties vary by company and the type of process,but may include the following:

• Participate in a thorough exchange of information from one shift to another

(called shift change or turnover ). The exchange should provide the oncoming shiftwith information regarding the following:• Safety and environmental issues that exist or were corrected• Process and equipment problems, including corrective actions taken• Material transfers in progress• Special operating instructions• Items being coordinated with other process areas• Maintenance or contractor work occurring on the unit• Technical support personnel working on the unit

• Make a thorough inspection of the technician’s area of responsibility and equip-ment at the beginning of the shift and at regular intervals throughout the shift

(referred to as rounds).• Oversee and assist maintenance personnel, contractors, and technical personnelworking in the field.

• Perform safety verification checks as required by the facility management.• Perform equipment inspections/surveys as directed by the facility management.• Check the technician’s area of responsibility for leaks.• Check rotating equipment for proper lubrication and operation.• Check the cooling tower and other auxiliary systems.• Prepare equipment for maintenance using accepted practices and guidelines.• Collect routine samples and special samples as needed.• Receive and store supplies and materials for the unit (lubricating oils, specialty

chemicals, and other supplies as required).

• Alert the control board technician of process or equipment abnormalities andsuggest corrective actions.

• Perform equipment preventive maintenance as directed by site policies.• Perform housekeeping as required.




• Record normal duties performed in the unit logbook (paper or electronic).• Participate in Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) studies.• Participate in Process Hazard Analysis (PHA).• Participate in Pre-Start-up Safety Review (PSSR).• Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).• Maintain qualifications and training requirements required by regulatory agen-

cies and assigned by each facility.• Prepare equipment for maintenance.

The Process Technician of the Future

The business environment of process-related industries, including refining and petro-chemical processing, is constantly changing. In order to compete in world markets, newtechnologies and imaginative applications for them must be implemented to maintainadequate profit margins. With these improvements, the role and responsibilities of thefuture process technician will continue to evolve.

With technology expanding at an explosive rate, the process technician will berequired to work more intimately with his or her unit process controls. Remote control

of process units will continue to evolve over the next several years.Whatever the future holds for the process-based industries, the process techni-

cian will remain an important position in the business. Process technician continuingeducation and improved training techniques may eventually eclipse technologicalchange and place the process technician in a position to initiate change.

Summary

The process technician plays an important function in maintaining safe, reliable, andprofitable operations. She or he is an integral member of the operations team and isthe primary person responsible for executing plans for optimizing the process. Thisindividual is the first line of defense in preventing unsafe conditions, leaks, and equip -

ment malfunctions.The major requirement of a process technician is that he or she must have anunderstanding of process systems, including equipment, and instrumentation in orderto operate and monitor the process safely. Without this knowledge, the process techni-cian may be unable to perform the basic duties.

Also, the process technician has various roles and responsibilities in the processindustry, including operating and monitoring the unit from the control room and fromthe outside. She or he is also required to conduct safety inspections, prepare equip-ment for maintenance, and perform various housekeeping duties. Other duties may beassigned as needed.

Technicians, as individuals and in teams, will provide ever greater business andtechnical competencies. Advanced technology will allow the industry to run more effi-

ciently and effectively in the future with the Control Board or DCS technician being theheart of the team.

Checking Your Knowledge 1. Define the following terms:

• Distributed Control System (DCS)• Hazard and Operability (HAZOP)• Lock-out/Tag-out (LOTO)• Pre-Start-Up Safety Review (PSSR)• Procedure• Process Hazard Analysis (PHA)

2. List five responsibilities required of a process technician to operate the unit control board.

3. Pre-Start-Up Safety Reviews are needed to ensure the unit ––––––––.a. is ready to shutdownb. has been started up successfullyc. is ready or not ready for a safe start-upd. has safely been shutdown




4. List five responsibilities of the outside process technician. 5. List six items the process technician will cover in his or her shift change communication. 6. Having a thorough exchange of information from one shift to another is a key responsibility

of the –––––––.a. process supervisorb. chemical Engineerc. process technician

d. operations superintendent 7. List five groups of people that may make up the Operations Department at a refining or

petrochemical facility. 8. The control room process technician may utilize a –––––––– to control the process.

a. manual valveb. DCSc. automatic valved. instrument to pneumatic converter

9. Systems are defined as a set of interacting or interdependent equipment and process ele-ments that work together to deliver a ––––––––.

a. specific process functionb. workable solutionc. final solution

d. specific process parameter 10. The process technician will record all relevant operations activities in the operations –––––––.

a. directoryb. logbookc. file cabinetd. computer

Activities 1. Perform research on the roles and responsibilities of the process technician. Using the

researched materials and the information from this chapter, write a one- to two-page paperdetailing what you believe to be the most critical responsibilities of a process technician.

2. Together with a classmate write a two-page report on the possible future for the process

technician. 3. Interview several process technicians from different companies with different types of pro-

cess facilities. Identify the tasks they have most in common and make note of differencesin their tasks and responsibilities. What do you think makes these roles so similar? And sodifferent?



11

Objectives


■ Define the function of an operating procedure and discuss the hazards associatedwith poor procedure development and improper use.

■ Explain the process for gathering information necessary to develop an operatingprocedure.

■ Explain the importance of effectively organizing procedure information and giveexamples of how information is best organized.

■ Demonstrate basic principles and various techniques for presenting proceduralinformation to the user.

■ Use action verbs that clearly explain what action is to be performed.

■ Give examples of words or phrases that clearly explain when an action is to beperformed.

■ Use adjectives or expressions that clearly explain how to execute a specific action.

■ Give an example of an instance when it would be important to explain why an actionis performed.

■ Give examples of and explain why certain words are purposely avoided when writingoperating procedures.

■ Demonstrate visualization techniques that improve the effectiveness of what theprocedure is intended to communicate to the user.

■ Explain the reasons for limiting procedural steps within a section or grouping.

■ Apply the techniques and principles presented in this chapter.

Procedure Writing2C H A P T E R




Key Terms

Checklist—procedure written in a list format that requires the user to initial orcheck the completion of each step.

Internal Procedure—company-specific procedure.International Organization for Standardization (ISO)—regulates safety and health

standards internationally.Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)—U.S. government agency

created to establish and enforce workplace safety and health standards, conductworkplace inspections and propose penalties for noncompliance, and investigateserious workplace incidents.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)—specialized gear that provides a barrierbetween hazards and the worker.

Procedure Owner—individual that is accountable for the accurate development andmaintenance of a procedure.

Procedure Template—form or guide that accurately and effectively shapes proce-dure presentation and content.

Procedure User—process technician trained and qualified on the subject matter of

the procedure prior to use.Process Safety Management (PSM)—OSHA standard that contains the require-ments for management of hazards associated with processes using highlyhazardous materials.

Standard Operating Procedure (SOP)—unit-specific procedures used for the purposeof equipment and system start-up or shutdown in normal operations, as well asemergency operations.

Subject Matter Expert (SME)—individual within an organization possessing a veryhigh level of expertise regarding a particular job, task, or process.

Introduction

Operating procedures are perhaps the most important documents in industry becausethey guide personnel to perform tasks safely, without safety incidents or environmentalinsult. Too often, poorly written or improperly executed procedures have been identifiedas the root cause or at least a contributing factor in industrial accidents across the globe.

To promote safety and meet the demands of governmental regulations and industrystandards, process facilities have developed internal standards that define Procedure

Development and Use Requirements within their organizations. Governmentalorganizations, such as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), create safety standards like the Process Safety Management (PSM) that manages haz-ards associated with processes using highly hazardous materials. The InternationalOrganization for Standardization (ISO) regulates industry safety and health standardsinternationally. Standards vary by industry and company, as well as by location.

Process technicians create internal procedures that provide accurate, clearinstructions, that when properly executed, aid the user in safely completing a taskwithin the company. They write, maintain, and use operating procedures relevant totheir area of responsibility. As the procedure owner, they are accountable for theaccurate development and maintenance of the procedure.

A successfully written procedure will follow basic writing principles and tech-niques that will make it easily identifiable, accessible and executable, task specific,accurate, well organized, audience specific, and error inhibiting. Development ofa successful procedure can be divided into stages, including information gathering,organization, and presentation.

Procedure Writing Principles and TechniquesProcess technicians use principles and techniques to write effective procedures. Threefundamental elements that are essential to developing any procedure include:



CHAPTER 2 Procedure Writing 13

• Gathering information• Organizing the information• Presenting the information

An example of a completed, effective procedure template is shown in Figure 2.1.

FIGURE 2.1 Operating Procedure Template




GATHERING INFORMATION

A procedure may be relatively simple, such as describing how to change a flat tire, orlong and complex, such as providing instructions for placing a gas-fired turbine intoservice. No matter how simple or complex, the technical accuracy of the content iscritical. Therefore, the information-gathering process establishes a solid foundationfor the procedure.

Process technicians often create standard operating procedures (SOP), unit-specific procedures for the purpose of equipment and system start-up or shutdownin normal operations, as well as emergency operations. The following list identifiesmany of the considerations necessary when gathering information prior to a draft ofa specific procedure:

• Purpose, such as what, when, how, and why• Target audience: Who must understand and execute the procedure?• Federal laws and regulations• State laws and regulations• Corporate requirements, such as internal policies and procedures• Safety, health, and environmental considerations

• Equipment manufacturer requirements and recommendations• Impact of the procedure on the overall process• Scheduling

Using the example of a standard operating procedure for the start-up or shutdownof a particular process pump, the text of the procedure must also incorporate special-ized information as well. The procedure must address:

• Required personal protective equipment (PPE)

• Safety and environmental considerations• Hazards associated with operation of the pump• Hazards associated with the process material• The function of the pump in the process

The procedure may incorporate additional information, such as:

• Physical construction of the pump, associated valves, and instruments• Type of pump, such as positive displacement or centrifugal• Type of service the pump is in, such as cold or hot

Although the procedure writer may have extensive knowledge on the subject ofa procedure, a procedure that meets all requirements often necessitates input fromseveral resources. The technical expertise of other subject matter experts may helpaccurately address concerns such as process safety, risk management information,environmental protection, consequences of deviation, operating constraints or param-eters, permit requirements, and more. A subject matter expert (SME) is an individual

within an organization possessing a very high level of expertise regarding a particular job, task, or process.

In addition, a manufacturer representative may be interviewed, or a techni-cal publication may be reviewed and/or referenced during information gathering.The manufacturer reference materials can help ensure that design specifications andrecommendations are met. In certain situations, it may be desirable and acceptable touse the manufacturer procedures directly.

ORGANIZING THE INFORMATION

After the information has been gathered, it is then assembled into a logical order.There are a number of methods that can be used to organize information into a man-

ageable format. Many organizations have developed procedure templates to accu-rately and effectively shape procedure presentation and content that are approved bytechnical experts. These procedure templates are specifically designed and formattedto meet exact requirements.




The use of a template to complete the entire process of developing a procedureoffers several benefits. These benefits include:

• Directing the information-gathering process and promoting logical organization• Developing consistency that will continue into the presentation process• Guarding against omission of critical steps or facts• Promoting ease of execution

The procedure template represented in Figure 2.1 demonstrates how information canbe organized. The simple layout and grouping of information into specific componentssimplifies the writer’s job and improves the user’s ability to perform the procedure.

The suggested template is offered as an example to demonstrate how the manycomplex components of a procedure can be logically structured. The order in whichthe components are listed is significant because the sequence of the components in thetemplate forms the foundation for the entire procedure.

A template that contains the most common components helps the writer avoidomitting critical information and serves to reduce user errors. In the example, each ofthe required components is listed in the left-hand column with space available on theright to provide descriptive information necessary to carry out the procedure safely.

PRESENTING THE INFORMATION

Once the gathering and organization of information is completed, the focus shifts to thepresentation of the information. The presentation is the final written document. The pro-cedure is incomplete until accurately and effectively written instructions are ready forthe procedure user, or target audience. In most cases, the procedure user is the processtechnician trained and qualified on the subject matter of the procedure prior to use.

Taking into consideration the target audience, the written steps of a procedureshould reflect the actual job tasks being performed in the field. It should enable theuser to easily answer the following questions:

• WHAT is to be done?

• WHEN is it to be done?• HOW is it to be done?• WHY is it to be done?

Using these questions, a procedure writer can more effectively communicateaction steps precisely. Through practice and experience, a procedure writer expandsthese concepts and improves writing skills.

WHAT Start each step with an action word or statement that clearly defines what to do in that step. For example:• Open the feed control valve.• Start the pump motor using the local Start/Stop switch.• Stop the transfer when the level in the hold tank reaches 72%.

WHEN Describe when to execute a procedure, or certain steps within a procedure.This step is very important to safe, reliable operation. For example:• When the temperature drops below 150 degrees F, block in the steam

supply valve.• After completion of the safety start-up checklist, proceed to…• Before warming any steam lines on the turbine, establish normal

operation of the lube oil cycle.

HOW Use adjectives and expressions to define limitations or clarify how toperform the action. For example:

• Close the minimum flow recycle hand valve gradually while monitoringthe discharge flow. If the forward flow does not increase, reopen the

minimum flow hand valve.• Position your body correctly. Hold down the valve lever, and rotate

the lever in one smooth motion so that the lever is pointing to theopposite filter.




WHY Explain why a step or action is required. In some instances, this can be veryimportant. Consider the following example from a column start-up procedure:

• The distillation column can be fed two different feeds to produce two dif -ferent products. When the column takes feed A, the column overhead is theproduct stream. When the column takes feed B, the product stream is thecolumn bottoms.

In some instances, it is important to include notes or warnings describing impor-tant operating facts prior to an action step. Warnings may include operating limits,personal hazards, environmental details that provide information, and a chance topause and think about the upcoming action. Here is an example of a note:

NOTE: The distillation column can be fed two different feeds to produce two differ-ent products. When the column takes feed A, the column overhead is the productstream. When the column takes feed B, the product stream is the column bottoms.

Techniques for Effective Written Communication

Clear communication is necessary for successful procedure writing. The user must beable to interpret and execute the instructions accurately, and must be aware of anypotential hazards. Better-written communication makes confidence high for successfulprocedure execution. The most effective techniques include being precise, using com-mon names, avoiding subjective words, following company procedures, grouping andlabeling, employing visual techniques, and practicing.

BE PRECISE

Use the imperative or authoritative voice for clarity and economy of words; do notleave room for interpretation. Unclear instructions may result in lost production, prod-uct contamination, environmental release, or worse—injury or loss of life.

When describing an amount, such as the amount of salt to add to a recipe, and anexact amount is not necessary, then it is acceptable to say a “pinch.” However, if 1/8teaspoon is the correct amount, then the recipe must say 1/8 teaspoon. Other examplesof specified measurements include:

• Do not allow the pressure to exceed 80 psig.• Add Chemical A to the mixer, increasing the mixer level 1 inch.

Accurate descriptions are required when describing equipment or identifying

valves. Examples of accurate equipment descriptions include:• FC-5555, Column feed valve flow controller• PC-1111, Reflux Drum pressure valve controller

USE COMMON NAMES

When writing procedures, use commonly accepted terminology. Although many dif -ferent terms may be used to identify and describe a piece of equipment, use the com-mon acceptable name and accurate, correct descriptions. Examples of common accept-able names include:

• Double-valve-and-vent, or double-block-and-bleed, or pad and depad

• Reboiler or calandria• Suction pot or suction drum• Heater or furnace• Operator or Technician




AVOID SUBJECTIVE WORDS

Ambiguous words create uncertainty. Avoid words like could, should, may, might, andought when writing procedures. Also, avoid using the words about and approximately, as they indicate a lack of precision. These types of words are subjective, and allow for achoice. Procedures are specific; they are not suggestions or recommendations.

FOLLOW COMPANY PROCEDURES

Internal procedures should be designed to meet the specific standards and require-ments of the specific facility. An employer may have an exact method on procedurewriting that is designed to meet his or her specific standards and requirements.

GROUP AND LABEL INFORMATION

Grouping information into small manageable units will help define a logical sequence.Studies have shown that most people begin to have difficulty processing writteninstructions that exceed seven to nine steps. Complexity of the instructions can influ-ence the number of steps required in a set of instructions.

The goal of procedure writing is to present a procedure that is specific, clear, and

concise without overwhelming the user. Grouping and labeling the information intolike groups is a method that is useful to break down a more complex set of steps intoseparate activities that work together to produce the desired result. Figure 2.2 containsexamples of grouping and labeling information.

FIGURE 2.2 Examples ofGrouping and Labeling




EMPLOY VISUAL TECHNIQUES

Visual techniques can be used to promote clarity and provide emphasis. Examplesof common visual techniques include:

• Use underlined bolded text to emphasize a target value.

STEP ACTION

4. Hold the column pressure below 50 psig.

STEP ACTION

6. IMPORTANT!

Notify the process technician before starting the reflux pump.

STEP ACTION

2. Start feed to the column at a rate between 25 and 35 gpm.

STEP ACTION

1. If the column pressure is: Then:

< 15.0 psig Open the methane make up hand valve.

> 90.0 psig Open the vent to flare hand valve.

STEP ACTION CHECK

1. Open the discharge isolation valve wide open.

2. Start the pump using the local START/STOP switch.

3. Verify discharge flow is > 30 pph.

• Center, bold, or capitalize text on a line to call attention.

• Use numbers as opposed to text when stating values.

• Present “if-then” statements in a table when a decision must be made.

• Use check/initial boxes to document step completion. This helps to ensure that

each step is completed in the correct order. This technique is commonly called achecklist. A checklist is a written list that requires the user to initial or check thecompletion of each step.

As a rule, if a template or table is not used when writing a procedure, it is importantto write only one line per step and to leave plenty of white space. Do not write paragraphscontaining multiple steps. Figure 2.3 provides an example of an operating procedure.




FIGURE 2.3 Sample of an Operating Procedure

(Continued)




FIGURE 2.3 (Continued)




PRACTICE

Learning to write procedures correctly is important, but practice will enhancethe writer’s skill. A simple method to practice writing procedures is to choose asimple task and write a procedure. For example, begin by choosing a task involvinga home or car with which you are very familiar. Write an in-depth procedure toperform the task.

NOTE: Keep in mind the procedure is intended for a skilled and qualified user.

Most procedures begin in the field. Here is an example of how to write a proce-dure to change a tire on a vehicle:

• With pad and pencil, stand by the car.• Consider safety first and throughout the process of documenting the steps.• Envision the skill and knowledge level of the person who will use the proce-

dure (audience analysis).

• Envision the circumstances such as when and where the procedure will beused, and possible hazards created by location.

• Next, list the various major steps required to complete the task.• Then, break down the activities into steps, noting the tools, equipment, and other

materials that are necessary for the task.• When you have finished writing the procedure, go to the beginning and test the

procedure several times until you are comfortable with your draft.• Think critically and look for something missed or not previously considered.

• When you are satisfied with the steps for the procedure, transfer your notes intoa format suitable for presentation and review.

Remember that a good procedure meets the following criteria:

• Is easily identifiable• Is easy to access and execute• Is task specific• Is accurate• Is well organized• Targets the intended audience• Is not overwhelming• Eliminates or reduces the potential for error

The procedure is finally ready for a subject matter expert to review and evaluatecritically. The subject matter expert may ask:

• Were all safety issues documented?• Were any steps or elements missing?• Is the procedure clear and concise with nothing left open to interpretation?• Do the procedural steps follow a logical sequence?• Were there any unanswered questions?

To assure accuracy and clarity, request that another individual pilot test the pro-cedure. Do not be discouraged if the procedure has flaws and must be reworked a fewtimes to make it perfect. Procedures require many drafts to make them effective.

Summary

The training and skills acquired as a process technician eventually qualify an indi-

vidual to play a critical role in the development, implementation, and execution ofoperating procedures. Operating procedures are a very important document in theindustry because they guide personnel to perform tasks successfully, without safetyincident. Process technicians may also be asked to create or review existing procedures




for accuracy, or to update an existing procedure due to a process change. The role ofprocedure writer demands the same level of ownership and accountability as all otherresponsibilities of the job.

The goal of procedure writing is to present a procedure that is specific, clear, andconcise without overwhelming the user. With practice, a procedure writer will masterthe writing techniques that produce procedures that are both easy to follow and allow

the process to be completed in an efficient, safe manner.Several principles and techniques can help a procedure writer to writeeffective procedures. Development of a successful procedure can be divided intostages, including information gathering, organization, and presentation. Gatheringinformation includes considering requirements and references from subject matterexperts. Procedure templates can be used to organize the information in logicalmanner. Presentation of the information includes the actual writing of the procedure,as well as answering the questions what, when, how, and why. Major techniquesfor effective written communication include being precise, using common names,avoiding subjective words, following company procedures, grouping and labeling, andemploying visual techniques. Learning to write procedures correctly is important, butpractice will enhance the writer’s skill.


• Checklist• Internal Procedure• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)• Procedure Owner• Procedure Template• Procedure User• Process Safety Management (PSM)

• Subject Matter Expert (SME) 2. What is the function of an operating procedure? 3. Which of the following are criteria for a well-written procedure?

a. Easily identifiableb. Eliminates or reduces the potential for errorc. Targets the intended audienced. Accuratee. All of the above

4. Name two benefits of using a procedure template.a. –––––––––––b. –––––––––––

5. Name three words to avoid when writing procedure instructions.a.

–––––––––––b. –––––––––––c. –––––––––––

6. Why is it considered best practice to group information or activities into small manageableunits?

7. Name three visual techniques that can be used to promote clarity and provide emphasis.a. –––––––––––b. –––––––––––c. –––––––––––

8. Name three hazards that could result from poor development or improper use ofprocedures.

a. –––––––––––b. –––––––––––

c. ––––––––––– 9. Name one reason to have a spot for initialing the completion of the steps in a procedure.a. –––––––––––




10. Which of the following phrases are acceptable to use in a procedure? More than one answermay be correct. Select all that apply.

a. Open the block valve 5 full turns.b. Open the block valve about a third.c. Open the block valve gradually until you observe condensate coming out of the

downstream drain valve.d. Close the vent when the pressure is low.

11. Which of the following phrases tell the user exactly when to open the steam supply valve ina procedure step?

a. When all condensate has drained and live steam comes out the drain valve, close thedrain valve and fully open the steam supply valve.

b. Check the drain valve and then fully open the steam supply valve.c. Open the steam supply valve and check the drain for condensate.d. Close the drain valve and open the steam supply valve.

ActivityUsing the Process Scenario, Current Operating Conditions, and Process Sketch provided below,write an operating procedure to prepare the North Reflux Pump for service, put it into service,and shutdown the South Reflux Pump. Your procedure will stop when the north pump is

operating normally and the south pump has been safely removed from service.• Demonstrate the principles, concepts, and techniques introduced in this chapter.• Ensure compliance with applicable Safety, Health, and Environment (typical process

facility policies) and OSHA regulations.Note: For the purpose of this exercise, do not address preparation of the South Reflux Pumpfor seal replacement.

Process Scenario

• During normal operation, one reflux pump maintains reflux to the Refining Columnand the second pump remains on standby.




• The Refining Column is operating normally and within limits; however, the SouthReflux Pump has developed a seal leak. It must be shutdown and prepared for sealreplacement.

• There are no environmental or safety concerns because of the seal failure. Leakageacross the seal of the south pump is venting to the flare through a dedicated vent line.

• The North Reflux Pump was recently out of service for maintenance and must beprepared and placed in service.

• Reflux flow must be maintained to avoid a disruption to the process and loss ofproduction.

Current Operating Conditions

• All control parameters are within required limits and at set point.• Isolation valves around the north pump are still closed because of the recent mainte-

nance work on the pump.

Helpful Hints

• Remember, your procedure ends when the north pump is operating normally andthe south pump has been safely removed from service.

• The current valve positions are identified on the sketch: O = Open, C = Closed.• There are both local and remote START/STOP/REMOTE controls for each pump

(not shown).



27

3Reading Process Drawings

C H A P T E R

Objectives


■ Explain the purpose of a block flow diagram (BFD).

■ Explain the purpose of a piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID).

■ Explain the purpose of a plot plan.

■ Explain the purpose of an isometric diagram.

■ Explain the purpose of a Safety, Health, & Environmental Equipment Layout.

■ Explain the purpose of a process flow diagram (PFD).

■ Explain the difference between an analog (electronic/pneumatic) and DistributiveControl System (DCS).

■ Explain the difference between instruments that control, indicate, and record.

■ Identify and describe instruments that have an alarm and/or a shutdown functionand are included in logic systems.

■ Locate the set-point, alarm, shutdown, and trip information.




Key TermsAmerican National Standards Institute (ANSI)—oversees and coordinates the vol-

untary standards in the United States. ANSI develops and approves norms andguidelines that impact many business sectors. The coordination of U.S. standardswith international standards allows American products to be used worldwide.

American Petroleum Institute (API)—trade association that represents the oil andgas industry in the areas of advocacy, research, standards, certification, and edu-cation for the petroleum and petrochemical industry.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)—Specifies requirements andstandards for pressure vessels, piping, and their fabrication.

Application Block—main part of a drawing that contains symbols and defines ele-ments such as relative position, types of materials, descriptions, and functions.

Block Flow Diagrams (BFDs)—simple drawings that show a general overview of aprocess, indicating the parts of a process and their relationships.

Electrical Diagrams—diagrams that help process technicians understand powertransmission and how it relates to the process.

Emergency Block Valve (EBV)—automatic valve, typically controlled by an oper-

ating parameter and/or hand switches for process isolation when the parameterapproaches unsafe conditions or equipment limitations; also known as EmergencyIsolation Valve (EIV).

Equipment Symbols—set of symbols located on one sheet of a set of process flowdiagrams (PFD) for the user to review.

ISA—a global, nonprofit technical society that develops standards for automa-tion, instrumentation, control, and measurement; formerly known as theInstrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society.

Isometric Drawings (Isoms)—perspective drawings that depict objects, such asequipment and piping, as a 3-D image, as they would appear to the viewer.

Legend—section of a drawing that explains or defines the information or symbolscontained within the drawing.

National Electric Code (NEC)—specifies electrical cable sizing requirements andinstallation practices.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)—specifies fire codes including build-ing construction codes, fire suppression systems, and fire-fighting capabilitiesrequired at facilities.

One-Line Diagram—key electrical drawing used by the process technician; alsoknown as the single-line diagram.

Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs)—detailed drawings that graphicallyrepresent the equipment, piping, and instrumentation contained within a processfacility.

Plot Plans—show the layout and dimensions of equipment, units, and buildings,drawn to scale, so that everything is of the correct relative size.

Process Drawings—provide a visual description and explanation of the processes,equipment, and other important items in a facility.

Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs)—basic drawings that use symbols and directionalarrows to show primary product flow through a process, including such informa-tion as operating conditions, the location of main instruments, and major pieces ofequipment.

Schematics—show the circuit current flow direction, typically beginning at thepower source, and the circuit components with the power and signal connectionsbetween the components.

Symbols—figures used to represent the equipment, instruments, and other deviceson a process flow diagram (PFD) or piping and instrument diagram (P&ID).

Title Block—section of a drawing that contains information such as drawing title,drawing number, revision number, sheet number, originator signature, andapproval signatures.

Utility Flow Diagrams (UFD)—provide process technicians a P&ID-type view ofthe utilities used for a process.



CHAPTER 3 Reading Process Drawings 29

IntroductionProcess drawings provide process technicians with a visual description and explanationof the process, its associated equipment, and other important items in a facility. Theyare also used for review by process technicians before facility additions or revisions areincorporated.

There are many different types of drawings. Each drawing type represents differentaspects of the process and different levels of detail. Looking at combinations of thesedrawings provides a more complete picture of the process and the facility. Without pro-cess drawings it would be difficult for process technicians to understand the processand how it operates.

When examining process drawings, it is important to remember that all drawingshave three common functions:

• Simplifying—using common symbols to make processes easier to understand.• Explaining—describing how all of the parts or components of a system work

together (drawings can quickly and clearly show the details of a system that mightotherwise take many written pages to explain).

• Standardizing—using a common set of lines and symbols to represent components

(while efforts are constantly made to standardize drawings and symbols acrossvarious industries, there is still a wide variance between the many industries).

Diagrams are also used extensively for process technicians learning to trouble-shoot on start-ups and shutdowns; when preparing equipment, piping, and/or valvesfor maintenance; and before and after initial commissioning.

Process drawings must meet several requirements to be considered a proper indus-trial drawing. These requirements include specific, universal rules:

• How lines are drawn• How proportions are used• What measurements are used• What components are included• What industrial application is targeted

Uses for Common Process Drawings

Process technicians must recognize a wide variety of drawings and understand how touse them. The most commonly encountered drawings include:

• Block flow diagrams (BFD)• Process flow diagrams (PFD)• Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID)• Utility flow diagrams (UFD)• Electrical diagrams

• Schematics (electrical)• Isometrics (piping)• Plot plan

The following sections describe each of these drawing and their uses.

BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAMS (BFD)

Block flow diagrams (BFD), simple drawings that show a general overview of the pro-cess, indicating the parts of a process and their relationships, are used to represent unitoperations (shown in Figure 3.1). They consist of blocks connected by straight linesthat represent process flow streams between different subsections within the processor between different processes. These streams may be liquids, gases, or solids, which

flow through pipes and ducts, or on conveyors. Block flow diagrams show a high levelor big-picture view of a process operation, with few specifics, from the introduction ofa raw material to the output of the final product. They do not describe how a step is tobe accomplished, but what is done in the section.




Block flow diagrams follow a set of rules:

Unit operations, whether it be specific pieces of equipment such as a reactor, a distil-lation column, boiler, and so on, or a production unit’s reaction system, distillation opera-tion, or a packaging operation, may be represented as a single block. Process flow streamsflowing into and out of the blocks are represented by straight lines. They may be eitherhorizontal or vertical with directional arrows indicating the direction of the process flow.They are often numbered in order to represent the process sequence from start to finish.

Block flow diagrams should be arranged so that the process flow is from left to right.

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS (PFDS)

Process technicians are exposed to different types of industrial drawings on the job.The two most useful types of drawings to the process technician are process flow dia-grams (PFDs) and piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) (discussed next).

Process flow diagrams (PFDs) are basic drawings that use symbols and directionalarrows to show the primary flow of a product through a process, including such informa-tion as operating conditions,and the location of main instruments and major pieces ofequipment (shown in Figure 3.2). PFDs allow process technicians to trace the step-by-step flow of a process. The diagrams contain symbols that represent the major pieces ofequipment and piping systems used in the process. Directional arrows show the path of

the process from the beginning to the end. Process operating parameters may be included.The process flow is typically drawn from left to right, with feed products or raw

materials entering the process on the left, and ending with finished products on theright. Other information found on a PFD includes:

• Equipment symbols, a set of symbols located on one sheet of a set of PDFs forthe user to review.

• Equipment designations, including all major vessels, pumps, compressors, and otherequipment with some sort of descriptive designation. For example, with a two-stagereactor, the designation might be “First Stage Reactor” and “Second Stage Reactor.”At some point in the design of the facility, equipment numbers are designated andadded to the drawings.

• Major process piping, which is indicated as lines on the PFD. It contains major con-trol valves. Process stream lines are typically numbered and the numbers may becross-referenced to stream compositions. The material included in the stream com-position data also includes design temperatures, pressures, and stream flow rates.

FIGURE 3.1 Boiler Feed Water System Block Flow Diagram




FIGURE 3.2 Process Flow Diagram

• Control instruments, especially the most significant, included on the PFDparticularly if they are essential to the operation of the process or if they containspecial equipment.

• Pump capacities often included on the process flow diagrams. Information forpump capacities include design flow, pressure, temperature, and density.

• Heat exchangers (input or output) and/or furnaces (input) used to provide heatinput to or remove heat from a process. Heat duties, or the heat addition orremoval requirement at design rates, are included on the PFD.

• Variables such as flow, temperature, and pressure shown at critical points.

Symbology charts are used along with PFDs or P&IDs to show the major pieces ofequipment, piping, temperatures, pressures at critical points, and the process flow. Theuse of symbology allows standardization of information on industrial drawings. Eachindustrial drawing has its own line and symbol that represents the component. Theselines and symbols (with some subtle changes) are used all over the world.

PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAMS (P&IDS)

Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), detailed drawings that graphicallyrepresent the equipment, piping, and instrumentation contained within a processfacility, are sometimes referred to as process and instrument drawings. For a processtechnician, P&IDs are the most important representation of the plant process—so

much so, that OSHA requires a company to maintain an accurate, up-to-date, copy(set) of the process plant’s P&IDs in the control room, or easily accessible plantlocation. P&IDs show more detailed information about the equipment, piping, andcontrol systems than do PFDs. P&IDs are slightly different from company to company;




however, they use similar symbol conventions such that the process technician shouldbe able to understand any P&ID.

A vital part of a P&ID, as shown in Figure 3.3, is the instrumentation informa-tion. This information gives the technician a firm understanding of how the processis controlled, how a product flows through the process, and how it can be monitoredand controlled. Engineers and maintenance may also use P&IDs for troubleshooting,

plant modifications, and upgrades; although maintenance more often uses mechanical,isometric, and electrical drawings.Information found on P&IDs includes:

• Equipment symbols and numbers.• Equipment designations, including all major vessels, pumps, compressors, and other

equipment. P&IDs should show all piping and control systems related in space—that is, a pump should be shown below the vessel from which it takes suction. Some,but not all, P&IDs have a brief description of the equipment to include its name,equipment design specifications (vessel maximum allowable working pressure[MAWP], pump motor horsepower [hp], pump net positive suction head [NPSH],etc.), and material of construction, and they may have a unique equipment number.They will often show internal components such as reactor baffles, agitators, mixersand distillation trays. Examples of P&ID equipment information include:• Pump information may include (on P&IDs) material of construction (e.g., 304

Stainless Steel [304SS]), flow rate at the design pressure (e.g., 200 gpm @ 150Ft head), motor horsepower (e.g., 25 hp), and usually an equipment numberunique to the unit or plant.

• Vessel information may include the vessel’s maximum allowable workingpressure (MAWP), material of construction (CS—carbon steel; SS—stainlesssteel), the size of the vessel (height and diameter), and the vessel’s uniquenumber based on the plant naming conventions.

FIGURE 3.3 Sample P&ID




• Heat exchanger information may include all of the information described abovefor a vessel, however, the shell and tube side are typically treated separately forconstruction material and MAWP.

• Major process piping, indicated by lines on the P&ID and designated with a linenumber or descriptor. Line numbers or descriptors include the line service des-ignation (such as CWS for cooling water supply); a line number, which follows

company convention; and pipe size and a piping specification number, which isalso unique to the company. The piping specification is determined by the processflowing through the line or its service and includes the range of pipe diameterscovered by the specification, the material of construction, and the acceptablevalve types. The line description will also indicate the presence of electric orsteam heat tracing, and, if required, the insulation specification.

• All instrumentation shown on P&IDs. Symbols used are consistent with the ISAStandard. ISA, formerly known as the Instrumentation, Systems and AutomationSociety, is a global nonprofit technical society that develops standards for auto-mation, instrumentation, control, and measurements. Common control systemdetail shown on P&IDs includes:• Control and emergency isolation valves along with the failure position, which

is indicated as fails closed (FO) or fails open (FO). Failure is the valve positiontaken when the valve actuator loses pneumatic or electrical power.• Control valve type

• Flow control valve (FCV)• Emergency block valve (EBV)— automatic valve, typically controlled by

an operating parameter and/or hand switches for process isolation whenthe parameter approaches unsafe conditions or equipment limitations;also known as emergency isolation valve (EIV)

• XV—a valve that automatically fully opens or fully closes• Controller type (pneumatic or solenoid) and type of signal (electronic or

pneumatic)• Control valve interlocks and emergency shutdown systems

• Pressure indicator (PI); pressure indicating controller (PIC); pressure indicatingalarm (PIA)

• Level indicator (LI); level indicating controller (LIC); level indicating alarm(LIA)

• Temperature indicator (TI); temperature indicating controller (TIC); tempera-ture indicating alarm (TIA); temperature element (TE)

• General Notes that are included on the left side of the P&ID to add clarificationto the drawing. They may include curio notations (a circle with a numberenclosed) that more clearly describes a symbol or an instruction—for example,“Locate close to the pump” or “Locate at low point.”

SymbologyThe use of symbology allows for generally standardized information across industrialdrawings used all over the world. However, it is important to remember that there arefew universally accepted standards; therefore, companies and organizations use slightlydifferent symbologies. The most common control systems symbol standard is the ISAstandard symbols (NOTE: ISA and instrumentation tag numbers are discussed later inthis chapter). Process technicians should be able to recognize these symbols and anyspecial lettering method used on a P&ID. Furthermore, technicians must be able tointerpret process flows, as well as instrument and equipment designations.

UTILITY FLOW DIAGRAMS (UFD)

Utility flow diagrams (UFD) provide process technicians a P&ID-type view of theutilities used for a process (shown in Figure 3.4). UFDs indicate utility supply andconnections to process equipment, along with the piping and main instrumentation foroperating the utilities.



FIGURE 3.4 Utility Flow Diagram (UFD)




Typical utilities shown on a UFD include:

• Steam• Condensate• Cooling water• Instrument air• Plant air

• Nitrogen• Fuel gas• Boiler feed water• Potable water

ELECTRICAL DIAGRAMS

Many processes rely on electricity, so it is important for process technicians tounderstand electrical systems and how they work. Electrical diagrams help processtechnicians understand power distribution and how it relates to the process. A firmunderstanding of these relationships is critical when performing lock-out/tag-out(LOTO) procedures (i.e., isolating hazardous energy sources) and monitoring vari-

ous electrical measurements.Electrical diagrams show the various electrical components and their relation-

ships. For example:

• Switches used to stop, start, or change the flow of electricity in a circuit• Power sources provided by transmission lines, transformers, busses, and MCCs• Loads (the components that actually use the power)• Coils or wire used to increase the voltage of a current• Inductors (coils of wire that generate a magnetic field and are used to create a

brief current in the opposite direction of the original current) that can be used forsurge protection

• Transformers (used to make changes in electrical power by means of

electromagnetism)• Resistors (coils of wire used to provide resistance in a circuit)• Contacts used to join two or more electrical components

Process technicians are frequently required to LOTO electrical power supplyswitch gear for process equipment. This requires the technician to open the circuit supplying power to the equipment—for example, an electrical motor. The switch gearroom or the Motor Control Center or substation houses the electrical switch gear,or the motor starters or breakers. The key electrical drawing used by the processtechnician is the one-line diagram, also known as a single-line diagram (shown inFigure 3.5).

The one-line diagram is the process technician’s most important electrical draw-ing because it shows the entire electrical system of interconnecting generators, trans-formers, transmission and distribution lines, loads, circuit breakers, and so on. In thisdrawing, essentially a block diagram, a single line is used to represent a three-phasepower system, from the incoming power source to each load (switch gear or breaker).It includes the ratings and sizes of each piece of electrical equipment supplied by theincoming power source. As with P&IDs, there is no single universally accepted setof symbols for one-line drawings. However, some often used symbols are shown inFigure 3.6.

SCHEMATICS (ELECTRICAL)

Schematics show the circuit current flow direction, typically beginning at the powersource, and the circuit components with the power and signal connections between the

components. Unlike the one-line diagram, the schematic shows the actual wiring con-nections between the components. Process technicians use schematics to visualize howcurrent flows between two or more circuits. Schematics also help electricians detectpotential trouble spots in a circuit.




FIGURE 3.5 Single Line Drawing

FIGURE 3.6 CommonlyUsed Electrical Symbols




FIGURE 3.7 Isometric Drawing

ISOMETRICS (PIPING)

Isometric drawings (Isoms) are perspective drawings that depict objects, such asequipment and piping, as a 3-D image as they would appear to the viewer. The draw-ings present object images drawn at a 30-degree angle to show three sides of the objectto the viewer. Isometric drawings may also contain cutaway views to show an object’sinner workings. Figure 3.7 shows an example of an isometric drawing. Typically,

isometrics are provided during new unit construction and prove useful to new processtechnicians learning to identify equipment and piping and to understand the innerworkings.

A common isometric drawing that a process technician may come to view is thepiping isometric. Most isometric drawings generated in construction packages are pipingisometrics that process technicians may be asked to review for comment on the line rout-ing, the location of valves, and sample points for operator access. Figure 3.8 is an exampleof a piping isometric drawing.

PLOT PLAN

Plot plans indicate the layout and dimensions of equipment, units, and buildings.They are drawn to scale so that everything is of the correct relative size, as shown inFigure 3.9. For example, plot plans show the location of machinery (e.g., pumps and heatexchangers) in an equipment room. On a larger scale, a plot plan shows the location and

dimensions of process units, buildings, roads, and other site constructions such as fences.A site plot plan also shows elevations and grades of the ground surface.

OTHER DRAWINGS

Along with the drawings mentioned in the previous sections, process technicians mightalso encounter other types of drawings such as:

• Elevation diagrams—represent the relationship of equipment to ground level andother structures.

• Equipment location diagrams—show the relationship of units and equipment tofacility boundaries.

• Loop diagrams—show all components and conne ctions between instrumenta-

tion and a control room. For instance, a loop diagram might depict a control loopcomposed of a flow control valve that is reset by a liquid level controller. Someloop diagrams include all of the process information required to design the loop,which includes the service, the flow rate range, the calibration parameters for theflow control instrument, and other pertinent information. Most companies havetheir own loop diagram conventions. However, there are industry standard loopdrawing software programs, such as INtools.

Process Drawing Information

LEGEND

A legend (shown in Figure 3.10) is a section of a drawing that explains or defines theinformation or symbols contained within the drawing (like a legend on a map). Legendsinclude information regarding abbreviations, numbers, symbols, and tolerances.



3 8

FIGURE 3.8 Piping Isometric Drawing




FIGURE 3.9 Plot Plan

FIGURE 3.10 P&ID Legend




TITLE BLOCK

The title block (shown in Figure 3.11) is the section of a drawing, typically located inthe bottom right corner, that contains information such as the drawing title, drawingnumber, revision number, sheet number, originator signature, and approval signatures.

FIGURE 3.11 P&ID TitleBlock

FIGURE 3.12 Application Block

APPLICATION BLOCK

An application block (Figure 3.12) is the main part of a drawing that contains symbols and

defines elements such as relative position, types of materials, descriptions, and functions.




SymbolsSymbols (Figure 3.13) are figures used to identify types of equipment, instruments,and other devices on a PFD or P&ID. A set of common symbols has been developedto represent actual equipment, piping, instrumentation, and other components. Somesymbols may differ from facility to facility, but many are universal with only subtledifferences, and others may be specific to the individual process facility or company. Itis critical that process technicians recognize and understand these symbols.

FIGURE 3.14 P&ID PipingSymbols

FIGURE 3.13 CommonP&ID Symbols

PIPING SYMBOLS

Piping is a long, hollow tube used to transport process liquids and gases throughout aprocess facility. There are many symbols associated with piping. Although standardsexist, it is possible for symbols to vary slightly from facility to facility. Figure 3.14 showsexamples of P&ID piping symbols.




VALVE SYMBOLS

Valves control the process flows through the unit piping. There are many types of valvesused in the process industries. Each valve type has a unique symbol used to identify iton a process drawing. The following shows some examples of different valve symbols.

P&ID Valve Symbols




ACTUATOR SYMBOLS

Actuators are devices that convert electrical or pneumatic control signals to physicalactions. Figure 3.15 shows examples of actuator symbols. However, these symbols mayvary from facility to facility.

P&ID Pump Symbols

FIGURE 3.15 P&ID Actuator Symbols

COMPRESSOR SYMBOLS

Compressors increase the pressure of gases. In order to locate compressors on a P&ID,process technicians must be familiar with the different types of compressors and theirsymbols. Figure 3.16 shows examples of compressor symbols. However, these symbolsmay vary somewhat from facility to facility.

PUMP SYMBOLSPumps are used to move liquid materials through piping systems. The process industriesuse many different types of pumps. Each pump type has a unique symbol that appearson P&IDs. The following shows some examples of pump symbols.




HEAT EXCHANGER SYMBOLSHeat exchangers transfer heat from one substance to another without the two substancesphysically contacting one another. The symbols shown in Figure 3.17 are examples ofheat exchanger symbols a process technician might encounter on a P&ID.

FIGURE 3.16 Process Drawing Compressor Symbols

FIGURE 3.17 P&ID HeatExchanger Symbols

FIGURE 3.18 P&IDCommon Vessel Symbols




VESSEL SYMBOLS

Vessels are containers in which materials are processed, treated, or stored. In orderto accurately locate vessels on a P&ID, process technicians must be familiar with thesymbols. Figure 3.18 shows examples of some vessel symbols found on P&IDs.

FIGURE 3.20 Turbine,

Boiler, Furnace, Tower, andTower with Packing Symbols

FIGURE 3.19 P&ID Cooling Tower Symbols

COOLING TOWER SYMBOLS

Cooling towers lower the temperature of water using latent heat of evaporation. In order toaccurately locate cooling towers on a P&ID, process technicians must recognize the variouscooling tower symbols. Figure 3.19 shows some of the symbols that indicate cooling towers.

TURBINE SYMBOLS

Turbines are used to produce the power necessary to drive equipment. In order toaccurately locate turbines on a P&ID, process technicians must be familiar withturbine symbols. These symbols may vary from facility to facility. Figure 3.20 providesan example of a turbine symbol.

BOILER SYMBOL

Boilers are devices that produce steam for various parts of a process. In order to

accrately locate boilers on a P&ID, process technicians must be familiar with boilersymbols. These symbols may vary from facility to facility. Figure 3.20 provides anexample of a boiler symbol.

FURNACE SYMBOL

Furnaces are devices produce heat for processes. In order to accurately locate furnaces ona P&ID, process technicians must be familiar with furnace symbols. These symbols mayvary from facility to facility. Previous Figure 3.20 provides an example of a furnace symbol.

REACTOR AND DISTILLATION COLUMN SYMBOLS

Reactors are vessels in which chemical reactions are initiated and sustained. Distillation

columns are devices used to separate liquid components by boiling point. In order toaccurately locate columns and reactors on a P&ID, process technicians must recognizedistillation column (tower) and reactor symbols. These symbols may vary from facilityto facility. Figure 3.20 provides examples of tower and reactor symbols.



46 Electrical Equipment and Motor Symbols




The only difference from one balloon to another is its unique alphanumeric tagnumber, which is explained in Figure 3.21. The tag number is the primary key to defin-ing the instrument’s function and control loop. Slight balloon modifications depictwhere the instrument is physically located. Figures 3.21 and 3.22 show how the vari-ous instrument balloons are representative of location. Considering the complexity ofmany control systems, this schematic approach works very well. Figure 3.23 shows anexample of general instrument symbols.

ISA INSTRUMENT TAG NUMBERS

Instrument tag numbers identify the measured variable, the function of the spe-cific instrument, and the loop number. These tag numbers give the process techni-cian an indication of what that instrument is monitoring or controlling. Letters andnumbers describe an ISA instrument tag number (shown in Figure 3.24). The tagnumber should be unique since most process facilities use a global database to iden-tify devices.

The first letter identifies the measured or initiating variable, and the subsequent orsucceeding letters describe the function of the instrument. For example, in Figure 3.24,“F” stands for flow, “I” for indicating, and “C” for controller. In other words, this instru-ment is a “Flow Indicating Controller.” If the instrument is field mounted, it might say it

controls flow and has an indicator on its faceplate.The ISA Functional Identification table (the ISA S5.1 standard table), shown in

Table 3.1 lists the first letter (with its possible modifiers) and the succeeding letters(including the passive or readout function column), the output function column, and

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT AND MOTOR SYMBOLS

Electrical equipment can be used for a variety of functions. Each equipment type has aunique symbol that identifies it on process drawings. Examples of electrical equipmentsymbols and their descriptions are shown here.

INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS

Instruments are devices that measure, indicate, and control process flows, tem-peratures, levels, and pressures, and provide analytical data. Instrumentationsymbols identify instrumentation throughout a facility. The symbols may or maynot look like the physical device represented. A 7/19-inch diameter circle, calleda balloon, is commonly used to represent many functionally different instruments.Figure 3.21 shows an example of a boxed instrumentation balloon, which repre-sents a DCS instrument, whereas Figure 3.22 shows a remote panel mount andlocal instruments.

FIGURE 3.21 DCSInstrument AND RemotePanel and Local Instruments

FIGURE 3.22 DCS

Instrument AND RemotePanel and Local Instruments




FIGURE 3.23 General Instrument Symbols

FIGURE 3.24 InstrumentTag Number

TABLE 3.1 ISA Functional Identification Table

First Letters Succeeding Letters

Measured or Initiating Variable Modifier Readout or Passive Function Output Function Modifier

C User’s Choice (any control device) Control

F Flow Rate Ratio (Fraction)

H Hand High

I Current (Electric) Indicate

L Level Light Low

P Pressure, Vacuum Point (Test) ConnectionR Radiation Record

T Temperature Transmit

V Vibration, Mechanical Analysis Valve, Damper, Louver




possible modifiers associated with the succeeding letters. It is important to note thatthe information in Table 3.1 was taken from the ISAS5.1 standard tables, but it is sub-

TABLE 3.2 Instrument Tag Number Functional Identification Examples

Letters Functional Interpretation Letters Functional Interpretation

C Controller FFIC A Flow (Ratio) Indicating Controller

CV Control Valve FRC Flow Recording Controller

E Element LI Level Indicator

F Flow LV Level Valve (preferred way of identifying a control valve in a loop; mayalso be expressed as PV, FV, TV)

I Indicator PC Pressure Controller (since this controller does not have an indicator orrecorder function, it would probably be behind the panel out of the sightof the operator)

L Level PIC Pressure Indicating Controller

P Pressure PT Pressure Transmitter

R Recorder PY Pressure Relay or Compute (convert—e.g., could be an I/P transducer in

a pressure loop)T Temperature TE Temperature Element (e.g., could be a thermocouple, RTD, or filled

thermal system)

Y Transmitter/Transducer TT Temperature Transmitter

FIGURE 3.25 ISA Logo

ject to change. Thus, the most current ISA table should always be consulted for verifi-cation purposes.

The instrument tag examples listed in Table 3.2 can be interpreted using the func-tional identification information shown in Table 3.1.

Equipment StandardsWith the development of process drawings and equipment standards, a system ofsymbols has been utilized to depict the various drawings that are used to describe howboth equipment and its associated instrumentation are interconnected. Various engi-neering and chemical companies have created a symbols system in their own facilitiesor companies, but there have been other groups that have formed organizations orsocieties to address issues across the various process industries:

• ISA (formerly known as the Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society) isa global, nonprofit technical society that develops standards for automation, instru-




mentation, control, and measurement. For instrumentation, the ISA is the domi-nant source for instrumentation symbology under standard 5.1 (see Figure 3.25).

• The ISA standard S5.1 is comprised of both specific symbols and a coded systembuilt on the letters of the alphabet that depicts functionality. Although many, ifnot most, large companies have moved toward adopting the ISA 5.1 standard in itsentirety; other preferred symbols may be kept in their inventory. Anyone who uses

a drawing should not assume that the ISA standard is used. All symbols, standardand nonstandard alike, should be identified in the legend of each drawing.• The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) oversees and coordinates

the voluntary standards in the United States. ANSI accreditation is used as abaseline or “backbone” for standardization in various industries. ANSI developsand approves norms and guidelines that impact many business sectors while coor-dinating U.S. standards with international standards. This coordination allowsAmerican products to be used competitively worldwide.

• The American Petroleum Institute (API) is a trade association that represents theoil and gas industry in the areas of advocacy, research, standards, certification, andeducation for the petroleum and petrochemical industry. API speaks on behalfof the petroleum industry to the public and the various government branches.

The association sponsors and researches economic analyses and provides statisti-cal indications to the public. API is a leader in the development of the petroleumand petrochemical industries for equipment and operating standards. Currently,API maintains over 500 standards and recommendations and has a certificationprogram for the inspection of industry equipment. API also has various educationprograms including seminars, workshops, and conferences available to industry forongoing education.

• The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) specifies requirementsand standards for pressure vessels, piping, and their fabrication.

• The National Electric Code (NEC) specifies electrical cable sizing requirementsand installation practices. NEC was established by the National Fire ProtectionAgency (NFPA). The NFPA specifies fire codes including building, construction

codes, fire suppression systems, and fire-fighting capabilities required at facilities.• The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), a U.S. govern-

ment agency, was created to establish and enforce workplace safety and healthstandards, conduct workplace inspections, propose penalties for noncompliance,and investigate serious workplace incidents.

Summary

There are many different types of drawings within the process industries. Each drawingtype represents different aspects of the process and various levels of detail. Studyingcombinations of these drawings provides a more complete picture of the processes ata facility.

Process drawings provide process technicians with visual descriptions and explana-tions of processes, equipment, and other important items in a facility. Process facilitiesuse process drawings to assist with operations, modifications, and maintenance. Theinformation contained within process drawings includes a legend, title block, and appli-cation block.

Examples of process drawings include block flow diagrams (BFD), process flowdiagrams (PFDs), piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), and plot plans.

Block flow diagrams (BFD) are the simplest drawings used in the process industry.They provide a general overview of the process, but they contain few specifics. Block flowdiagrams include the feed, product location, intermediate streams, recycle, and storage.

Process flow diagrams (PFDs) are basic drawings that use symbols and direction

arrows to show the primary flows through a process. PFDs describe the actual processand include design flow rates, temperatures, pressures, pump capacities, heat exchang-ers, equipment symbols, equipment designations, reactor catalyst data, cooling water




a. Application blockb. Legendc. Process drawingd. EBV

e. Title blockf. Block flow diagram (BFD)g. One-line diagrams

h. PICi. Isometric j. Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID)k. Plot plan

l. Process flow diagram (PFD)m. Schematicn. Utility flow diagram (UFD)

2. Which drawing could be used by a process technician to follow a pipe line in a pipe rack?a. Single lineb. P&IDc. Piping isometrice. Block flow

3. Process flow diagrams are typically drawn from thef. right to leftg. left to right

4. Which of the following items are located on a process flow diagram? (Select all that apply.)a. Pump capacitiesb. Equipment symbolsc. Internal mixer in a reactore. Control valve

5. (True or False) P&IDs show less detail than PFDs regarding materials of construction, insu-lation, and equipment inner workings.

6. (True or False) UFDs provide process technicians a P&ID view of the instrumentation usedfor a process.

7. Which of the following are included in a process drawing? (Select all that apply.)a. Legendb. Title blockc. Application blockf. Symbols

flows, and symbol charts. Process streams are typically numbered for reference tomaterial balance sheets containing stream compositions and other details.

Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) are similar to process flow diagrams,but show more detailed process information such as equipment numbers, piping speci-fications, instrumentation, and other detailed information. In many cases equipmentdetailed equipment drawings may replace equipment symbols.

Utility drawings describe the utility systems found in the plant. They may includeutilities such as steam, air, nitrogen, cooling water, and potable (drinking) water.Electrical drawings are composed of at least two types: one-line (or single-line)

drawings that offer an overview of the whole electrical system and schematic drawingsthat show the actual wiring connections between the components.

Isometric drawings offer a three-dimensional perspective view. Piping isometricdrawings show the routing of a line in three dimensions, making it easier for the processtechnician to follow in the field, or the pipe fabricator to produce.

Plot plans are scale drawings that show the layout of equipment, units, and build-ings. They are drawn to scale so that everything is of the correct relative size and showsproper dimensions.

Symbols are figures used to represent types of equipment. Examples of symbols

representing many different types of equipment and instrumentation have been shownthroughout the chapter. Different industry organizations develop and publish differentsymbology standards, so there is no universal standard followed by every company.Therefore, it is important for the process technician to be familiar with the symbolsused by his or her company.

Checking Your Knowledge 1. Define the following key terms:




8. (True or False) Information on a single-line diagram could be used to control flow througha pipe line.

9. On the following ISA tag, what does the first letter “F” stand for?a. Frequencyb. Flowc. Forced. Function

10. Which society develops standards for automation, instrumentation, control, and measure-ment symbols?

a. APIb. NFPAc. ISAd. ASME

11. Complete the following chart, writing a 3- to 5-sentence description of each drawing andhow it is used:

Drawing Type Description and Use

Block flow diagram (BFD)

Process flow diagram (PFD)

Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID)

Plot plan

Activities 1. Develop a block flow diagram for any familiar process. 2. Write three to five paragraphs describing the purpose of a flow, temperature, and pressure

control loop as found on the P&ID provided by your instructor. 3. Hand-sketch a piping isometric using the details provided by your instructor.



53

4Complying with,Safety, Health, and

Environmental Policies

C H A P T E R

Objectives


■ Provide examples of safety, health, and environmental policies and their purpose.

■ Describe the process technician’s role in the execution of safety, health, and envi-ronmental policies.

■ Describe the common types of equipment and procedures used to support safety,health, and environmental policies.

■ Describe safety and environmental hazards that safety, health, and environmental

policies are utilized to mitigate. ■ Define housekeeping in process industries terms.

■ List the types of tasks that can be categorized as housekeeping.

■ Explain why housekeeping is important.

■ Provide examples of possible environmental issues surrounding equipmentmaintenance:

• Exposure to hazardous materials

• Proper use of personal protective equipment

• Housekeeping

• Issuance of permits

• Spill cleanup• Response to releases




Key Terms

Audio Visual Olfactory (AVO)—method used by process technicians tomonitor the sounds, sights, and smells of a process unit or area during unitwalk-through inspections.

Blinding—policy that defines the process and procedure to isolate equipmentfor hot work or specific activities that require equipment removal.

Body Harness—fall protection device worn while working at heights.Bunker Gear—protective clothing worn for firefighting.Commission for Environmental Quality (CEQ)—primary state agency charged

with enforcement of environmental regulations and with issuing air and wateroperating permits to businesses operating in a state.

Confined Space Entry (CSE)—policy that defines the process and procedurefor entering confined spaces that can include equipment, storage tanks, andexcavations below grade.

Control of Work (COW)—work practice that identifies the means of safelycontrolling maintenance, demolition, remediation, construction, operating tasks,and similar work.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)—independent federal agency, created in1970, that sets and enforces rules and standards for environmental protection andpollution control.

Fire-Retardant Clothing (FRC)—wearing apparel for use in situations where thereis a risk of arc, flash, or thermal burns, that is regulated by NFPA-70E, ASTM,and OSHA.

Housekeeping—activities that must be completed in order to maintain the facility ina clean, orderly, and safe condition.

Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH)—condition from which seriousinjury or death to personnel can occur.

Management of Change (MOC)—method of managing and communicating changesto a process, changes in equipment, changes in technology, changes in personnel,

or other changes that will impact the safety and health of employees.National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP)—emissions

standards set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for air pollutantsthat may cause fatalities or serious, irreversible, or incapacitating illness if notregulated.

Operations Procedures—unit-specific procedures used for the purpose ofequipment and system start-up or shutdown and normal operation, as well asemergency situations.

Resource Conservation Recovery Act (RCRA)—primary federal law, enacted in1976, that governs the disposal of solid and hazardous waste.

Safety, Health, and Environmental (SHE) Policies—policies implemented byprocess facilities in order to minimize or prevent risks and/or hazards associatedwith the process industry and to ensure that the facility is in compliance withapplicable regulatory agencies.

Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)—independent breathing deviceworn by rescue workers, firefighters, process technicians, and others to providebreathable air in a hostile environment.

Turnaround (TAR)—planned, scheduled process unit or facility shutdown formaintenance and repair.

Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of various safety, health, and environmental

(SHE) policies used within process industry process facilities. Safety, health, andenvironmental (SHE) policies are implemented by process facilities in order tominimize or prevent the risks and/or hazards associated with the process industry, and



CHAPTER 4 Complying with, Safety, Health, and Environmental Policies 55

to ensure that the facility operation complies with the applicable regulatory agencies,such as the following:

• The Commission for Environmental Quality (CEQ) is the primary state agencycharged with enforcement of environmental regulations and with issuing air andwater operating permits to businesses operating in a state. The agency title forthese responsibilities varies by state.

• The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is a U.S.government agency created to establish and enforce workplace safety andhealth standards, conduct workplace inspections and propose penalties fornoncompliance, and investigate serious workplace incidents.

• The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent federal agencycreated in 1970 that sets and enforces rules and standards for environmentalprotection and pollution control.

These regulatory authorities govern work process and procedures for a given processfacility as well as the safety rules and regulations that provide for the safety of workerswithin process facilities. The intention of operating within these guidelines is to ensurethe safety and health of employees, the community, and the environment.

Throughout this textbook, the term safety, health, and environmental policy isused to define policies and procedures developed by each process company in supportof, and compliance with, the rules set forth by the various regulatory agencies. Processfacilities that process hydrocarbons into various products all contain similar types ofchemicals and process equipment that can cause injury to personnel and damage to theenvironment. Processes and products vary across each process facility, and safety, health,and environmental policies are applicable to each process unit in much the same way.

Safety, Health, and Environmental Policies

Good process safety management techniques in each facility will ensure that theprocess technicians, maintenance workers, and technical personnel are involved with

the development and implementation of facility safety, health, and environmentalpolicies. The following list provides an example of many of the typical safety, health,and environmental policies found in process industry process facilities:

• Blinding—policy that defines the process and procedure to isolate equipment forhot work or specific activities that require equipment removal.

• Confined Space Entry (CSE)— policy that defines the process and procedurefor entering confined spaces that can include equipment, storage tanks, andexcavations below grade. Many companies utilize a single document that coversboth CSE and Hot Work permits. An example of a confines space entry form isshown in Figure 4.1.

• Employee Health Monitoring—policy that defines the requirements for

employee health monitoring while activities are conducted in hazardous areas,during hazardous chemical sampling, or where prolonged exposure to hazardouschemicals can occur, such as during turnarounds (TARs), a planned, scheduledprocess unit or facility shutdown for maintenance and repair.

• Equipment Inspection and Monitoring—policy that defines inspection andmonitoring frequencies for both fixed and rotating equipment for the purpose ofmanaging equipment reliability and mechanical integrity.

• Hot Work—policy that defines the process and procedure for conductinghot work such as welding, grinding, or vehicle entry in or around processequipment.

• Housekeeping—activities that must be completed to maintain the facility in aclean, orderly, safe condition.

• Lock-out/Tag-out—a procedure used in industry to isolate energy sources from apiece of equipment. Figure 4.2 shows an example of a lock and tag used in lock-out/tag-out.




FIGURE 4.1 Example of aConfined Space Entry Form

• Control of Work (COW)— a work practice that identifies the means of safelycontrolling maintenance, demolition, remediation, construction, operating tasks,and similar work.

• Management of Change (MOC)— method of managing and communicatingchanges to a process, changes in equipment, changes in technology, changes inpersonnel, or other changes that will impact the safety and health of employees.

• Material Release Reporting—policy that defines reporting requirements ofregulatory authorities such as the EPA, Texas Commission on EnvironmentalQuality (TCEQ), or other state agencies when venting, purging, or drainingequipment, or in the event of a material release.

FIGURE 4.2 Example ofLock and Tag




• Operations Procedures— unit-specific procedures used for the purpose ofequipment and system start-up or shutdown and normal operation, as well asemergency situations.

• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)—specialized gear that provides a barrierbetween hazards and the worker using the PPE.

• Process Hazard Analysis (PHA)—a systematic assessment of the potential

hazards associated with an industrial process, taking into account specific hazardsand locations of highest potential for exposure.• Process Safety Information—policy that defines the type of documentation

that is considered process safety information in support of the OSHA PSMregulation; including but not limited to operating procedures, inspection andmaintenance procedures, operating and training material, process drawings(P&IDs), electrical one-line diagrams, instrument loop drawings, and electricalclassification drawings.

• Process Safety Management (PSM)—OSHA standard that contains therequirements for management of hazards associated with process using highlyhazardous materials.

• Vehicle Entry—policy that defines the process and procedure for vehicle entry

into process areas.

The Process Technician’s Role in Safety, Health, and Environmental Policies

Process technicians have the primary responsibility of knowing and understanding theinner workings of each process. This includes process technology and design criteria;process equipment and interconnecting piping, valves, and safety and control systems;as well as process specific hazards. These skills—along with the ability to utilizethe proper safety, health, and environmental policies, and applicable procedures

to manage process operations—minimize the risks and hazards associated with theprocess industry.

Other common skills that the process technician can develop that are essential formanaging process industry risks include:

• Following operations and equipment preparation procedures.• Using personal protective equipment (PPE) correctly. This equipment includes

hard hats, safety glasses, goggles, protective footwear, hearing protection,protective gloves, protective clothing, and other equipment utilized to preventexposure to, or injury from, hazardous materials or environments.

• Maintaining audio, visual, and olfactory (AVO) equipment monitoringawareness. Audio visual and olfactory (AVO) is a method used by process

technicians to monitor the sounds, sights, and smells of a process unit or areaduring unit walk-through inspections.

• Staying familiar with safety/emergency equipment location; including, fireextinguishers, protective clothing, fire turrets, safety showers, self-containedbreathing apparatus (SCBA) locations, fall protection devices, and emergencyegress routes. The self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), as seen inFigure 4.3, is an independent breathing device worn by rescue workers,firefighters, process technicians, and others to provide breathable air in ahostile environment.

• Staying familiar with first responder roles and responsibilities, includinghazard identification, radio communications, and emergency evacuationprocedures.

• Participating in the development of policies and procedures, including safety,health, and environmental policies, unit training material, operating procedures,equipment preparation procedures, and so on.




FIGURE 4.3 Self-ContainedBreathing Apparatus (SCBA)

THE IMPORTANCE OF HOUSEKEEPING

Housekeeping defines activities that must be completed to maintain the facility ina clean, orderly, safe condition. Housekeeping can be a list of daily, weekly, andmonthly activities.

Most process facilities or process units have housekeeping tasks that are commonacross the industry. Additionally, each process unit has additional “unit-specific” tasksnecessitated by the specific process. Maintaining a clean and orderly facility helps inthe following ways:

• Minimizes or eliminates common risks to personnel• Eliminates slipping and tripping hazards

• Eliminates potential for chemical exposure• Eliminates environmental hazards• Improves operations and maintenance efficiency• Keeps tools and equipment in the proper place for quick access• Maintains tool and equipment integrity and reliability




Here are some common housekeeping examples:

• Monitor and maintain general area cleanliness at all times within eachprocess facility. One of the key control points to facilitating a good overallhousekeeping program is to focus on area cleanup after maintenanceand repair activities. A strong commitment to a proper cleanup after thecompletion of every maintenance and repair activity ensures that tools and

equipment are properly stored, and all trash and debris generated from theactivity is removed. As soon as maintenance activities are completed, returnflange gaskets, tools, special equipment, and hoses to their proper location.

• Maintain clean and orderly control rooms, offices, reference libraries, lab and samplerooms, storage and tool rooms, locker rooms, kitchens, and common areas.

• Maintain proper storage and maintenance of essential firefighting equipment,including fire hoses, hose nozzles, nozzle wrenches, extinguishers, fire turretsand turret nozzles, fire hydrants, foam-addition equipment, and bunker gear (protective clothing worn for firefighting).

• Maintain proper storage and maintenance of equipment essential for unitoperations, including utility hoses (air, steam, nitrogen, water, chemical),ladders (step ladders, extension ladders, jack-up platforms), valve wrenches,pipe wrenches, chain operators on manual isolation valves, and grease guns.

• Maintain proper storage and segregation of utility hose fittings (air, steam, nitrogen,water, chemical) and pipe fittings (couplings, unions, tees, elbows, pipe plugs).

• Maintain clean and orderly Motor Control Centers (MCCs).

Unit-specific housekeeping examples are:• Maintain lab and sample room stock with the appropriate sample equipment, sample

containers, and personal protective equipment dictated by the unit sample schedule.




• Maintain clean and orderly specialty equipment storage areas for unit-specifictools and equipment.

• Properly maintain waste storage areas, disposal bins, and containers utilizedfor waste hydrocarbon disposal, as defined by the Resource Conservation and

Recovery Act (RCRA; pronounced “wreck-ruh”), a federal law enacted in1976. It is the U.S. primary law governing the disposal of solid and hazardous

waste. Remove algae from cold or hot process areas.• Remove dust and particulates.• Remove oil; clean up around process pumps, compressors, and lube oil consoles.

Personal protective equipment, as seen in Figure 4.4, must be used whileperforming various housekeeping activities. Some of the more common housekeepingtasks require only minimum personal protective equipment, such as:

• Fire-retardant clothing, hard hat, safety glasses, steel-toed shoes. Fire-retardant

clothing (FRC) is wearing apparel for use in situations where there is a risk ofarc, flash, or thermal burns. The FRC is regulated by NFPA-70E, ASTM, andOSHA. It is the clothing worn by personnel while working within hydrocarbonprocessing areas. Hearing protection and communications radio.

• Face shields, cover goggles, protective gloves, protective clothing.• Work gloves specific for the task (leather, cloth knobby, welders, rubber).

Some facilities have process-related housekeeping tasks that may require a higherlevel of PPE such as:

• Half-mask organic vapor respirators and full-face organic vapor respirators.Selecting the correct organic vapor cartridge for the task is critical and basedon specific exposure hazards of the task. Using the correct respirator cartridgecan eliminate exposure to a wide range of hydrocarbons and particulates.

• Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) or a hose-supplied air respirator tosupply fresh air.

• Total enclosure suit (Moon Suit) typically worn with SCBA for entry and

activities considered immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH), acondition from which serious injury or death to personnel can occur.

• Firefighting bunker gear or heat suits designed for entry and activities whereextreme heat or exposure to open flames (such as beneath an operating furnaceor within a fin fan shroud) exists.

FIGURE 4.4 PersonalProtective Equipment




• Employee monitoring by a safety, health, and environmental department personhor sometimes operating personnel when the employee or contractor must entera hostile environment.

• Body harnesses are fall protection devices worn while working at heights.

Safety EquipmentProcess units incorporate several types of safety equipment in order to mitigateemergencies, decrease environmental hazards, and increase personnel protection.One of the most common types of safety equipment found within a processing unit is thefire extinguisher. Process technicians acting in a first-responder role for extinguishingsmall fires can use the 30-pound dry powder fire extinguisher. The 150-pound dry powderextinguishers are used for fighting larger fires. CO2 extinguishers are found in MotorControl Centers to combat electrical fires. Motor Control Centers are enclosures thathouse the feeder breakers, motor control units, variable frequency drives, programmablecontrollers, and metering devices needed to supply power safely to unit equipment.

Fire hydrants, fire turrets, and fire hose reel stations are found in and around

process units and tank farms for fire protection. They also provide cooling forequipment in the event of a large fire.

Tank farms and storage facilities may incorporate foam-addition systems forapplying Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF), as seen in Figure 4.6. When appliedcorrectly, AFFF will cover pools of burning hydrocarbon liquid to remove the oxygenfrom the fire triangle, thereby smothering the fire.

21.2

FIGURE 4.5 HazardousEnvironment Detector

FIGURE 4.6Applying Aqueous FilmForming Foam (AFFF) in aTank Fire

• Portable hydrocarbon, oxygen (O2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and other detectorswhen a housekeeping task may expose personnel to a hazardous environment.Figure 4.5 shows an example of a hazardous environment detector.




FIGURE 4.7 FlammableGas Detector

FIGURE 4.8 Example

of Using a Self-ContainedBreathing Apparatus

Deluge or sprinkler systems are used in many process applications, such asenclosed compressor buildings or congested areas that contain large quantities ofequipment. Hydrocarbon detectors are also found in these types of processing areas toalert process technicians of a hazardous material release. Figure 4.7 shows an exampleof a flammable gas detector.

Self-contained breathing apparatus, or SCBAs, are also typical safety equipmentfound in process units that can be used to supply fresh air in the event of a hazardousmaterial release. The ELSA 5-, 10-, and 15-minute escape pack is another type of freshair supplying device that may also be in place for emergency egress. Figure 4.8 showsan example of someone using of a self-contained breathing apparatus.

Safety showers and eyewash stations are strategically placed in and around processunits and tank farms for emergency use in the event that personnel are exposed tochemicals. These systems are supplied with potable water so they can be safely usedto wash or flush hazardous material from the eyes or skin. Some stations are equippedwith alarms to alert others of an emergency and the location. Figure 4.9 shows anexample of a safety shower and eyewash station.

Insulation on piping and equipment may also be considered safety equipmentwhere it is installed to prevent exposure to extremely hot or cold temperatures.

None of the above mentioned safety equipment is effective when needed unless a safety

equipment inspection program ensures the reliability and operability of the equipment.Process technicians, and in some cases maintenance technicians, are responsible forconducting safety equipment inspections. Inspection frequencies and inspection criteria aredetermined by the type of equipment, the intended purpose, and, in some cases, equipment




criticality, location, and exposure to the elements. For example, fire extinguishers should

have fill data and seal tabs inspected on one frequency, and the containers hydrostaticallyinspected on another frequency. Figure 4.10 shows an example of an inspection tag thatwould be affixed to a piece of equipment.

DO NOT

REMOVE

BY ORDER OF

FIRE MARSHALL

AnyCorpSafety Equipment

1600 Mocking Bird Ln

Captville, TX 89542

(409) 867-5349

ECR-428Certificate of Registration No.

Scott TurnboughName of Licensee

Scott TurnboughSignature

FEL - 3125ALicense Number

Work TypeMaintenance

New Extinguisher Service

Date of Last Service

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

2008 2009 2010 2011FIGURE 4.10 InspectionTag

FIGURE 4.9 Safety Showerand Eyewash Station

This also applies to SCBAs where the tank pressure, mask, and regulator conditionis inspected on one frequency and the tank’s hydrostatic integrity inspected onanother. Given the complexity of deluge system operation, foam-application systems,and hydrocarbon detector operation, these types of equipment are usually managed bysystem technicians using established preventive maintenance programs.

All safety equipment on a process unit should be frequently inspected.Safety showers and eyewash stations, as well as fire hydrants and fire turrets shouldbe flushed periodically. Fire extinguishers should be refilled and replaced immediatelyafter use. A partially used extinguisher must never be left in place.




FIGURE 4.11 Example of aFlare and Vent System

The process unit or facility safety, health, and environmental personnel typicallyhave routine training exercises for operating personnel-utilizing safety equipment forpersonal protection, combating emergency situation, and emergency egress.

Environmental Hazards

Safety, health, and environmental policies are intended to mitigate many risks andhazards found within the process industry. Acute (short term), as well as chronic (longterm) exposure to many chemicals found within the process industry can cause severehealth and environmental problems. The risk of fire and explosion is always presentdue to the volatility of most hydrocarbons, and can cause severe injury to personneland damage to the environment and process equipment. A hydrocarbon release tothe atmosphere, or a “material release,” can affect the air quality of the entire facilityand possibly surrounding communities. A material release may harm ground water,waterways, wildlife, and communities.

A material release can occur in many different ways due to the vast quantities ofpiping and equipment within process facilities. Some of the most common are pipeflange leaks due to improper gasket installation or pipe fit up. Flange leaks can also

occur due to rapid thermal expansion if the proper heat-up or cool-down proceduresare not followed. Pump and compressor seal leaks are an example of how a materialrelease can occur. Mechanical seals can leak to the atmosphere to cause a materialrelease. Many of these seal systems are tandem seal or dry gas seal type. Whendamaged, they vent or leak to a closed system like a flare. Depending on the materialbeing released, even venting to a flare system can be considered a material release.External and internal corrosion of piping and equipment can occur and lead to arelease if a proper inspection program is not in place and followed.

Flare and vent systems, such as that see in Figure 4.11, that are designed tomanage excessive pressure from equipment and relief valves are common throughoutthe process industry. Unit emergencies, overpressure scenarios, and planned unitshutdowns or start-ups may lead to excessive hydrocarbon flaring or atmospheric

venting. In most cases, atmospheric releases and excessive flare venting are consideredreportable material releases.




When a material release occurs, the proper agency must be notified, such as theEPA or the state environmental commission. Material released, known quantity,containment measures, and cleanup plans should be communicated to these agencies.

Process controls that utilize flare and vent systems can be the source of anenvironmental release. Unlike the simplified example of a pump or compressor sealventing to a closed system, there can be advanced control systems within processes

that are intended to vent to the flare to mitigate many different scenarios, suchas high pressure. Depending on the material and the impact on the environment,less advanced controls, such as alarm systems, notify technicians and engineersof the need to adjust the process to eliminate venting. Advanced controls mayshutdown equipment or an entire process unit to eliminate venting and potentialenvironmental release.

Safety, health, and environmental policies define procedures for materialrelease reporting. The policies should be followed and, depending on the materialand duration, environmental releases should be reported to the proper regulatoryauthority. The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) is an emissions standard set by the EPA for air pollutants that may cause fatalities orserious, irreversible, incapacitating illness if not regulated.

Potential Hazards

Isolating, de-energizing, draining, and purging process equipment for maintenance,inspection, or repair can also be the source of environmental release and personnel hazards.Many of the facility safety, health, and environmental policies address these activities.

Injury, illness, death, and damage to the environment are preventable by havingpolicies and procedures in place for safely managing hazards. The following areexamples of process unit activities and associated hazards that may occur without theuse of proper safety, health, and environmental policies, energy isolation policy, and/or correct operation/maintenance procedure.

• Confined Space Entry (permit required)—exposure to hazardous materials,nitrogen, or oxygen-deficient atmosphere.

• Lock-out/Tag-out and Permitting for Energy Isolation—exposure to hazardousmaterials, high voltage, material release.

• Hot work—fire and explosion.• Vehicle entry—fire and explosion.• Sampling—hazardous material exposure.

Improper equipment identification and performing repair or maintenance on thewrong piece of equipment are preventable by following policies and procedures. Policyand procedures identify the required safety measures to minimize the hazards surrounding

equipment maintenance. The following are examples of such policy and procedure.

• Proper communication between process technicians to ensure that the correctequipment is selected for shutdown and isolation in preparation for maintenance.Due to the complex integration of equipment in most process units, this isextremely important where the shutdown sequence for specific equipment iscritical to other parts of the process that are intended to remain in operation.

• Proper procedures to isolate equipment and energy sources in a safe,environmentally friendly manner. These isolation procedures typically includesteps for draining or purging to containment or flare systems.

• Proper procedures to confirm that equipment maintenance is permitted andwork executed in a safe manner as various craftspeople prepare the equipment,

perform maintenance, and return the equipment to service.• Proper use of PPE, including organic vapor respirators, impervious gloves and

clothing, face shields, heat or flash suits worn while working near high voltage,and fall protection worn while working at heights.




• Proper response to emergencies. Emergency response procedures defineroles and responsibilities for individuals and groups for dealing with a medicalemergency, fire/explosion, or material release. It is common that the processtechnician is the first responder in these events.

• Proper methods for the disposal of waste materials, as well as mitigation stepsrequired in the event of a spill or material release.

Isolation Scenario

The following is a list of the primary safety, health, and environmental policies that

define the work process for preparing process equipment for removal and replacement:

• Personal Protective Equipment—policy that defines equipment that must beworn by personnel when working in process areas or when conducting specificactivities such as sampling hazardous materials, entering hazardous areas, oropening process equipment.

• Operations Procedures—unit-specific procedures used for the purpose ofequipment and system start-up or shutdown and normal operation, as well asemergency situations.

• Lock-out/Tag-out—procedure used in industry to isolate energy sources from apiece of equipment.

• Blinding— policy that defines the process and procedure for equipment isolation

for hot work or specific activities that require equipment removal.• Housekeeping— policy that defines activities that must be completed in order to

maintain the facility in a clean, orderly, and safe condition.• Material Release Reporting—policy that defines the reporting requirements

of regulatory authorities such as the EPA and state environmental commissionwhen venting or purging equipment, or in the event of a material release.

Routine Maintenance and Inspection

The following routine maintenance and inspection activities are also considered vital:

• Policy for external and internal inspection of equipment and piping in high-

pressure, hazardous, or corrosive material service• Preventive maintenance program for inspection/repair/replacement of insulation

throughout a process unit• Policy for inspection interval of pressure relief devices




4. Process technicians have a primary responsibility to know and understand the innerworkings of each process. This includes: (Select all that apply)

a. Process technology and design criteriab. Process equipment and interconnecting piping and valvesc. Safety and control systemsd. Process-specific hazards

5. (True or False) One of the key control points to facilitating a good overall housekeeping

program is to focus on area cleanup after maintenance and repair activities. 6. (True or False) One of the most common types of safety equipment found within a

processing unit is the 30-pound dry powder fire extinguisher. 7. Which of these pieces of firefighting equipment would be used to extinguish a large fire in a

tank farm storage facility:a. CO2 extinguisherb. Fire blanketc. Dry powder fire extinguisherd. A foam-addition system for applying AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming Foam)

8. Excessive hydrocarbon venting to the atmosphere can be caused by: (Select all that apply)

a. Unit emergenciesb. Overpressure scenariosc. Planned unit shutdowns

d. Planned unit start-ups 9. (True or False) Safety, Health, and environmental policies and procedures are used

throughout the process industry, so it is important for the process technician to have a clearunderstanding of the policies and their intended purpose, as well as when and how they areapplied.

10. (True or False) The ability to access and use all available reference material could be one ofthe most important skills developed by the process technician.

Activities 1. Select a piece of process equipment and list the primary safety, health, and environmental

policies that defines how to:• isolate the equipment from the process for safe shutdown.

• define the PPE that must be worn when opening process equipment.• lock-out/tag-out for equipment and energy isolation.• satisfy the necessary reporting requirements when venting/purging/draining

equipment.• controlling the work activities surrounding the process equipment while

maintenance is performed.• return the equipment to service.• clean up.

2. Conduct an online search of OSHA’s 29 CFR 1910.119 Process Safety Management ofHighly Hazardous Chemicals and write a 2- to 3-page report detailing the requirements ofmanagement of change.



69

5Communication: Verbal, Nonverbal, and Written

C H A P T E R

Objectives


■ List the effective verbal communication techniques to request or provideinformation.

■ Explain when:

• Written communication should be used rather than verbal communication andvice versa.

• Written communication via electronic means is more effective than communica-tion via paper and vice versa.

■ Explain the importance of following company guidelines when preparing writtencommunication.

■ Discuss the following:

• The basic components of good composition: spelling, style, transitions, etc.

• The basic components of good writing: preparation, formatting, drafting, andproofreading.

• The various personnel within the Operations Department with which processtechnicians communicate in writing.

• The various personnel from other areas of the facility with which the processtechnicians communicate in writing.

• The various types of information that may be exchanged in written form (usingpaper or electronic means) between these personnel or departments and theprocess technician.

■ Explain the communication responsibilities of the process technician during start-upsand shutdowns:

• List all departments and personnel involved in or affected by the unit start-upand shutdown.

• List the types of information that need to be communicated regarding unit start-up and shutdowns.

• Explain the communication methods that may be used at different points duringthe process of starting up or shutting down the unit.

■ Explain the verbal and nonverbal communication methods used in noisy operating areas.

■ Explain the importance of communicating with other technicians and other unitsprior to making certain corrective actions.

■ List the different types of electronic communication devices used in the process

industry today and:

• Explain proper protocol when using the different types of electronic communica-tion devices.




• Explain the features and functions that should be tested for operability prior tousing the electronic communication device.

• Demonstrate how to test the electronic communication device for operability.

■ Identify the types of information communicated and communication methods uti-lized during the preparation or performance of routine maintenance.

■ Identify the various personnel within the Operations Department with which the

process technician communicates. ■ Identify the various personnel from other areas of the facility with which the process

technician communicates.

■ Identify the various types of information that may be exchanged verbally(face-to-face) between these personnel/departments and process technicians.

Key TermsBlinding/Unblinding Permit—permit that allows equipment isolation via the

installation of blinds and blind flanges.Cell Phone—long-range electronic device used for mobile communication, text

messaging, or data transmission across a cellular network of specialized basestations known as cell sites.Communication—verbal, nonverbal, or written transfer of information between

people.Confined Space Entry (CSE) Permit—permit that allows human entry and work

within an OSHA-defined confined space, the issuance of which indicates allregulated and pertinent safety measures have been taken and/or are active.

General Work Permit—permit that allows work activity other than blinding/unblinding, hot work, lock-out/tag-out, and confined space.

Hot Work Permit—permit that allows hot work, such as welding, grinding, orvehicle entry in or around process equipment.

Intercom—stand-alone electronic communication system intended for limited or

private conversation.Intrinsically Safe Electronic Device—electronic device certified safe for use in

explosive atmospheres.Logbook—typically, hardbound ledgers used to handwrite significant activities that

have occurred during the shift.Nonverbal Communication (NVC)—nonspoken communication, such as gesture,

expression, or body language.Public Address System (PA system)—system that reinforces and distributes a given

sound throughout a venue.Sound-Powered Phones—phones containing electromechanical transducers that

convert voice directly into electrical energy.Trunked Radio System—complex type of computer-controlled radio system.Two-Way Radio—radio that can transmit and receive content.Verbal Communication—dialogue or conversation between two or more people for

transferring information.Written Communication—communication by means of written or printed symbols

or letters.

IntroductionEffective communication is critical to running any business operation. In the processindustry, effective communication is a vital component in maintaining safe and efficientoperations. Communication is the verbal, nonverbal, or written transfer of information

between people. The process technician must effectively communicate with other pro-cess technicians, with maintenance technicians and supervisors, as well as with membersof operations support groups such as safety, health, and environmental, engineering,emergency response personnel, and members of management.



CHAPTER 5 Communication: Verbal, Nonverbal, and Written 71

Effective communication, verbal and written, is extremely important in the shiftchange between process technicians and is one of the crucial elements in maintaining thesafe and reliable operation of process facilities. A key component for successful work-place communication is to be direct; learn to make the point quickly in both written andverbal communication. Indirectness causes inattention.

Verbal CommunicationVerbal communication is a dialogue or conversation between two or more people fortransferring information. Process technicians must be able to communicate with eachother daily to keep the work flowing in a progressive, orderly fashion. The communi-cation of critical operating information is essential for the process technician. Theremust be a two-way dialogue between the process technicians at shift change in order tomaintain an uninterrupted workflow process. Many process technicians today utilizehandwritten notes as reminders to facilitate their face-to-face discussion with otherprocess technicians. Misunderstandings can lead to delays, and may affect the produc-tivity of the unit.

When verbally communicating with other process technicians or other members

of the process facility team, the process technician should take into considerationcommunication needs and the target audience. Listed below are some tips for verbalcommunication:

• Use appropriate volume—use volume appropriate for the setting. If talking in aquiet office setting, use a softer voice. If speaking to a larger group of people, orout in the field, speak louder.

• Speak clearly—enunciate words and avoid mumbling.• Pronounce words correctly—know the correct pronunciation of words used.• Use the right words—avoid words with unclear meaning.• Make eye contact—maintain eye contact; it displays directness and may help to

make a point.

• Animate the voice—avoid a monotone voice. Adjust voice pitch and learn toemphasize key points that require special attention.

• Use gestures—use movement, such as hand, arm, body, head, and facial expressionto emphasize a point.

• Do not send mixed messages—avoid confusion by making tone and facial expres-sions match.

• Slow down—speak in a moderated voice to avoid the appearance of nervousness;instead, portray self-confidence.

• Avoid ambiguity—make instructions or other information clear by not usingterms and jargon unrelated to the industry.

The voice is an extremely powerful communication device for effectively passing

down information during shift change. The process facility may have a list of requireditems that need to be communicated to the oncoming shift. The following information,at a minimum, should be verbally communicated at shift change:

• Safety information, such as malfunctions or out-of-service safety equipment• List of personnel on previous shift and their areas of responsibility• Changes in feed composition or rates• Changes in product specifications or product destination• Changes in equipment usage• Any equipment failures or trips and/or instrument failures• Any equipment or controls bypassed and why• Abnormal situations in overall operation (feed, product flow, levels, pressures,

temperatures, and composition)• Active, previously active, or malfunctioning alarms• List of the latest Daily Orders• Procedures or other work currently in progress and continuing across shift




When communicating this information, it is also helpful to communicate using awritten checklist to ensure that all necessary information has been communicated.This is a helpful tool that the process technician going off shift can give the reliefprocess technician coming on shift as a reference tool to be used during the relief processtechnician’s shift.

Written CommunicationWritten communication is communication by means of written or printed symbols orletters. During the shift change, communication between shifts is critical. A writtenchecklist may be referred to when verbally conveying information between the processtechnicians. Other forms of written communication may consist of operating procedures,maintenance procedures, logbooks (electronic and handwritten), night orders, andemails. When communicating through writing, process technicians must write clearly sothat the reader correctly understands what the writer is trying to convey. As with verbalcommunication, poorly written communication can lead to misunderstandings, whichmay lead to delays that could ultimately affect personnel safety, the environment, orproductivity of the process facility. Here are some tips for clearer, more concise written

communication:

• Avoid the use of inappropriate or slang words.• Avoid the use of abbreviations (unless appropriately defined or commonly

used).• Avoid the use of symbols (such as ampersands [&]).• Avoid or limit the use of clichés.• Use brackets to play down words or phrases.• Use dashes for emphasis.• Use correct spelling, especially the names of companies and people.• Express numbers as words when the number is less than 10 or is used to start a

sentence.

• Use quotation marks around any directly quoted speech or text and around titlesof publications.

The field and control board technicians are responsible for conveying written informa-tion between shifts. Improperly worded, incomplete, or unintelligible information cancause serious mistakes.

A logbook is typically a hardbound ledger used to handwrite significant activitiesthat have occurred curing the shift. It is a regularly kept record of activities, perfor-mance, and events. A unit logbook contains the written information process techniciansmust communicate between one another. Logbooks can be either electronic or hard-bound, and are considered legal documents that can potentially be used as evidence incivil or criminal court. The information in logbooks provides a window to past opera-

tions and a basis to predict future events.All information verbally communicated at shift change should also be part of thewritten or typed logbook. However, the process technician should clearly state thefacts, as they happened, over the course of her or his shift and should not include spec-ulation or opinions. When handwriting entries into a hardbound logbook, the processtechnician should:

• Make legible log entries using an ink pen (do not use pencil).• Make corrections using a red pen by striking through written text.• Avoid cursive entries (print legibly).• Make drawings in the logbook only if they are unit or process related.• Log entries should be dated and events/incidents should have a logged time.• Initial a changed entry so that there is record of who corrected the entry.

When making electronic logbook entries, use the current software strike through fea-ture to mark through the incorrect entry and insert the correct information on the nextline below.




Neatness, accuracy, and completeness are essential when making log entries. Forexample, an entry such as “Don’t use the pump” is useless to the reader because theentry does not state:

• Which pump is affected• Why the pump cannot be used• If maintenance has been notified that the pump needs repair or replacement

• How long the pump will be out of service• If the pump can be used in an emergency• If the pump is locked-out and tagged according to procedure or state which pro-

cedure was used.

The correct logbook entry should read:

P-101A T-1 reflux pump out of service due to rough bearings. Maintenancehas been notified and planning is in process to schedule the pump for repair.If the “B” pump becomes unusable, “A” can be used. P-101A is locked-outand tagged per procedure number P101A_Maint.

The process technician also uses the process facility’s email and communicates to

other technicians, engineering personnel, maintenance personnel, safety personnel, orothers. Precise writing is necessary so that the receiver has a clear picture of what thesender of the email is trying to communicate.

Nonverbal Communication (NVC)Nonverbal communication (NVC) is nonspoken communication, such as gesture,expression, or body language. It is the process of communicating through sendingand receiving wordless messages. Nonverbal communication includes all messagesencoded without using written or spoken language. Nonverbal communication sharesinformation even through style of dress. Physical elements such as buildings, officefurniture, and space also convey messages. Office arrangements convey status, power,and prestige.

Within the process industry, nonverbal communication is primarily used in highnoise areas where radio communication and face-to-face discussions are hard to hear.In these types of areas, hand signals are the preferred method of communicating. Handsignals should be worked out between process technicians prior to performing work inhigh noise areas. The most common hand signals used in the industry are used in asso -ciation with performing lifts with cranes. Operators should become familiar with thehand signals used by their company. Figure 5.1 shows the hand signals associated withcommunication between the spotter directing the lift and a crane operator. There aremany other types of hand signals used for communication such as driving, motorcy-cling, bicycling, and signing for the deaf.

Electronic Communication DevicesElectronic communication includes devices such as intercoms, public address systems,cell phones, and two-way radio communication.

INTERCOMS

Intercoms are a stand-alone electronic communication system intended for limited orprivate conversation. They are distributed amplifier systems, and most of these systemsconsist of strategically placed indoor and outdoor stations that contain a power ampli-fier for driving speakers. The outside stations are intrinsically safe and are generally

housed in an explosion-proof, wall-mounted container.An intrinsically safe electronic device is an electronic device certified safe to use

in explosive atmospheres. This can include flammable gases, vapors, or combustibledust. An intrinsically safe electronic device is therefore incapable of releasing sufficient




electrical or thermal energy to ignite the fuel and cause fire or explosion. Inside unitsare stationed near the control board for use by the control board technician.

The inside unit is generally desk-mounted and not housed in a container. Theintercom system is simple to use. In the field, the field process technician opens theexplosion-proof door of the unit, depresses the page button, and speaks into the hand-set. The page button is either located on the handset or on the housing. The respondingindividual lifts the handset of his or her nearest station for telephone-type, duplex com-munication over the party line. Several individuals may engage in conversation on eachintercom system. Figure 5.2 shows an example of a field-mount intercom.

FIGURE 5.1 Crane Operation Hand Signals

FIGURE 5.2 Field-MountIntercom

PA SYSTEMS

Public Address Systems (PA systems) are systems that reinforce and distribute a givensound throughout a venue. Simple PA systems are often used in small venues such asschool auditoriums, churches, and restaurants. Public address systems with a largernumber of speakers are widely used in institutional and commercial buildings to read

announcements or declare states of emergency.Public address systems, as seen in Figure 5.3, are generally used for paging per-

sonnel, or for emergency notifications to the facility site. The system consists of aprimary control panel, user interfaces as required, and amplifiers and speakers placed




strategically throughout the process facility. These systems are designed as failsafe, orunable to fail, and are capable of programmable monitoring to detect fault status toensure maximum availability at all times. These systems can perform general pagingfunctions, emergency broadcasts, and alarm tones. Alarms can be automatically initi-ated, where alarm tones or prerecorded voice messages can be broadcast. The alarmtones may be set up in a series of tones or beeps that designate a certain area or unitthat may have an emergency. The process technician is required to learn the appropriate

tones at his or her process facility.

CELL PHONES

Cell phones are long-range electronic devices used for mobile communication, textmessaging, or data transmission over a cellular network of specialized base stationsknown as cell sites. Although not prohibited, in some process industries, such as therefining and petrochemical industry, their use is restricted. A process technician shouldnot take a personal cell phone into an operating process unit. Cell phones should notbe used in process units unless they are intrinsically safe.

Cell phones that are intrinsically safe may be carried into operating process units.These types of cell phones are generally bought by the process facility for use by emer-

gency responders, shift supervisors, and chief operators. It is important that processoperators become aware of and follow the procedures of their employers in regard tocell phone use in process areas.

SOUND-POWERED PHONES

Sound-powered phones contain electromechanical transducers that convert voicedirectly into electrical energy. The headset microphone transducer converts soundpressure from a user’s voice into a minute electrical current, which is then convertedback to sound by a transducer at the other end. Sound-powered phones, using eitherheadsets, handsets, or a combination of the two, can be used in the process industry,including crane operations, in-facility maintenance, wire pulling by electricians, or even

during rescue operations. They are useful in many other industries as well, such asconcrete pumping, sports spotter systems, communication underground (e.g. in train/subway tunnels and in tanks), production line balancing, and many others. Figure 5.4shows an example of a sound-powered phone.

T his is a drill!

T h i s i

s a d r i l l !

T h i s i s a d r i l l !

FIGURE 5.3 PublicAddress System




In short, sound-powered telephones are useful in any situation where two or morepeople must communicate who cannot hear or see one another, and when clear, reliablecommunication is imperative.

TWO-WAY RADIOS

Two-way radios, as seen in Figure 5.5, are radios that can transmit and receive con-tent. Many of the radio systems within the process industry are trunked radio systems.Trunked radio systems are a complex type of computer-controlled radio system,but they use fewer frequencies and are more efficient. They also provide the abilityto divide the facility into groups, limiting the amount of nonessential conversationsheard by all personnel. Trunked radio systems differ from conventional radio systemsbecause a conventional radio system uses a dedicated channel, or frequency, for eachindividual group of users. However, trunking radio systems use a pool of channels that

FIGURE 5.4 Sound-PoweredPhone

FIGURE 5.5 Two-WayRadios and Headset




are available for a great many different groups of users. For example, a processd facilitycan divide its personnel into the following groups:

• Operations channel (divided into smaller subgroups)• CAT 1 (Catalytic Cracking Unit 1)• CAT 2 (Catalytic Cracking Unit 2)• SRU (Sulfur Recovery Unit)

• Utilities, etc.• Maintenance channel (divided by subgroups for each craft)

• Machinists• Pipefitters• Welders• Heavy equipment• Electricians, etc.

• Engineering (divided into engineering disciplines or by unit)• Emergency response channel (divided by applicable subgroups)

• Rescue• Fire• Emergency Medical Technicians, etc.

• Inspection channel• Safety, health, and environmental channel• Security channel

Trunked radio systems work on the probability that users do not need channelaccess all at once. Therefore, with a given number of users, fewer discrete radiochannels are required. However, trunked systems may experience delays if a majoremergency occurs because of the tendency for users to overwhelm the system asthey attempt to find out information about the emergency. Users must limit thetraffic on the system during these times to be able to prevent overloading the sys-tem. Radios are designed to scan other channels to seek information in times ofemergency.

The two-way radio is the primary communication device for the process techni-cian when she or he is out in the process units. The radio should be inspected by theprocess technician for proper operation prior to entering the unit. Many two-wayradios are intrinsically safe, but to verify that a particular radio or battery is intrinsi-cally safe, look for the following on the back panel of the radio or the inside panel ofthe battery:

FM APPROVED

NON-INCENDIVE APPARATUS

CLASS I DIVISION 2 GROUPS A, B, C, D

CLASS II DIVISION 2 GROUPS F, G

In some operating facilities, a two-way radio is issued to each employee. In otheroperating facilities, each operating unit is allotted a certain number of radios that areshared by those on shift.

Radios are provided by the process facility for communication and reportingpurposes. They are also provided to the process technician as a safety device. Inthe event of an emergency, a radio provides the process technician with a quickway to summon help from other unit process technicians or emergency responders.Many of the trunked radio systems have a feature called All Call that, when acti-vated, transmits to all radio users on all channels. If available, All Call is normallyreserved for emergency responder notification and communication for the entirefacility site.

Note that radio systems use the public airwaves and are licensed by the FederalCommunications Commission. Improper usage of the radio, or inappropriate language,could cause the company to lose its radio-operating license.




Communication during Start-Ups or ShutdownsCommunication is essential for a successful start-up or shutdown, which are criticaltimes in the operation of a process unit.

START-UPS

During a unit start-up, there must be communication between many disciplines. Manydepartments and personnel are affected by a unit start-up, and the process technicianmust communicate detailed information to them. During a unit start-up, the processtechnician is expected to communicate with the following work groups:

• Operations—including other process technicians, supervisors, other process unitsand management. Examples of the information the process technician is expectedto communicate during the unit start-up includes, but is not limited to:• Current process status• Work permit status• Current equipment status, including lock-out/tag-out status of equipment• Procedure status

• Maintenance status of remaining work or work in progress• Any abnormal situations• Notifications of major equipment start-ups that have the potential to affect the

entire facility site or neighboring units.• Maintenance—including maintenance technicians assigned to the start-up and

maintenance management. The information the process technician supplies tomaintenance during start-up includes:• Maintenance work that may be needed• Work permit status• Status of ongoing maintenance work• Current start-up status

• Engineering—including process, mechanical, and electrical engineers. The infor-

mation that a process technician communicates includes:• Current start-up status• Rotating equipment problems the unit may have or is experiencing• Any electrical issues the unit may be experiencing• Process related issues such as temperatures, pressures, or catalyst activation

• Safety— including industrial hygienist, safety representatives, safety engineers,and safety management. The information that is communicated includes:• Current start-up status• Any safety related issues that are ongoing• Any start-up related issues that may be industrial hygienist related, such as

leaks or spills

SHUTDOWNS

As with start-up, communication is equally important during a planned unit shutdown.Many departments and personnel are affected. Communication begins months prior tothe actual shutdown date. During a unit shutdown, a process technician is expected tocommunicate with the following work groups:

• Operations—including other process technicians, supervisors, other process units,and management. Some of the information the process technician is expected tocommunicate during the unit shutdown includes:• Current shutdown status• Work permit status

• Current equipment status, including lock-out/tag-out status of equipment• Procedure status• Maintenance status of remaining work or work in progress• Any abnormal situations that were encountered during the shutdown process




• Prior to the shutdown, the process technician is expected to communicate someof the following:• Input for the turnaround work list• Request for turnaround supplies• Input on procedures

• Maintenance—including maintenance technicians assigned to the shutdown and

maintenance management. The information the process technician supplies tomaintenance includes:• Maintenance work that may be needed during the shutdown• Work permit status• Status of ongoing maintenance work related to pre-shutdown work• Current shutdown status

• Engineering—including process, mechanical, and electrical engineers. The infor-mation that the process technician communicates includes:• Current shutdown status• Rotating equipment problems experienced during the shutdown of the unit• Any electrical issues encountered during the shutdown• Any abnormal process-related issues encountered during the shutdown

• Safety—including industrial hygienist, safety representatives, safety engineers,and safety management. The information communicated includes:• Current shutdown status• Any safety related issues that are ongoing• Any hygienist-related issues, such as leaks, spills, etc.

Communication to these groups is generally verbal. However, written documentationis always encouraged as a guide to dialogue. In addition, written documentation alsoserves as a record that pertinent information was passed on. A process technician mustalso realize that communication is a two-way street, and so the technician should alsoask questions that are relevant to her or his job or task during discussion with each ofthe groups.

Communication during Routine MaintenanceDuring routine maintenance, the process technician provides the maintenance tech-nician with verbal and written communication. Verbal communication can consist ofdiscussion regarding the permits associated with the work to be performed. A writtencommunication tool, the permit, serves as a guide to this discussion. A process techni-cian is responsible for all work taking place on the unit. “Control of Work” is a workpractice that identifies the means of safely controlling maintenance, demolition, reme-diation, construction, operating tasks, and similar work activities. In most operatingfacilities, the process technician is required to fill out and discuss the work permit withthe maintenance technician.

The permit is the process technician’s key to controlling the maintenance activitieson his or her unit. Depending on the work, the process technician may be required tofill out the following permits:

• Confined Space Entry (CSE) Permit—a permit that allows human entry andwork within an OSHA-defined confined space, the issuance of which indicatesall regulated and pertinent safety measures have been taken and/or are active.The process technician is required to follow an isolation and lock-out/tag-outprocedure to prepare the confined space for entry.

• Lock-out/Tag-out (LOTO)—a procedure used in industry to isolate energysources from a piece of equipment. It is a general term used to refer to thecontrol of hazardous energy as defined by OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.147.

Implementation is accomplished by identification and isolation of hazardousenergy sources and hazardous substances. The process technician, along with themaintenance technician who is to perform the work in the confined space, mustverify that the isolation has been completed prior to entry and work.




• Hot Work Permit—permit that allows hot work, such as welding, grinding, orvehicle entry in or around process equipment. The process technician, alongwith the technician to perform the work, must verify the LOTO procedurehas been completed correctly and have a discussion centering on the permitconditions.

• Blinding/Unblinding Permit—permit that allows equipment isolation via the

installation of blinds and blind flanges. This may also be referred to as a linebreaking permit. The process technician, together with the technicians performingthe work, should verify the LOTO has been completed correctly, verify the equip-ment is energy free, and have a discussion centered on the permit conditions.

• General Work Permit—a permit that allows work activity other than blinding/unblinding, hot work, lock-out/tag-out, and confined space. Different operatingfacilities refer to this permit differently. The process technician, together withthe technicians or maintenance personnel performing the work, should verify theLOTO procedure has been completed correctly (if applicable), verify the equip-ment is energy free (if applicable), and have a discussion centered on the permitconditions.

The process technician can control the work on the process unit by issuing and dis -cussing the applicable permit for a given type of work with the personnel perform-ing the work. These face-to-face discussions and permits ensure that all personnelremain safe.

Summary

Communication is quickly evolving into a skill that involves less conversation andmore electronic sharing of information. However, within the process industry, face-to-face discussions and electronic sharing of information are preferred.

Communication is a process of transferring information between people in averbal, nonverbal, or written way. The most important part of communication is that

the information or ideas conveyed must be clearly understood. Partial understand-ing only creates problems. The process technician needs to remember that clarity isan important component for good communication in both verbal and written com-munication. Be sure to prepare, organize, and be ready to answer questions whencommunicating.

Advances in information technology have dramatically increased the speed of com-munication. Instant communication with others has become easy; and fast informationaccess for decision making has become simple.

Checking Your Knowledge 1. Define the following key terms:

a. Blinding/Unblinding Permitb. Cell phonec. Communicationd. Confined Space Entry (CSE) Permite. General Work Permitf. Hot Work Permitg. Intercomh. Intrinsically safe electronic devicei. Logbook j. Nonverbal communication (NVC)k. Public address system (PA system)l. Sound-powered phonesm. Trunked radio systemn. Two-way radioo. Verbal communicationp. Written communication




2. List the four types of permits discussed in this chapter.a. ____________________b. ____________________c. ____________________d. ____________________

3. Trunked radio systems are analog radio systems that offer large numbers of radiofrequencies.

a. Trueb. False

4. List six pieces of information a process technician is required to provide to his or her reliefduring shift change.

a. ____________________b. ____________________c. ____________________d. ____________________

e. ____________________ 5. The confined space entry permit is used:

a. for hot work on a process unitb. for line breaking

c. to manage entry into OSHA-defined confined spacesd. all of the above 6. Intercoms are stand-alone electronic communication systems intended for limited or private

conversation.a. Trueb. False

7. The ________ is required to fill out all permits on a process unit.a. operations supervisorb. maintenance technicianc. process techniciand. operations superintendante. none of the above

8. A public address system is used in the refining and process industry for ________

and ________.a. calling home / playing musicb. paging personnel / emergency notificationc. public speaking / voicing an opiniond. none of the above

9. List five of the nine tips for good verbal communication skills.a.b.c.d.e.

10. List six of the nine tips for good written communication skills.a.

b.c.d.e.f.

11. Cell phones that are used inside a process unit must be intrinsically safe.a. Trueb. False

Activities 1. Using the information described, create a written logbook providing necessary detail,

including date and time:Scenario: You are working the day shift during which you engage in the following activities:

a. You prepare P607A (pump with leaking seal) for maintenance using procedureP607_Maint, which is a lock-out/tag-out procedure.




b. You fill out a general work permit for a scaffold to be erected for work on P-607A.c. You unload a truck containing 500 gallons of sodium hypochlorite for your unit

cooling tower.d. You add oil to the following pumps: P-607B, P-601A, P-602A, P-603A and P610.e. P-615A T-6 bottoms pump shuts down, causing a low flow through H-6 furnace and

tripping the furnace off line. You immediately start the B pump and reestablishedbottoms flow. Fortunately, the furnace restarts within a few minutes after starting

P-615B and the unit upset is minimal. You call the electricians to check out P-615Aafter troubleshooting.

f. You and the other process technicians attend a morning safety meeting lasting15 minutes.

g. You find a problem with P-622A cooling water pump (leaking seal) and write awork order.

h. You unloaded another truck of Nalco 657 inhibitor for the cooling tower.i. Maintenance blinds P-607A. j. Maintenance (pipefitter and machinist) working over to pull P-607A and taking to

shop for machinist repair. (Machinist will work until pump repaired and back in thehole or 9:00 PM, whichever comes first.)

k. You take routine readings and find no abnormalities. 2. Select a classmate and perform a verbal passdown simulating shift change using the written

log sheet from Activity 1.



83

6Shift Change/Relief

C H A P T E R

Objectives


■ Identify the types of information that need to be conveyed during shift change.

■ Discuss the level of detail necessary to accurately convey unit status information.

■ Discuss the different methods used to make relief.

■ Name the individuals who will be typically present during shift change.

■ Describe how a typical shift change occurs.

■ List the documentation used during a typical shift change.

■ Discuss the importance of making timely relief.

■ Discuss the importance of establishing good relationships with members of your

shift and members of other shifts.




Key Terms

Effective Communications—communication skills that help convey the intendedmeaning more efficiently.

Electronic Logbook (eLog)—computer-based event logging program developed toassist the process technician report and record significant shift activities.

Maintenance Activity—events performed by the maintenance department in a

process facility, such as pump or compressor repair, pipe work, and routinegeneral maintenance.

Non-operatingPersonnel—personnel other than process technicians that are visitingthe unit, such as engineers, members of the management team, maintenance staff,

and contractors who are performing work on the unit.Paraphrasing—summarizes the information received to clarify understanding.

Shift Change/Relief—handing off the operation and maintenance of a facility from

one operating crew to another at a designated time; also known as shift handover,

shift pass-down, shift turnover, making relief, and by other phrases.Unit Status Report—information gathered by the current operating shift for

reporting to the oncoming shift during shift change.

Work Permits—documents that allow individuals or groups to perform work on aprocess unit.

Introduction

Maintaining continuity across shifts in any continuous operation is vital. It is essentialthat process technicians, as well as their shift leaders, are able to communicate relevant

information accurately and reliably so that the operation can continue to run safelyand effectively. Oncoming personnel need a thorough and accurate understanding of

facility status so they can make correct decisions and perform appropriate actions.

Shift change is a critical activity and has been cited as a contributing factor in anumber of major accidents. It is essential that organizations have the right tools and

processes in place to execute effective shift changes.

Shift Change/Relief

A shift change/relief is handing off the operation and maintenance of a facility

from one operating crew to another at a designated time. This is also known as shift

handover, shift pass-down, shift turnover, making relief, and by other phrases. There

are many items relevant to the operation and maintenance of the process unit thatmust be communicated at shift change. Important information includes:

• Safety and environmental issues• Alarms and their current status

• Equipment conditions/problems• Procedures in progress• Process status• Process trends• Maintenance activities: completed, in-progress, and planned• Presence of non-operating personnel or personnel other than process technicians

who are visiting the unit, such as engineers, members of the management team,maintenance personnel, and contractors who work on the unit

• Status of permits in force• Product quality issues (off-test or specification)

These items make up the unit status report. A unit status report is the information

gathered by the current operating shift for reporting to the oncoming shift duringshift change. The status report is either written or verbal. A written status report canbe used as a reference or guide during verbal discussion between the shift-changing

process technicians, and as a tool for the relief technician during the coming shift.



CHAPTER 6 Shift Change/Relief 85

UNIT STATUS

Both the field technician and the control board technician must provide an

accurately detailed report of the current operating status of the process unit.

The reports must include:

• Alarms—status of all current and previous alarms.

• Equipment conditions/Problems—current equipment-related problems on theunit, including equipment placed in or taken out of service, and any problemsexperienced with any of the equipment during the shift, as well as the results ofthe equipment inspection/monitoring performed during the current shift.

• Procedures in progress—operating and maintenance procedures in progress.

The field and control board technician will review the copy with his or herappropriate relief. Both the field and master copies of the procedure should

be updated prior to shift change to provide the oncoming shift with accurate

information so that procedure continuity across shifts is maintained andprocedures can be safely and accurately completed. At the end of the shift, the

field copy and the master copy should be identical.

• Process status—current and past process status, such as process safety

management (PSM) limits exceeded and action taken to return to normal,operational requirements exceeded and action taken to return to normal,equipment being de-inventoried, and abnormal situations on unit.

• Process trends—process trends, such as high levels, low levels, swings intemperature, or any other process-related variable that may be helpful to the

oncoming shift, including nonroutine or unexplained events.

• Maintenance activity— events performed by the maintenance department in

a process facility, such as pump or compressor repair, pipe work, or routine

general maintenance. This includes completed, in progress, and/or planned—any maintenance activity completed during their shift, and if maintenance

activities will be continuing across shift, the scope of the job, procedureinformation, number of personnel remaining on the unit, and current job

status. Activities planned for the next day requiring equipment preparation bythe oncoming shift should also be communicated during the unit status report.

• Presence of non-operating personnel—presence of non-operating personnelremaining on the unit during or after shift change, including the number of

personnel and their current and planned activities.

• Product quality issues—discussions of any off-specification process samples oranalyzers.

• Status of work permits—work permits are documents that allow individuals orgroups to perform work on a process unit, such as any currently active work permits

that will continue across the shift change, and include a detailed status of each work

permit that will require revalidation, the scope of the work, number of employeescontinuing to work, and current job status. The different types of work permits

include hot work permits, confined space entry permits, and general work permits.

• Safety and environmental issues—any safety or environmental items, events, near

misses, upsets, potential hazards, or potential upsets that occurred with emphasison possibility of repetition.

Methods Used to Make Relief

There are several methods used to make shift relief. The most common method inindustry has been to communicate verbally to the oncoming relief. However, recent

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) investigations havingrevealed deficiencies in shift changes, and many process facilities have opted to

incorporate additional tools, such as a logbook or a shift pass-down sheet, to assist thetechnician in making a thorough relief. Coupled with effective verbal communication,these additional tools have proven to increase the transfer of relevant and critical

information at shift relief.




ELECTRONIC LOGBOOKS

Many facilities have added electronic logbooks to assist the technician in providingaccurate shift change information. Electronic logbooks (eLogs), computer-based

event logging programs developed to assist the process technician report and recordsignificant shift activities, may be purchased or created in-house in an applicable

worksheet or database. Figure 6.1 shows an example of an eLog with entries.

FIGURE 6.1 eLog Entries

LOGBOOKS

Logbooks are typically hardbound ledgers used to handwrite significant activities thathave occurred during the shift. Figure 6.2 shows an example of a page of a handwrittenhardbound ledger. These are still used today in some locations, although the eLog ismore widely used. Some drawbacks of the handwritten log include:




FIGURE 6.2 Handwritten Hardbound Ledger Entries

• Omitted information• Legibility• Limited search ability• Requirement to enter data in pen, making correction of incorrect entries difficult




SHIFT PASS-DOWN SHEETS

Shift pass-down sheets are generally preprinted or computer-generated forms withdesignated categories of information that facility management has deemed critical and

relevant to facility or unit operation. These sheets are used for shift-to-shift pass-downs

to provide an oncoming shift with a synopsis of facility operations. Figure 6.3 shows anexample of a shift pass-down sheet.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal communication is extremely effective only if all necessary information is

passed on to the oncoming technician. Sometimes, a process technician rememberspertinent information after leaving the facility and will call back to inform her or his

relief of noncritical, but in some cases critical, information that was not passed on atshift change.

If the technician is using only verbal communication to execute a proper shift

pass-down, it is extremely important that each technician involved be trained ineffective communication, a communication skill that helps to convey the intended

meaning more efficiently. However, effective verbal communication, coupled with

additional tools as mentioned earlier, can be very effective in executing a productiveshift change.

Participants in the Shift Change

Shift change can occur in one of two ways: individually or in a group setting with both

shifts attending. Each facility has its preferred manner for executing shift change.The most common is the technician-to-technician method.

In the technician-to-technician communication method, the current unit technician

sits down with the oncoming technician and communicates, face-to-face, the shift’sactivities. The technician communicates verbally using handwritten notes, entries from

an eLog, entries from a hardbound logbook, or shift pass-down sheets.

In the group communication method, both the current shift and the oncomingshift sit in a group setting and communicate the activities that occurred duringthe shift. In this type of setting, a member of the facilities management team may

lead the meeting. Each technician may report activities that occurred during thecurrent shift. This type of communication is done verbally, using handwritten notes,entries from an eLog, entries from a hardbound logbook, or shift pass-down sheets.

This type of shift change is often used for turnarounds, unit start-ups, unit shut-downs, or special projects. Group communication is also a common shift relief

format for routine operations as well.An efficient tool to use, whether communicating in a group or in a face-to-face

situation, is paraphrasing. Paraphrasing summarizes the information received to

clarify understanding. A process technician should listen intently to the informationbeing reported during shift change, and then should paraphrase what was heard, repeat-

ing the information back to verify that he or she understood the meaning of what wasbeing conveyed. This ensures that the current shift has relayed all information, and that

the oncoming shift understands what is being shared. The difference between what wasintended and what was understood becomes apparent.

Making a Timely Relief

Most facilities have an appointed time to make shift change/relief. It is extremelyimportant that the shift change occur on time and be effective. If a person makes

relief late, the knowledge transfer between the technicians is generally hurried and

information may be lost. In most 12-hour shift schedules, it is good to remember thatthe person being relieved is the person most likely to make relief at the end of the next

shift. A good idea is to communicate all possible information and to expect the samefrom the person being relieved.




FIGURE 6.3 Shift Pass-Down Sheet




Establishing Good Relationships

Establishing good relationships with members of a shift, as well as members ofother shifts, is extremely important to the role of process technician. When forming

relationships with other technicians, some important behaviors to consider are:

• Be safe—work safely, never place a co-worker in harm, stop unsafe acts, and

follow procedures.• Be attentive—listen to peers and especially those technicians with experience;

they are there to help.

• Be honest—base actions on a personal set of values; demonstrate trustworthiness.

• Be knowledgeable—learn everything possible about an area of operatingresponsibility and assist others in learning.

• Be prompt—arrive at work on time and make good shift change/relief; thesequalities are greatly appreciated by others.

• Be a team player—help others establish a great working relationship with othershift technicians.

• Be willing—listen, learn, help others, and volunteer for tougher job assignments.

Summary

The process technician shift change/relief is critical in exchanging key informationbetween the current operating shift and the relieving shift. Without a properexchange of information between the shifts, the likelihood of an accident increases.

Accidents, incidents, and errors can be related to poor shift changes in many industries.

Face-to-face communication is a good practice for shift change/relief that canbe improved by the addition of structured written material such as entries from

a logbooks or an electronic logbook, or checklist items, which reduce the risk ofincomplete communication.

As a process technician, the goal is to provide sufficient information to the reliefoperator so that he or she has a complete understanding of the unit operations during

the previous shift. A relief technician with good communication skills asks questionsand paraphrases what has been related.

Paraphrasing what was heard tells the other party what image her or his wordspainted. Differences between what was intended and what was understood then become

apparent. Poorly chosen words frequently create incorrect mental images for thelistener, but good communication skills help operating technicians obtain a completeunderstanding of the information being conveyed.


a. Effective communications b. Electronic logbook (eLog)c. Maintenance activity d. Non-operating personnele. Paraphrasing f. Shift change/relief

g. Unit status report f. Work permits 2. List four items that are to be included in a unit status report.

a. ____________________

b. ____________________

c. ____________________

d. ____________________ 3. Safety and environmental issues do not need to be reported while making shift relief.

a. True

b. False

4. Name the participants in the shift change/relief process.




5. At the end of the shift the field and master control room copies of a working procedure

should look identical.

a. True

b. False 6. List five of the seven suggestions for forming a good relationship with other process

technicians.

a. ____________________

b. ____________________c. ____________________

d. ____________________

e. ____________________ 7. State the reason(s) for making a timely relief. 8. A number of serious accidents have occurred due to inadequate shift pass-downs.

a. True

b. False

9. List four items that are to be included when reporting on the process status. 10. List the items for process trends that should be discussed during shift change. 11. It is not necessary to verbally report any equipment problems that occurred during the

current shift as the oncoming shift would probably read about them in the logbook.

a. True

b. False

Activities 1. This activity contains two parts:

• Work with a classmate to perform a shift pass-down, developing electronic logbookentries and verbally communicating shift and section activities to each other.

• When acting as the oncoming relief technician, practice paraphrasing what you are

told in order for the off-going technician to compare your understanding with what

he or she intended.2. Write a one-page paper on what your expectations are in receiving and giving a shift pass-

down to/from another process technician.3 . Perform research on electronic logbooks; select a device and write a one-page paper on why

you made that selection.



9292

7Abnormal and Emergency Operations

C H A P T E R

Objectives


■ Discuss what types of events could be considered “abnormal operations.”

■ Discuss what types of events could be considered “emergency situations.”

■ Identify possible causes for these various conditions.

■ Discuss actions that should be taken to mitigate each situation. Discuss possiblecorrective action for each of the various possible causes.

■ Discuss the field technician and board technician roles in correcting these operationsand situations.

■ Discuss how each of these critical conditions could affect the normal operation ofthe unit process, utilities, and auxiliary systems.

■ Describe how process personnel prepare for each situation (i.e., drills, exercises).



CHAPTER 7 Abnormal and Emergency Operations 93

Key Terms

Abnormal Operation—operating a process unit in a mode that is different fromnormal operations.

Emergency—sudden, unexpected, or impending situation that may cause injury,loss of life, damage to property, and/or interference with the normal activities of aperson or operation, which therefore requires immediate attention and demandsremedial action.

Emergency Operation—mode of operation or procedure followed when anemergency situation has placed a process unit in an unsafe condition.

Emergency Response—effort to mitigate the impact of an incident on the publicand the environment.

Explosion—rapid increase in volume followed by a release of energy in an extrememanner, usually with the generation of high temperatures and the release of toxicgases.

Fire Brigade—local process facility fire department composed of employees whoare knowledgeable, trained, and skilled in basic firefighting techniques.

First Responder—individuals who likely witness or discover a hazardous substance

release and have been trained to initiate an emergency response sequenceby notifying the appropriate authorities.Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Standard

(HAZWOPER)—OSHA standard that applies to personnel who are in a role orposition to act as a first responder during an emergency.

Incident Response Teams—groups of people who prepare for and respond to anyemergency incident, such as a fire, spill, explosion, or environmental release, thatpotentially impacts the outlying community.

Mutual Aid—agreement among emergency responders to lend assistance across jurisdictional boundaries.

Spill—uncontrolled discharge of a liquid, typically involving more volume thana leak.

Train—parallel system that has been designed and constructed using the exactor similar production equipment, each of which contributes towardproduction.

Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of various types of abnormal and emergencyoperations that take place in a production facility. Although these two scenariosof operation sound very similar, there are in fact distinct differences between thetwo. An emergency is a sudden, unexpected, or impending situation that may causeinjury, loss of life, damage to property, and/or interference with the normal activi-

ties of a person or operation, which therefore requires immediate attention anddemands remedial action. Emergency operations are definitely abnormal, butan abnormal operation should not always be categorized as an emergency. Aftercompleting this chapter, you will be able to differentiate between abnormal andemergency operations.

• Abnormal operation is operating a process unit in a mode that is different fromnormal operations. These are usually planned, have a specific purpose, and are atemporary or short-term operation.

• Emergency operations are a mode of operation or procedure followed when anemergency situation has placed a process unit in an unsafe condition. It is consid-ered abnormal from routine operating conditions. These are unplanned situa-tions that can have a severe negative impact on unit personnel and equipment.Depending on the severity of the emergency, site personnel, the environment, andsurrounding communities can be affected.




Abnormal Operations

Operating a process unit in an abnormal condition can be described in many ways,because they are unit specific and are unlimited in scope and purpose. The causes forabnormal operations are usually equipment related. However, there are times whenraw material supply or product demand may determine the need to operate a unit inan abnormal mode. Most instances of abnormal operation are planned and temporary.The following are a few examples of abnormal operation scenarios and causes that aprocess technician might encounter:

• Depending on process capabilities, and based on the process equipment involved,there may be opportunities to shutdown specific pieces of equipment for mainte-nance or repair and continue to operate the unit for the purpose for which it wasdesigned. In other words, the production facility continues even while equipment isremoved from service temporarily for repairs. Redundant pieces of equipment thatare performing the same function in a process system can provide these opportunities.

• Some units are constructed using a parallel “train” of operation. A train can bedescribed as a parallel system that has been designed and constructed using theexact or similar production equipment, each of which contributes toward pro-duction. If there is a need to operate at reduced rates for economic reasons, orif there is equipment damage within a train, a process design such as this maypermit continued production while removing one or more of these parallel trainsfrom service.

• Some units are constructed with an “A Side” and a “B Side,” each with specificdesign and equipment characteristics that can be operated in different modes orconfigurations. Normal operation and final product process might take place onlywith the combination of the two sides and their respective products. Anyalternate mode of operation would be considered abnormal.

• Many times there are process systems from adjacent units that are shared on a per-manent or temporary basis. Equipment on Unit A might be in service to process

material from Unit B into a viable product. If Unit B is in a shutdown or turnaroundmode, then the equipment on Unit A would be temporarily removed from service.• Rerouting the flare and vent system from one unit to an adjacent unit flare is

one of the more common scenarios for sharing systems on a temporary basis.• Installation and operation of specialty equipment in temporary service is also

considered abnormal operation. Temporary equipment must usually be installedper the manufacturer’s specifications and can require training and other consider-ations prior to placing into service. Portable drier and filter systems and portablestorage facilities are examples of these.

• Tank farms that contain storage tank, feed tank, effluent tank, and pumpingfacilities can many times be reconfigured to accommodate numerous temporaryconditions that can occur in a production facility:

• A feed tank that needs to be removed from service for an annual internalinspection might be bypassed while feed to the unit continues directly from thefeed source.

• A unit system might be shutdown and removed from service so that a sloptank can be taken out of service for repair.

• A spare tank that is not normally used may be placed in service so that anothertank can be repaired.

• Temporary piping might be installed and placed in service so that a tank farmpumping station can be bypassed and removed from service.

These examples provide only a small sample of abnormal operations that can take place

on a process unit. Even when planned, the hazards associated with abnormal operationsare unit specific and are a diversion from normal operations. This diversion carries with itan increased level of risk, which, if not managed properly, can cause injury to personnel,damage to equipment, and damage to the environment and surrounding communities.




Emergency Operations

There are an unlimited number of variables and scenarios that can cause a processunit emergency situation. The presence of large quantities of hazardous, flammable,and explosive materials, coupled with production equipment that can provide an igni-tion source for these materials, presents continuous danger for emergency operations.Emergency situations are usually caused by the sudden failure of major pieces of pro-cess equipment such as compressors, pumps, furnaces, and piping systems. Failureof automatic trip or shutdown instrumentation and utilities such as instrument air,steam, or electricity can also cause an emergency situation on a process unit. Theloss of multiple pieces of major equipment creates one of the most dangerous typesof emergency situations. Shutdown or loss of major pieces of process equipmentsimultaneously can have severe health, safety, and environmental consequences. Theresulting hazards can include:

• Uncontrolled rapid release of hydrocarbon to flare and vent systems• Hazardous material spills and environmental releases

• Rapid cool down of process equipment in high-temperature service• Thermal contraction of piping and flanges• Separation of pipe joints and material release• Fire or explosion• Rapid heat-up of process equipment in cold or refrigerated service causing

additional overpressure as the material heats up• Equipment and system overpressure leading to a catastrophic event that could

impact an entire process facility and the surrounding communities




An endless number of unit-specific failures can result in an emergency situation.Examples of some of the common failures that cause an emergency situation on mostprocess units include:

• Power failure• Instrument air failure• Steam failure

• Fuel gas failure• Compressor failure• Furnace failure• Severe weather conditions

Other causes of emergency situations include the failure of auxiliary systems like hotoil systems, seal oil and dry gas seal systems, water systems, nitrogen, and other utility

systems.Process units are typically designed to handle emergency situations with adequate

technology and safety systems that can withstand the effects of an emergency. Flare andvent systems that are adequately sized, piping systems and piping connections that canhandle rapid heat-up or cool-down without separation, safety instrumented systems,backup power, and redundant refrigeration systems are all examples of ways to eliminateor minimize the hazards associated with an emergency situation.

An emergency situation requires immediate attention, as these conditions have thepotential to cause serious injury to personnel, damage to equipment, and damage to theenvironment and surrounding communities if they are not managed correctly. It is criti-cal to the safe operation of every process facility that emergency scenarios are identified

and documented, and that mitigation plans are in place to safely manage those scenarios.Engineering controls must be tested on a regular basis to ensure they will workwhen needed. All of the unit emergency procedures for a given scenario should bereviewed as soon as it is determined that the unit is secure from any immediate safety,health, or environmental hazards.

The Process Technician’s Role in Abnormal Operations

The process technician’s knowledge of the process technology and design criteria, pro-cess equipment, and interconnecting piping, valves, safety, and control systems, as wellas process-specific hazards, plays a key role in the planning and execution of abnormaloperations.

A hazard analysis of the abnormal condition should be completed to determine ifthe mode of operation is safe, and that hazards are minimized or eliminated. Standardoperating procedures (SOPs) should be written to address the specific mode of opera-tion and should contain step-by-step instructions, cautions, and hazards for placing




the unit in an abnormal condition. The majority of the risks and hazards associatedwith abnormal operations can be eliminated with the proper development and use ofoperating procedures that are generated for the specific task.

During abnormal operations, coordination between the process techniciansassigned to field duties and the technicians assigned to the control board is critical.The field technician will be engaged in proper line up of process equipment, piping and

control valves, as well as operation of the rotating equipment. The control board tech-nician will be engaged in establishing and maintaining the operating conditions andprocess variables for the given mode of operation. Abnormal operations also providea unique learning experience for the new or inexperienced technician. The diversionfrom normal operations enables personnel to execute operating procedures and safety,health, and environmental policies and work practices that are seldom encounteredduring routine or normal operations. These activities give the process techniciansan opportunity for hands-on experience that increases their knowledge base. Unit-specific as well as site-specific knowledge can be gained related to how abnormal unitoperations can affect an entire production facility or community.

The process technician’s primary responsibilities during abnormal operationsinclude:

• Participation during Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) studies to review andunderstand the abnormal operation and complete a hazard evaluation

• Development and execution of unit-operating procedures specific to theabnormal task

• Correct use of personal protective equipment (PPE)• Proper line-up of process equipment, piping, and control valves• Monitoring and control of the process during abnormal operation• Special equipment preparation that may be needed during abnormal

operation• Establishing and maintaining control of process conditions within operating limits• Coordination of all work activities while the abnormal operation is in progress

• Monitoring all site and contractor craftsmen to ensure safe work practices andthat safety, health, and environmental policies are followed during abnormaloperation, including those that define unit PPE

• Ensuring that hazards to personnel, the environment, and equipment are man-aged correctly and all deviations from the site safety, health, and environmentalpolicies are reported

• Participating in Employee Health Monitoring Programs when the potential forunique exposure hazards are present

• Completing Control of Work (COW) procedures and permitting processes usedto manage work activities surrounding process equipment

• Completing Lock-out/Tag-out (LOTO) control of work procedures for thepurpose of equipment preparation and energy isolation when there is a need toinspect, repair, or replace process equipment

• Maintaining audio visual olfactory (AVO) and equipment monitoring awareness.• Staying familiar with first responder roles and responsibilities (i.e., hazard

identification, radio communications, and emergency evacuation procedures)

The Process Technician’s Role in Emergency Operations

Safely managing an emergency situation depends heavily on the knowledge, skills, andabilities of the process technician, emergency responders, and site personnel. Emergencysituation management is also regulated by the Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration. OSHA is a U.S. government agency created to establish and enforce

workplace safety and health standards, conduct workplace inspections and proposepenalties for noncompliance, and investigate serious workplace incidents. OSHA andthe PSM (Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials) standard includeguidelines for Emergency Planning and Response.




HAZWOPER

Another OSHA standard that applies to the proper management of emergencysituations is the Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Standard

(HAZWOPER), which applies to personnel who are in a role or position to act asa first responder during an emergency. First responders are individuals who likelywitness or discover a hazardous substance release, and have been trained to initiate anemergency response sequence by notifying the appropriate authorities. This includesany employees who are exposed or potentially exposed to hazardous substances,including hazardous waste, and who are engaged in cleanup operations involv-ing hazardous substances. The standard also applies to personnel who are engagedin corrective actions involving cleanup operations at sites covered by the ResourceConservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), which is the U.S. primary law governing thedisposal of solid and hazardous waste. It gives the Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) authority to control hazardous waste and emergency response operations forhazardous releases and threats of releases, regardless of location.

HAZWOPER training for emergency responders should include instruction formanaging:

• Hazard identification and isolation• Communication• Injury to personnel• Fire• Spill• Evacuation

EMERGENCY OPERATING PROCEDURES

Preplanning for an emergency situation requires that emergency scenarios for each

specific process have been identified and that emergency operating procedures havebeen written and are in place for use by the process technicians and operations supportstaff. These Emergency Operating Procedures should include step-by-step instructionsfor securing a process unit for each type of emergency situation, and for identifying




the effect on the process, the environment, and surrounding communities. EmergencyOperating Procedures can also be formatted to identify steps that must be completedby the field technician, the board technician, or the unit personnel.

Process technicians must be trained regularly on these procedures to ensure theappropriate skills and knowledge are exercised when needed. Performing training onsimulated emergency scenarios, sometimes called gun drills, prepares the process tech-

nician for safely managing situations without the immediate need for reference mate-rial. Emergency Operating Procedures are just one type of procedure required by theOSHA PSM standard.

PROCESS HAZARD ANALYSIS

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the Process SafetyManagement of Highly Hazardous Materials (PSM) standard also include require-ments for process units to conduct periodic process hazard analysis studies. This isa review and study method that determines potential hazards associated with pro-cess systems, equipment, and work processes. Unit process hazard analysis and unit-specific emergency scenarios are identified during these studies. Operations and

engineering team members identify potential emergency scenarios and implementengineering controls, administrative controls, or advanced technology to eliminateor mitigate each hazard. Engineering controls designed to eliminate emergencysituations can include:

• Instrumentation controls in the form of alarms, automatic trips, and shutdowns• Equipment variety, such as using a centrifugal pump rather than a positive

displacement pump• Relief devices where overpressure is a potential hazard• Properly sized flare and vent systems

Administrative controls take the form of policies, procedures, and checklists andthese include:

• Fire and safety checklists• Car seal checklists• AVO checklists

Potential Hazards

Many of the same hazards present during abnormal and emergency operations arepresent during unit start-ups, shutdowns, and even normal operations. The use of anabnormal operating mode is usually infrequent and considered a nonroutine activ-ity. The human element often increases the hazard level when performing unfamiliaractivities. Hazardous conditions and emergencies can quickly develop during abnor-

mal operations, and can lead to personnel injury, irreparable damage to equipment,material release, fire, and explosion. Every production facility has the responsibility to:

• Identify scenarios that are considered abnormal operations and perform theappropriate hazard analysis of the operation.

• Develop operating procedures for each abnormal operation.• Identify potential emergency scenarios and have documented mitigation plans in

place to safely manage such scenarios.• Develop emergency procedures for each emergency scenario.• Conduct training exercises utilizing emergency procedures.

Technician Emergency Response DutiesAn operating process technician’s duties include responding to emergencies of dif-ferent types. There are many different types of emergencies that may be encoun-tered in the process industry. The process technician must respond to any emergency




situation such as fire, explosion, spills, release of toxic gases, or bomb threats.Emergency response is the effort to mitigate the impact of an incident on the publicand the environment.

Incident Response Teams are a group of people who prepare for and respond toany emergency incident—such as a fire, spill, explosion, or environmental release—that potentially impacts the outlying community. The Incident Response Teams pro-

vide and carry out the emergency response at most process facilities, with the processtechnician providing incident support during the emergency.In many process facilities, the process technician is primarily considered to be the

first responder at the awareness level. The process technician would take no furtheraction beyond the notification of the incident.

SPILLS AND RELEASES

The process technician monitors her or his area of operating responsibility routinelyduring the course of a shift. During the course of the shift, the process technician mightencounter small leaks that may be handled immediately if properly trained. Thesetypes of minor leaks include packing leaks, flange leaks, and tubing leaks. Care shouldalways be exercised when repairing these types of leaks in order to prevent a morehazardous situation. The process technician must always wear the proper personnelprotective equipment (PPE) when attempting to repair a leak.

Each process facility has a determined definition of what volume constitutes a spill.A spill involves the uncontrolled discharge of a liquid, and it usually involves morevolume than a leak. The process technician’s primary responsibility when discoveringa spill is to report the incident to the proper authorities as soon as possible. The techni-cian must also notify those workers immediately affected by the release to ensure theirsafety. If applicable, the process technician who is trained as a first responder at theawareness level may establish a water spray, from a distance, to prevent harmful vaporleaving the immediate area.

A first responder at the operations level is an individual who responds to releases,

or potential releases, as part of the initial response to the site for the purpose ofprotecting nearby persons, property, or the environment. A technician trained as afirst responder (operations level) should respond to the spill according to the siteemergency response guidelines for spills or releases.

Spills of greater volume that have the potential to affect the surrounding commu-nity or waterways require assistance from the local facility fire brigade. A fire brigade is a local process facility fire department composed of employees who are knowledge-able, trained, and skilled in basic firefighting techniques.

FIRES

Although fires are not common in the process industry, they do happen occasion-ally. Some fires that have occurred in industry that local industrial firefighters haveresponded to include:

• Dumpster fires—caused by the improper mixing of chemicals coupled withreadily available debris of all types that act as a fuel source.

• Chemical fires—caused by the improper mixing of two or more chemicals.• Flange fires—caused primarily by a flange leaking hydrocarbons and the vapor

finds a source of ignition, or temperatures are such that auto-ignition occurs.• Furnace fires—usually occur from a ruptured or leaking furnace tube.• Ground fires—generally occur around the bases of flares and are caused when a

large volume of liquid hydrocarbon is dumped into the flare system and cannotbe combusted by the flare.

• Tank fires—primarily caused by lightning strikes and generally occur on tanks

that are not blanketed with an inert gas.• Process unit fires—caused by leaking hydrocarbons, both liquid and vapor. These

include associated piping, pumps, and vessels.




If the process technician encounters a fire, it should be immediately reported accordingto the process facilities emergency response guidelines. When reporting a fire, theprocess technician should:

• Notify co-workers via radio, intercom, or PA system, if available.• Sound the facility fire alarm notifying the remainder of the facility that an

emergency is in progress.

• Call the process facility’s emergency number stating the following:

• Fire location• Fire fuel source• Fire size• If a structure fire, the size of the structure

It is important to stay on the line with the dispatcher or person taking the call becausethey will have additional questions, such as:

• Do people require medical attention?• Are hazardous materials present?• Are nearby properties or storage facilities threatened?

The technician should try to offer as much detail about the event as possible. Afterreporting the fire, he or she should stay as calm as possible until the fire brigaderesponds. Once the fire brigade has responded, the technician should provide what-ever assistance the fire chief or incident commander deems necessary. The processtechnician should show or tell the fire brigade members the location of isolation valvesthat need to be closed to stop the fuel source feeding the fire. Once the scene is undercontrol, the process technician is responsible for post-incident cleanup, as designatedby the process facility.

Many fires at large refineries and process facilities are often successfully dealtwith by the process facility’s firefighting personnel. The role of the local municipal firedepartment is generally one of reinforcement, helping the process facility firefighterswhen larger fires occur. If these fires become too large for the local fire brigade, then amutual aid call may be sounded. Mutual aid is an agreement among other emergencyresponders to lend assistance across jurisdictional boundaries.

A mutual aid system is comprised of many local fire brigades, including the munic-ipal fire department. This type of system may require a regional mutual aid system ifconditions warrant.

The technical knowledge of the process facility’s fire officers can be invaluableto a municipal fire officer in the event that the municipal fire officer has command tocombat a large refinery or process facility fire.

EXPLOSIONS

Explosions are a rapid increase in volume followed by a release of energy in an

extreme manner, usually with the generation of high temperatures and the release oftoxic gases. Less common than fires, explosions can occur in industry if the properconditions are present.

Process explosions are either chemical or physical in nature. Chemical explosionsmay either be decomposition or combination reactions. In both cases the reaction isexothermic and the energy release by the reaction is partially converted to work.

CHEMICAL EXPLOSIONS

Decomposition reactions occur in material such as TNT and nitroglycerin, both ofwhich contain oxygen molecules. When the molecule decomposes, combustion gasesare produced at high temperatures. The volume of the gases is much larger than the

volume of the explosive, generating high pressure at the reaction zone. The rapidexpansion of the gases forms the shock wave that provides the explosive effect. Evensome hydrocarbons without oxygen in their molecules can decompose explosively.




Combination reactions require two or more components that react togetherexothermically to produce hot gases. Examples include ammonium nitrate and fueloil, or gunpowder and fireworks. In these explosions, the reactants that make up theexplosive must be carefully mixed to assure that the reaction continues as planned.

The damage caused by an explosion depends partly on how fast the explosive reac-tion occurs. Decomposition reactions generally occur much faster than combination

reactions.Another type of chemical explosion is the vapor cloud explosion. A vapor cloudexplosion can occur when a fuel, such as ordinary propane, is mixed with air in theatmosphere. If the cloud is ignited, the burning rate may be fast enough to form ashock wave. Although the overpressure in the shock wave may not be very high com-pared to other explosions, it can be strong enough to damage or destroy structures andinjure personnel.

A dust explosion, which is very similar to a vapor explosion, takes place when finecombustible particles, such as coal or grain, are distributed in the proper proportionwith air and the mixture finds an ignition source.

PHYSICAL EXPLOSIONS

Physical explosions are those in which no chemical or nuclear reaction occurs. Themost frequent example is the rupture of a vessel whose contents, either gas or liquid,exist under high pressure. If the containment vessel bursts, the contents are free toexpand, and a shock wave is formed. A simple example would be the explosion of acommon automobile tire when it is overinflated.

Liquids that have a normal boiling point well below ambient temperatures aresometimes stored (under their own vapor pressure) at pressures well above atmo-spheric pressure. If the containment vessel bursts, part of the liquid vaporizesextremely rapidly and expands, forming a shock wave. This process is called a boiling

liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE) and the resulting explosion can be verydestructive.

Explosions can occur during start-ups and shutdowns. During the start-up andshutdown of a process unit, an unplanned event, such as a spill or release, can occurand lead to a severe incident such as an explosion. The process technicians shouldadhere to normal start-up and shutdown procedures to prevent the likelihood ofany incident.

The reporting procedure for explosions is the same as for fire.

BOMB THREATS

Most bomb threats are generally received by phone. However, they can also be

generated through handwritten notes or mail. Bomb threats should be taken seri -ously until proven otherwise. The process facility should have a procedure in placefor handling a bomb threat. The process technician must be familiar with bomb




threat procedures and know how to access the process facilities bomb threatchecklist when needed.

If the process technician receives a bomb threat by phone, she or he should use thefollowing guidelines:

• Remain calm and use the facility bomb threat checklist. The checklist should belocated at each phone in the facility as a precaution for easy access.

• If the phone has a display, note the name or phone number that appears in thedisplay window.

• Obtain the location, appearance, and detonation time of the bomb from thecaller.

• Don’t hang up; stay on the phone with the caller, get a co-worker’s attention andhave him or her call the emergency response coordinator from another phone.Relay the exact phone number where the threat is being received.

An example of a bomb threat checklist is provided in Figure 7.1.

FIGURE 7.1 Example of a Bomb Threat Checklist




Summary

Abnormal and emergency operations are an important part of process operation, andthey provide unique opportunities for site personnel and the process technician. Therisks and hazards may range from none or little for abnormal operations to high orsevere for emergency operations. Hazards present during abnormal operations andemergency operations should be sufficiently analyzed to develop procedures that

ensure the safety of personnel, unit equipment, and the entire facility. The proceduresfollowed during abnormal operations and response to emergency situations require allthe skills and abilities of a trained process technician.

Abnormal operations and emergency operating procedures should be fully docu-mented in the same form as other operating procedures, so they can be managed safelyby site personnel. The regularly practiced process deviation scenarios provide learningexperiences for the site staff that only occur during abnormal and emergency operations.

The Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals standard (OSHA29 CFR 1910.119) requires facility management to develop and document applicableemergency procedures and provide process technician procedure training.


a. Abnormal operationb. Emergencyc. Emergency operationd. Emergency responsee. Explosionf. Fire brigadeg. First responderh. Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Standard

(HAZWOPER)i. Incident Response Teams j. Mutual aid

Spillk. Train

2. The OSHA 1910 Process Safety Management standard covers: (Select all that apply)a. Management of changeb. Pre–start-up safety reviewc. Operations proceduresd. Emergency Planning and Response

3. Regulations defining safe work practices for abnormal and emergency operations are cov-ered by the OSHA PSM (Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials)standard.

a. Trueb. False

4. Process technicians play a key role in the planning and safe execution of abnormaloperations. Their responsibilities include: (Select all that apply)

a. Execution of the unit operations proceduresb. Monitoring the process and equipment while the abnormal operation is in

progressc. Monitoring all work activities while the abnormal operation is in progressd. Special equipment start-up and preparation utilizing any normal or special control

of work procedures 5. Safely managing an emergency situation depends heavily on the knowledge, skills, and

abilities of the process technician.a. Trueb. False

6. Even during abnormal operations, it is required that the applicable standard operating

procedures (SOPs) are used for the purpose of safely managing the abnormal operation.a. Trueb. False




7. Emergency situations can be caused by the sudden failure of major pieces of process equip-ment, such as compressors or furnaces, and failure of utilities, such as instrument air, steam,or electricity.

a. Trueb. False

8. Preplanning for an emergency situation requires that emergency scenarios for each specificprocess be identified, and that emergency operating procedures be written and in place for

use by the process technicians and operations support staff.a. Trueb. False

9. Some primary responsibilities of the process technicians during start-ups include: (Select allthat apply)

a. Completion of unit start-up and inventory procedures to facilitate a safe, efficient,and controlled start-up

b. Proper line-up of process equipment, piping, and control valvesc. Start-up, monitoring, and control of rotating equipmentd. Establishing and maintaining control of process conditions within operating limits

10. The process technician’s knowledge of the process technology and design criteria, processequipment and interconnecting piping, valves, safety and control systems, as well as process-specific hazards plays a key role in the planning of abnormal operations and safe management

of emergency situations.a. Trueb. False

ActivitiesSelect one of the unit emergency shutdown procedures (steam failure, furnace failure, or com-pressor failure) and, using the scenario below, perform a gun drill together with a classmate to:

• Determine the responsibilities of individuals in each system or section of the unit. • Determine the proper sequence of events necessary to bring the unit to a safe state after the

emergency has occurred. • Identify any special or critical activities that must take place to mitigate the emergency.

• Determine if special PPE is required during equipment isolation or shutdown during theemergency. • Determine the need for communication and proper contact numbers to adjacent or

connecting units. • Determine the need for communication and proper contact numbers to site personnel

responsible for contacting regulatory authorities.

Scenario: The unit you are operating consists of two distillation columns, four pumps, onecompressor (operating on steam from a third-party vendor), and two small furnaces. Duringthe course of your shift, the third-party vendor supplying your site with steam has to drasticallyreduce the amount of steam sent to your site; this in turn slows your compressor turbine, causinga unit upset, which trips your furnace offline.

In addition, your compressor trips offline. You do recover from these upsets—only to beinformed later in the shift that the third-party site has lost its steam generation system and, forthe remainder of your shift, can no longer send steam to your site.

Select only one emergency scenario and develop and perform a gun drill with a classmate.



106106

8On-the-Job Training

C H A P T E R

Objectives


■ State the purpose of on-the-job training (OJT).

■ Explain the levels of skill development involved in OJT.

■ Describe the proper method for organizing and preparing to conduct OJT.

■ List the phases required to prepare for and conduct OJT.

■ Explain the proper method for demonstrating a task to a trainee.

■ Describe the proper method for observing a trainee as he/she practices a new task.

■ Describe the proper method for providing feedback to a trainee.



CHAPTER 8 On-the-Job Training 107

Key Terms

Computer-Based Training (CBT)—delivers training material through a facilitycomputing system.

Mentor—influential senior sponsor or trainer, usually in the form of a trainingcoordinator or a chief or lead operator, who delivers the training material, tracksmaterial completion, provides feedback, and conducts written and performanceevaluations to verify knowledge.

On-the-Job Training Programs—objective-oriented training and qualificationprograms for process technicians to master process equipment, control systems,safety, and hazard management.

Process Simulator—stand-alone, computer-generated simulation of a process unit orprocess system that emulates process equipment, piping systems, control mecha-nisms, and behaviors that control the process.

Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of the on-the-job training (OJT) programs that

are delivered to process technicians entering the field of process technology (PTEC).Process facilities are not only required by federal law to ensure that employees aretrained in their operations but they also have developed extensive training programsthat reflect their responsibility toward people, the environment, and the communi-ties in which they operate. A two-year Associate Degree in Process Technology, orequivalent experience in the field of process technology, may be required of an indi-vidual seeking a position in the process industry. Personnel in the process industrymust be fully capable of performing their assigned tasks, without error, based onthe hazards found throughout the industry. Tasks and industry hazards that are notmanaged responsibly can quickly result in severe harm to personnel, the environment,process facilities, and surrounding communities. Industry training programs includematerial required to comply with federal regulations and material required for the site

or production facility.The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is a U.S. govern-

ment agency created to establish and enforce workplace safety and health standards,conduct workplace inspections and propose penalties for noncompliance, and investi-gate serious workplace incidents. OSHA has developed standards that require employ-ers to train employees in the safety and health aspects of their jobs. Other OSHAstandards make it the employer’s responsibility to limit certain job assignments toemployees who are certified, competent, or qualified—meaning they have had specialprevious training, in or out of the workplace. These standards reflect the OSHA beliefthat training is an essential part of every employer’s safety and health program forprotecting workers from injury and illness.

An example of OSHA safety and health training requirements is the ProcessSafety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals standard (Title 29 Code ofFederal Regulations Part 1910.119). This standard was issued under the requirementsof the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. The Process Safety Management Standardcontains the requirements for management of hazards associated with processes usinghighly hazardous materials. It requires the employer to evaluate or verify that employ-ees comprehend the training given to them. This means that training must have estab-lished goals and objectives. Subsequent to training, an evaluation must verify thatthe employees understand the material presented and acquired the desired skills andknowledge.

Purpose and Importance of On-the-Job Training

Throughout the process industry, on-the-job training programs are objective-orientedtraining and programs for process technicians to master process equipment, controlsystems, and fulfill safety and hazard management. This is the primary training method




utilized to ensure that operating personnel become demonstrably qualified. Traineeslearn how process equipment and systems are integrated and controlled for the manu-facture of one or more products or by-products. Training programs are designed toteach the trainee how to operate safely while managing the hazards present in the pro-cess industry. Every training program has several goals, the first being to ensure thatpersonnel are certified or qualified to safely and consistently complete the job tasks for

which they are responsible.Trainees for process operation must complete a training program consisting ofpredefined learning objectives within a curriculum that prepares the trainee for spe-cific job assignments. Qualification for a specific job assignment requires the trainee todemonstrate understanding of the training material.

Becoming qualified to safely operate a process unit requires absorbing a vastamount of knowledge and information. Merely being responsible for a job task is notalways enough. The person who absorbs as much knowledge as possible truly becomesproficient in the industry. Sound knowledge of the physical unit equipment, piping,and controls is an absolute necessity. The trainee must understand the inner workingsand technological details of the process and equipment, as well as the scientific andphysical attributes. In other words, the process technician is as much a student of math,

science, and physics as a student of the mechanical requirements that are necessarythroughout the process industry.

Communication plays a vital role in the day-to-day operation of a process unit.Shift operators, process and technical engineers, and managers all have the responsi-bility of developing communication skills that support the sharing of information andknowledge. At the same time, these personnel need to develop a philosophy of con-tinuous self-improvement by constantly paying attention and staying engaged in dailyoperation activities. The abilities to stay engaged, communicate, share information,and pay attention to detail enables process personnel to safely manage the hazardsassociated with the process industry.

Once the initial process certification or qualification is achieved, refreshertraining or a system of continuous education begins. Continuous education train-

ing requirements for process technicians, and those employees who are directlyresponsible for process operations, are defined at the site or facility level and bythe federal government. Continuous education is one of the most important parts ofevery training program; it is the component that ensures that knowledge is retainedand built on throughout the career of the process technician. Refresher trainingfrequencies for the purpose of continuous education on these and other related subjects are also defined at the site level and at the government level, and are usuallyestablished on an annual, bi-annual (twice a year), and, in some cases, a tri-annual(three times a year) basis.

Training Methods, Skill Development, and Observing the Trainee

The PTEC student should enter a facility with an appreciation for the training programexperience. A trainee with a two-year Associate Degree in Process Technology hasalready learned much about the process industry, the purpose for the many types ofequipment, the chemistry, physics, and science involved, as well as many of the hazardspresent throughout the industry.

As stated earlier in this chapter, one of the primary goals of every trainingprogram is to ensure that personnel are certified or qualified for the on-the-job tasksfor which they are responsible. Assigning the trainee to a process unit is usually thefirst step in the training process, which is quickly followed by enrolling the traineein the unit training program. A qualified mentor is an influential senior sponsor ortrainer, usually in the form of a training coordinator or a chief or lead operator,

who delivers training material, tracks material completion, provides feedback, andconducts written performance evaluations to verify knowledge. In some facilities,depending on staff availability, a shift operator may be assigned as an additionalmentor to work closely with the trainee throughout the training process. A mentor




is a qualified person and a subject matter expert (SME) the trainee can depend onto answer questions, demonstrate tasks, and provide guidance and instruction fordaily unit activities.

Mentorship is one of the most important pieces of every successful trainingprogram. Working closely with trained personnel enables the trainee to becomedirectly involved in the operation and with the staff. Through task demonstration,

a mentor can engage the trainee in the daily activities required to safely operatethe process. Under the supervision of an experienced mentor, a trainee can beginto execute simple tasks. Participation in more difficult tasks takes place as thetrainee progresses through the training program and demonstrates their abilities.Gaining knowledge of the process through this type of supervised hands-on trainingsupplements the trainee’s ability to understand and learn the training material.The sights, sounds, and smells that are experienced through direct contact withthe process equipment and controls provide an invaluable learning experiencefor trainees. Allowing a trainee to become actively engaged in the operation, withthe guidance of a mentor, exemplifies the true meaning of on-the-job training.Figure 8.1 shows a mentoring situation.

While coordinating the trainee’s progression through the training modules, writ-

ten evaluations and job task (performance) evaluations, the training coordinator ormentor should also be carefully observing and evaluating the trainee in the area ofpeople skills, sometimes referred to as soft skills.

The trainee’s ability to establish working relationships and communicate effec-tively should be evaluated and graded equally with a trainee’s ability to learn and retainknowledge. Difficulties in any of these areas can be addressed and corrected early in thetraining process for the benefit of the trainee as well as for the current process staff.

While the trainee progressively learns about the inner workings of the processfrom the training modules, he or she is also expected to become familiar with equip-ment, piping, control valve location, and applicable job tasks so that performanceevaluations can be completed as well. Progression through every training program isbased on successfully completing each assigned module, passing written evaluations,

and demonstrating assigned tasks (performance evaluations). Completion of the mod-ule and knowledge of the content are tested in several ways:

• Written evaluations on a given subject are administered either manually or bycomputer, and the trainee is required to achieve a minimum score.

• Performance evaluations on the subject are administered by the training coordina-tor, chief or lead operator, or mentor in which the trainee must physically performassigned tasks to demonstrate proof of knowledge and competence.

• Trainee observation through a mentor program provides the opportunity toevaluate a trainee’s:

FIGURE 8.1 MentorExplaining Pipeline Deposits




• Work ethics, the ability to establish working relationships, and the skill tocommunicate effectively.

• The ability to learn and retain knowledge.

Providing feedback to trainees is one of the roles for which the training coordina-tor or mentor is responsible. Process technology and the topics that support the processindustry are not easy topics, and some trainees may find it difficult to meet required

training expectations. Feedback, when given properly, even in a negative situation, canmotivate a trainee to perform to expectations. Senior operators, training coordinators,and mentors with the knowledge, communication skills, desire, and ability to coachtrainees can almost always motivate trainees to succeed. Negative feedback can begiven in a constructive manner that enables a trainee to better understand a problem,create a solution to the problem, and improve performance. Providing positive rein-forcement and feedback is also critical to the success of every trainee. A few examplesof positive reinforcement are:

• Recognizing a trainee for having completed modules and written evaluations onschedule

• Recognizing a trainee for her or his ability to learn quickly and effectively

• Recognizing a trainee for his or her attention to detail and safety• Recognizing a trainee for having completed job tasks proficiently• Assigning additional job tasks that are progressively more complicated• Recognizing when a trainee has qualified on-the-job tasks for which he or she is

responsible• Welcoming questions from the trainee

Training Materials

Most unit-specific training programs are divided into training modules. These modulesare usually subdivided into several parts that typically include:

• Written training material• Written evaluations• Performance evaluations• Reference material

Unit-specific training modules are developed to teach the trainee about the sys-tems and equipment found within his or her process unit. The subject matter for thesemodules typically includes:

• Description of the process• Control of the process

• Auxiliary equipment• Specialty equipment• Flare and vent systems• Safety systems

Another training tool that is available to process industry trainees in some facilitiesis the process simulator, which is a stand-alone, computer-generated simulation of aprocess unit or process system that emulates process equipment, piping systems, con-trol mechanisms, and behaviors that control the process. A process simulator gives thetrainee the ability to demonstrate tasks associated with control board or critical sys-tem operation without affecting the process. Simulator display graphics are designedto represent the process unit or system with the same level of detail that the traineewill experience using a typical Distributed Control System (DCS). Computer softwarewithin the simulator enables the trainee to manipulate process control variables andexperience real-time results that demonstrate the correct methods of controlling a pro-cess or system. Figure 8.2 shows an employee using a process simulator.




Practicing on the actual equipment can jeopardize production and safety, but usinga process simulator allows the trainee to practice controlling emergency situations.Using a process simulator provides the trainee with valuable experience not otherwiseavailable, such as:

• Instrument terminology and basic control methods for flow, temperature,pressure, and level

• Basic and advanced control methods that are process specific• Real-time results that reflect how the process is affected by manipulated variables

(i.e., flow, temperature, pressure, and level)• How to troubleshoot equipment and control malfunction• How to adjust process variables to achieve a desired outcome

• How to respond to emergency situations

Training material and delivery method can vary from site to site. Computer-based

training (CBT) delivers training material through a facility computing system. Othermethods include manual or hard copy material delivery and using process simulation.An example of a computer-based training slide can be found in Figure 8.3.

Organization, scheduling, and delivery of training material is based on theexpected skill development of the trainee using a systematic approach to get the stu-dent trained, certified, and released to operate or perform specific job tasks. Trainingprograms usually begin with a Process Description, which typically contains chemistry,

FIGURE 8.2 Using a ProcessSimulator

FIGURE 8.3 Example of aComputer-Based Training Slide




process equipment descriptions, operating parameters, and stream compositions, fol-lowed by more difficult subjects like Process Control and Advanced Controls. Thisapproach is designed to gradually increase the level of difficulty so that the trainee isable to retain the knowledge.

Training modules developed to teach the trainee about the hazards found withinutility systems are also delivered early in most training programs. The subject matter

for these modules typically includes:

• Hazards of steam• Hazards of water• Hazards of nitrogen• Hazards of electricity

In addition to initial process training, examples of government-required trainingmodules, developed relative to the hazards found throughout the industry, include thefollowing:

• Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER)

• Hazard communication• Accident prevention signs and tags• Respiratory protection• Control of hazardous energy (lock-out/tag-out)• Confined space permitting• Portable fire extinguishers• Blood-borne pathogens• Toxic and hazardous substances

• Benzene awareness• Asbestos awareness• Vinyl chloride awareness• Lead awareness

Additional reference materials are also made available to the trainee, eitherin hard copy or electronic form, which should be used as training aids. Thereference materials contain valuable information for the trained unit staff aswell as the trainee, and supplement the information found within the trainingmodules.

Reference materials that should be readily available to all unit personnel include:

• Operating manual—unit-specific material providing detailed process informationthat includes:• The technical description of the process• Process control and advanced control descriptions• Instrument and alarm summary sheets complete with manufacturer data• Technical description and manufacturer data for rotating equipment

(i.e., pumps, compressors, mixers, and fin fan exchangers)• Technical description and manufacturer data for fixed equipment (i.e., heat

exchangers, towers, drums, and storage tanks)• Technical description and manufacturer data for specialty equipment

(i.e., centrifuges, reactors, furnaces, driers, and API separators)




• Unit standard operating procedures—unit-specific procedures for equipment andsystem start-up, shutdown, and normal and emergency operations.

• Safety, health, and environmental (SHE) policies—policies implemented by pro-cess facilities in order to minimize or prevent the risks and/or hazards associatedwith the process industry, and to ensure that the facility is in compliance withapplicable regulatory agencies.

• Process and instrument diagrams (P&IDs)—detailed drawings that graphicallyrepresent the equipment, piping, and instrumentation contained within aprocess facility. They are a family of functional one-line diagrams showingprocess equipment, mechanical and electrical systems like piping, and cableblock diagrams. Abbreviated as P&IDs, they show the interconnection ofprocess equipment and the instrumentation used to control the process.They are the primary schematic drawings used for laying out a process controlinstallation in a process facility.

In addition to showing the interconnection of process equipment and the instrumenta-tion used to control the process, P&IDs are used to teach the trainee:

• The unit layout• Equipment identification tag numbers• Instrument identification tag numbers• Piping and equipment design criteria• Piping and equipment material of construction• Piping and equipment design temperature• Piping and equipment design pressure

Throughout a typical training program, a trainee uses all available training materialto learn about process equipment engineered and constructed for specific purposes,such as:

• Fractionation towers with overhead condenser systems and reflux drums

• Reactor systems (i.e., fluid bed and fixed bed)• Tank farms and storage vessels• Furnace and heater systems, hot oil and steam generation systems• Utility systems (i.e., steam, water, nitrogen, instrument air, plant air, and

natural gas)• Pump and compressor lube oil and seal oil systems• Dry gas seal systems• Fuel gas systems• Flare and vent systems• Oil and water collection and separation systems• Filter and dryer systems• Gas compressor systems

• Refrigeration systems• Acid and caustic systems• Cooling tower systems• Specialty equipment (i.e., crystallizers, centrifuges, and rotary valves)

Summary

This chapter has discussed how the preparation, organization, and delivery of trainingmaterial facilitate the development of new employee skills for the process industry.The required skills are primarily based on the significant amount of science and tech-nology involved in processing, and on the hazards that are found throughout the industry.We learned that training requirements are driven by the process facilities, as well asthe federal government, and that the success of every training program is dependanton several key variables.

Content and delivery of the training material, written and performanceevaluations to provide proof of knowledge, and continuous education such as




refresher training and mentorship are all important to the success of every trainingprogram. This chapter also stressed that merely being responsible for one’s job taskis not always enough; it is the person who absorbs as much knowledge as possiblewho truly becomes proficient in the industry. Key attributes of the skilled workers inthe process industry include personal motivation, communication skills, attention todetail, understanding the inner workings of the process, and understanding how to

safely manage process hazards.The ability of training staff and mentors to implement training as effectively aspossible is also important to the success of every training program. Senior operators,training coordinators, and mentors with the knowledge, communication skills, desire,and ability to coach trainees can almost always motivate trainees to succeed.


a. Computer-based training (CBT)b. Mentorc. On-the-job training programsd. Process simulator

2. Trainee observation through a mentor program provides the opportunity to: (Select all thatapply)

a. Evaluate a trainee’s work ethicsb. Evaluate a trainee’s ability to establish working relationshipsc. Evaluate a trainee’s ability to communicate effectivelyd. Evaluate a trainee’s ability to learn and retain knowledge

3. A qualified mentor, senior sponsor, or trainer, usually in the form of a training coordinatoror a chief or lead operator, is responsible for: (Select all that apply)

a. Delivery of the training materialb. Tracking completion of the materialc. Conducting written and performance evaluations designed to verify knowledged. Providing feedback to the trainee

4. Mentorship is one of the most important pieces of every successful training programa. Trueb. False

5. On-the-job training programs throughout the process industry are the primary method usedto ensure that the personnel operating the process facilities are trained to perform the jobtasks for which they are responsible.

a. Trueb. False

6. Shift operators, process and technical engineers, and managers all have the responsibility ofdeveloping communication skills that support the sharing of information and knowledge.

a. Trueb. False

7. Reference material that should be readily available to all unit personnel includes: (Select all

that apply)a. An operating manualb. P&IDsc. Standard operating proceduresd. Safety, health, and environmental policies

8. In addition to showing the interconnection of process equipment and the instrumentationused to control the process, P&IDs teach the trainee: (Select all that apply)

a. The unit layoutb. Piping and equipment material of constructionc. Piping and equipment design temperatured. iping and equipment design pressure

9. Most unit-specific training programs are divided into training modules. These modules areusually subdivided into several parts that include: (Select all that apply)

a. Written training materialb. Written evaluationsc. Performance evaluationsd. Reference material




10. Senior operators, training coordinators, and mentors with the knowledge, communicationskills, desire, and ability to coach trainees can almost always motivate trainees to succeed.

a. Trueb. False

11. Organization, scheduling, and delivery of training material is based on the expected skilldevelopment of the trainee and a systematic approach toward getting the student trained,certified, and released to operate or perform specific job tasks.

a. Trueb. False

Activities 1. Work with a classmate to teach one another a skill that you currently do at work, home,

or school. 2. Write a two-page paper on what you think is the best delivery method for on-the-job training.



116116

9Maintenance

C H A P T E R

Objectives


■ Explain the importance of obtaining an accurate estimate for when maintenancepersonnel will return equipment.

■ List the energy and equipment isolation methods and the devices that must beremoved after equipment maintenance.

■ List the equipment used by maintenance or contractors, which may need to beremoved.

■ List the final safeguards to take prior to returning the equipment to service.

■ List the common inspections needed to assure mechanical integrity.

■ Describe the risks and hazards involved with preparing equipment for routinemaintenance.

■ List the key activities necessary to prepare equipment for routine maintenance.

■ List all departments and personnel involved in, or affected by, equipment maintenance.

■ Define the terms preventive and reactive.

■ Compare the advantages of preventive maintenance with the disadvantages ofreactive maintenance.

■ Explain the types of preventive maintenance that should be performed on a selectedpiece of equipment.

■ Explain the process technician’s role in the performance of various preventivemaintenance activities.

■ Suggest a schedule for performing these various preventive maintenance activities

for the selected piece of equipment. ■ Describe the costs associated with one specific preventive maintenance activity.

■ Create an estimate of preventive maintenance expenses for one specificmaintenance activity for one selected piece of equipment based on the various costsassociated with the maintenance activity.

■ List the types of reactive maintenance that may be required in the absence of apreventive maintenance program.

■ Describe the costs associated with each reactive maintenance activity.

■ Define the term turnaround.

■ Differentiate between routine maintenance and work performed during turnaround.

■ List the tasks to be completed in order to adequately prepare for a turnaround.

■ Explain the role of the process technician in each of the planning tasks listed above.

■ List the key phases of a unit turnaround.

■ Compare and contrast routine shutdown versus shutting down for turnaround.



CHAPTER 9 Maintenance 117

■ Describe the role of the process technician regarding unit turnarounds in accordancewith general industry practices.

■ Compare and contrast routine start-up versus starting up after turnaround.

■ Outline the PSM Management of Change requirements regarding turnarounds.

■ Outline the PSM Pre-Start-Up Safety Review requirements regarding turnarounds.

■ Explain how unit personnel evaluate the success of a turnaround.

Key TermsFriction—force resisting the relative lateral or tangential motion of solid surfaces,

fluid layers, or material elements in contact.Inspection—examination of a part or piece of equipment to determine if it conforms

to specifications, traditionally following the completion of work.Isolation—act of separating equipment or machinery from energy sources.Lubricants—the materials used to reduce friction and remove heat between two

contact surfaces.Lubrication—the process or technique employed to reduce friction and remove heat

for reducing equipment wear and increasing longevity and safety.Mechanical Integrity—the state of being whole, sound, and undamaged; capable offunctioning at design specification.

Predictive Maintenance (PM)—maintenance strategy that helps determine thecondition of in-service equipment to predict when maintenance should be performed.

Preventative Maintenance—equipment maintenance strategy based on replacing,overhauling, or remanufacturing an item at a fixed interval, regardless of itscondition at the time.

Reactive Maintenance—equipment maintenance strategy in which equipment andfacilities are repaired only in response to a breakdown or a fault.

Routine Maintenance—work routinely performed to maintain equipment in itsoriginal manufactured condition and maintain operability.

Statistical Process Control (SPC)—a method of monitoring, controlling, and ideallyimproving a process through statistical analysis to determine at what point in thefuture the maintenance activities are appropriate.

Thermal Expansion—tendency of matter to increase in volume in response to anincrease in temperature.

Turnaround Maintenance—required maintenance performed on specific pieces of equip-ment that cannot be performed unless the unit has been shutdown and de-inventoried.

Introduction

Maintenance is a key function in the process industry—maintenance that is done ona day-to-day, month-to-month, and year-to-year basis. It is important to maintain the

equipment in a safe and reliable condition to prevent unplanned incidents or accidents.The maintenance of a unit or piece of equipment is defined by the facility strategies formaintaining the mechanical integrity—the state of being whole, sound, and undamagedand capable of functioning at design specification—of equipment. Maintaining mechanicalintegrity ensures that equipment functions at design specifications and prevents the typesof failure that leads to a chemical release or other hazard.

Several maintenance strategies are used in the process industry today, includingpredictive, preventative, and reactive. Each strategy has advantages and disadvantages.The role of the process technician is similar for each maintenance strategy.

The process technician may be required to perform minor maintenance at hisor her facility, such as installing operator blinds, changing out filters, changing out

pressure gauges, checking certain types of temperature indicators, and cleaning pumpstrainers. When performing these tasks, the process technician should always use astandard operating procedure (SOP), or a unit-specific procedure for equipment andsystem start-up or shutdown in normal operation, as well as emergency operations.




Routine MaintenanceRoutine maintenance is the work routinely performed to maintain equipment inits original manufactured condition and maintain operability. There are severaldifferent strategies for providing routine equipment maintenance in a processfacility. These strategies include predictive, preventative, and reactive. Turnaround(TAR) is a planned, scheduled process unit or facility shutdown for maintenanceand repair. Turnarounds are considered a long-term maintenance strategy.These operations involve a lot of preparation, and many precautions are takenbecause TAR may involve hazardous operations, especially at start-up. Turnaround

maintenance is required maintenance performed on specific pieces of equipmentthat cannot be performed unless the unit has been shutdown and de-inventoried.Each facility has developed its own maintenance strategy with the goal of having ahigh-performing maintenance organization.

Predictive MaintenancePredictive maintenance is a maintenance strategy that helps determine the condition

of in-service equipment to predict when maintenance should be performed.This approach offers cost savings over routine or time-based strategies becausetasks are performed only when warranted. Predictive maintenance requires that theprocess technician or maintenance craftsperson attempt to utilize either periodicor continuous health monitoring of equipment as an evaluation tool.

Predictive maintenance determines when best to schedule equipmentmaintenance and when the maintenance activity is most cost-effective (typicallyprior to the equipment losing its optimum performance). This approach usesprinciples of statistical process control (SPC), a method of monitoring, controlling,and ideally improving a process through statistical analysis to determine at whatpoint in the future the maintenance activities are appropriate. The four basic stepsof statistical process control include:

• Measuring the process• Eliminating variances in the process to make it consistent• Monitoring the process• Improving the process to its best target value

A predictive maintenance strategy provides the following advantages:

• Increases component operational life• Allows for preemptive corrective actions• Reduces equipment and/or process downtime• Lowers costs for parts and labor• Provides better product quality

• Improves worker and environmental safety• Raises worker morale• Increases energy savings• Results in an estimated 8 to 12% cost savings over savings that result from

a reactive maintenance program

Disadvantages of using a predictive maintenance strategy include:

• Increases investment in diagnostic equipment• Increases investment in staff training• Savings potential is not readily seen by management

The role of the process technician is to monitor equipment daily and report to

a designated person in the organization. The process technician also prepares theequipment for maintenance, as necessary.

The American Petroleum Institute (API) has developed a standard (579)entitled “Fitness-for-Service/Remaining Life that uses analysis and calculation




to predict the remaining equipment life. For example, it is possible that onlysome of the process tubes in a heater will need replacement based on thicknessmeasurements. Prior to these advanced predictive techniques, all of the tubes wouldprobably have been replaced at the same time even if only some showed thinningtube walls.

Reactive MaintenanceReactive maintenance is an equipment maintenance strategy in which equipment andfacilities are repaired only in response to a breakdown or a fault. Because of the poten-tial loss of production, reactive maintenance is at odds with preventive maintenance.Reactive maintenance allows continuous operation of equipment until it becomesinoperable. No actions are taken or efforts made to maintain equipment at designspecification, to prevent failure, or to ensure that the designed life of the equipmentis reached. Reactive maintenance is much more costly than preventive maintenancebecause equipment downtime can be expected when equipment is out of service forrepair or replacement.

The advantages of a reactive maintenance strategy are:

• Lowers initial costs• Requires fewer staff personnel• Requires work only on out-of-service equipment

The disadvantages of a reactive maintenance strategy are:

• Increases costs due to unplanned downtime of equipment• Increases costs associated with repair or replacement of equipment

• Shows possible secondary equipment or process damage from equipmentfailures

The role of the process technician in a reactive maintenance strategy is toprepare the equipment for repair by the maintenance technician. However,reactive maintenance forces the process technician’s primary priority to becomesecuring the unit from the process upset resulting from the unexpected equipmentshutdown. This leads to longer equipment downtime and greater loss of productioncosts. As with predictive maintenance, the process technician reports equipmentcondition to supervisors.

Preventive MaintenancePreventive maintenance is an equipment maintenance strategy based on replacing,overhauling, or remanufacturing an item at a fixed interval, regardless of itscondition at the time. This type of maintenance strategy requires planned maintenance




activities designed to prevent breakdowns and failures while the equipment is in service.The primary goal of preventive maintenance is to replace equipment before it actually failsto preserve and enhance process reliability.

The strategy involves routine checks for wear, partial or complete overhaulsat regular intervals, oil changes, lubrication, bolt tightening, checking pumpcouplings, and other checks deemed necessary by the process facility or equipment

supplier. These routine checks are scheduled on a monthly, bi-monthly, quarterly,semi-annual, or annual basis. Deterioration of parts discovered during thesechecks permits part replaced prior to equipment failure. Most of the elements ofpreventive maintenance can be incorporated without major interruptions to theprocess or production.

The advantages of a preventive maintenance strategy include:

• Improves cost-effectiveness for many capital intensive processes and equipment• Provides flexibility for maintenance frequency• Increases equipment life• Generates energy savings• Reduces equipment and/or process failure• Results in an estimated 12 to18% cost savings over savings found in a reactive

maintenance program

The disadvantages of a preventive maintenance include:

• Catastrophic failures not eliminated• More labor intensive• Requires performing unnecessary maintenance that increases opportunities for

damage to other components

The role of the process technician in a preventive maintenance program isprimarily to prepare the equipment for maintenance and to ensure the equipment is ina safe energy state for the maintenance technician to perform the work.

The Process Technician’s Role in MaintenanceThe role of the process technician is similar in each of the maintenance strategies. Her or hisprimary goal in maintenance is to prepare the equipment and ensure that the maintenancetechnician is working on a piece of equipment that is safe and energy free. Isolation ofthe equipment is paramount in preparing the equipment for safe energy state duringthe maintenance work. Isolation is the act of separating equipment or machinery fromall energy sources. It is important to ensure the isolation of any potential machinery orequipment from energy sources during repair, service, or maintenance work in accordancewith OSHA regulations. The process technician should fully utilize the standard operatingprocedures (SOP) for lock-out/tag-out when preparing equipment for maintenance. Figure 9.1 shows a schematic for isolation of a pump.

Preparing equipment for maintenance and ensuring it is and will remain in a safe energystate throughout the maintenance work requires the technician to execute the following:

• Isolate the equipment from energy sources.• Drain the equipment to a safe location.• Purge the equipment to a safe location.• Tag the equipment properly.

FIGURE 9.1 Schematic forIsolation of a Pump




FIGURE 9.2 Example of a Preventive Maintenance Checklist

• Lock-out the equipment properly.• Verify the equipment is ready to be worked on.

In the procedure shown in Figure 9.2, the process technician must prepare pumpP-101A for routine annual preventive maintenance. The technician must keep anaccurate time for each event and initial each step as completed.

Once the process technician and maintenance technician have checked to ensure

that P-101A is energy free, properly locked, and tagged-out, the process technicianallows the maintenance technician to begin the pump preventive maintenance (PM).The short procedure above has adequately covered the items that the process technicianmust execute, including isolating, draining, purging, tagging, locking, and verifying asafe energy state for the pump throughout the work period.

The maintenance technician is given a list of activities that must be completed forthe annual pump preventive maintenance. These are generally computer generatedand given to the maintenance technician at the beginning of the day. An example of atypical pump PM is shown in Figure 9.3. The process technician verifies that the workhas been completed and signs the PM order.

The process technician is required to document the status of equipment undergoingmaintenance on the equipment status sheet, and share the information at shift change.An example of an Equipment Status Sheet is shown in Figure 9.4. The processtechnician should include the following information on the Equipment Status Sheet:

• Equipment number• Procedure number



FIGURE 9.3 Example of a Typical Pump PM

FIGURE 9.4 Example of an Equipment Status Sheet

122




• Equipment LOTO status• Verification of LOTO• Drain status• Purge status• Time purged• Tags hung• Current equipment status

Equipment maintenance can be costly. The process technician can act to manage

cost by efficiently running equipment in a safe and reliable manner. Table 9.1 shows anexample of a cost estimate of the PM that was performed on pump P-101A earlier in thechapter.

The estimated rate for the facility labor is $ 60.00 per hour, including benefit makeup.If the facility has a PM scheduled monthly for the pump in our example, what is

the estimate for the monthly maintenance cost on a process unit with over 100 pumps?Extend that to quarterly, semi-annually, and annually PMs, and it can be deducedthat the cost of a preventive maintenance strategy is high, and yet it is the most cost-effective of the maintenance strategies.

Cost estimating may be part of the process technician’s duties when generatingmaintenance orders. In estimating cost, the process technician must list the tasks

required and affix a cost to each task. The employer provides the cost of labor andequipment to the process technician. The cost estimate in Table 9.2 is for a seal repair job for P-101A.

TABLE 9.1 P-101A PM Cost Estimate (assumes 2 hours to complete the PM)

Task Craft Number of Craftsmen Cost

PM P-101A Machinist Technician 2 $240.00

Replace Rexnord coupling (if needed) ------------------------------------------> $105.58

Replace oil bubbler (if needed) --------------------------------------------------> $86.38

Estimated total maintenance cost for this PM-----------------------------------> $451.96

TABLE 9.2 Cost Estimate for P-101A Seal Repair

Task Craft Quantity Time Cost

Erect scaffoldto install dis-charge blind

Contractor 3 1.0 hr $120.00

Blind pump Pipefitter 2 1.0 hr $120.00

Remove pumpfrom case andtake to shop

Machinist 2 0.5 hr $60.00

Order seal fromwarehouse anddeliver to shop

Planner Cost of seal-----------------------------> $3,500.00

Replace seal onP-101

Machinist 2 4.5 hrs $270.00

Re-install pump Machinist 2 0.5 $60.00

Remove blinds Pipefitter 2 1.0 $120.00

Removescaffold

Contractor 3 1.0 $120.00

+10%contingency

$437.00

Total estimated cost to replace P-101 seal $4,807.00




The cost estimate assumes the wage scale for company employees is $ 60.00 perhour, including benefits, and $ 40.00 per hour for contractor employees, includingmarkups. Notice that the cost estimate is broken out by task, craft, quantity of staffrequired, estimated hours to complete the repair, and labor or equipment cost.

Hazards may be present when preparing equipment for maintenance.Process technicians must remember to wear proper personal protective equipment

(PPE) when preparing equipment for maintenance. The P-101A pump PMprocedure used earlier in this chapter is a good tool for examining potential hazardswhile preparing a piece of equipment for maintenance. Hazards might include:

• Chemical exposure from draining and purging• Slips, trips, and falls when closing or opening, locking, or tagging valves• Strains or sprains when bending or stooping to open or close bleeders, pulling or

moving hoses for purging, and closing or opening valves• Cuts, scrapes, or bruises when closing or opening valves, tagging out equipment,

removing bull plugs, and installing purge hoses• Electrical shock when de-energizing or re-energizing breakers

Process technicians must constantly be aware of their surroundings while preparingequipment for maintenance. Many simultaneous operations may continue in areassurrounding the equipment being repaired.

The technician is also responsible for placing the equipment back in service or instandby mode. He or she must ensure that all maintenance isolating devices, such asblinds or locks, have been removed prior to attempting to place the equipment back inservice. A procedure normally mentions the removal of blinds after maintenance workhas been completed. See Figure 9.5.

Care must be exercised when running pumps in parallel because this operationpromotes more flow and pressure. The process technician must be alert because thisoperation may cause momentary upsets in the process. For example, if pump A has notyet reached maximum capacity, shutting down pump B may activate a low-flow shutdown.

LubricationLubrication is an important part of maintaining equipment in proper operatingcondition. It is the process or technique employed to reduce friction and removeheat for reducing equipment wear and increase longevity and safety. The processor technique employed reduces wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity,moving relative to one another, by interposing a substance between the surfaces to

carry or to help carry the pressure-generated load between the opposing surfaces.Lubricants are the materials used to reduce friction and remove heat between twocontact surfaces.




Lubrication is vital to maintain the efficient, reliable operation of all types ofrotating equipment. Lubricants are necessary because friction makes it difficult to keepmachine parts in motion. Friction is the force resisting the relative lateral or tangentialmotion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, or material elements in contact. Friction alsogenerates damaging heat and causes wear. The greater the friction, the greater theheat and wear. Lubricants act to reduce friction, heat, and wear, making it easier to

keep machines running smoothly.The process technician plays a key role in ensuring equipment in his or herr areaof responsibility is properly lubricated. They may also be responsible for checking oillevels in various types of equipment and adding lubricants as required.

Lubricant Storage, Handling, and Disposal

INDOOR AND OUTDOOR STORAGE

Lubricants can be delivered in bulk, such as 55-gallon drums, or in smaller containers,depending on the rate of usage. The handling of lubricants between delivery and useis important. After a lubricant has been delivered, it is often stored in its container for

an extended period before it is used. The containers can be stored indoors or outdoors,depending on the facility’s available storage space. In either case, the lubricant must beprotected from weather, contamination, spills, and fire.

FIGURE 9.5 Procedure checklist




Lubricants stored outside should be covered to protect them from the weather.Covering protects metal drums from moisture. An unprotected metal drum willeventually corrode, leak, and waste the lubricant. Any covering, permanent like a shed,or temporary like a canvas or plastic cover, will provide protection. Storing drums ontheir sides prevents water from collecting on the top of the drum as well. Whatevermethod is used to cover drums in outside storage, the drums should be stored on their

side to prevent corrosion and leaks. As the drums heat and cool, their contents expandand contract. Storing them on their side can also prevent air and liquid flow into andfrom the drum.

Container leaks contaminate lubricants, making them unusable. Lubricant spillscan also damage the environment. Many states have strict regulations dealing withthe storage and handling of lubricants, so extreme care must be taken to avoid drumdamage and lubricant spills.

Most lubricants are combustible, and fire is a danger. One positive reason forstoring lubricants outdoors is to keep them far enough away from buildings andequipment to minimize the damage from a possible fire. However, when lubricantsare stored indoors, weather is not a concern. No matter the location of storage,contamination, spills, and fire danger must be considered and prevented.

HANDLING LUBRICANTS

When a lubricant is needed, stored drums are moved from bulk storage to a centrallocation in the facility where the lubricant can be dispensed. If a lubricant is takenfrom one extreme condition to another, it should be given plenty of time to becomeacclimated to the new temperature before use. For example, low temperatures canthicken lubricants and make them unusable until they have been thoroughly warmed.

After a lubricant container has been opened, the lubricant must be kept clean. Whenlubricant is removed from a drum, the drum should be resealed to avoid contamination.

When more than one lubricant is dispensed from the same facility location, it isvery important to properly identify each type. The original shipping containers will

clearly state what they hold, but any time a lubricant is placed in another container, thenew container must be correctly labeled. Incorrect labeling can cause the applicationof the wrong lubricant to a piece of equipment, leading to extensive damage. It mightalso lead to accidental mixing of different types of lubricants, which could damage theequipment.

Lubricants should never be returned to the original drum after it has been removed.Returning used lubricants to the original drum may contaminate the entire contents.

In most facilities, opened lubricant containers are stored in a separate room or areato reduce the chance of fire and to make it easier to keep the lubricant clean. Lubricantstorage rooms or areas must be clean, well lit, and have some type of fire control equipment.

DISPOSAL

Contaminated oil must be disposed of properly. There are three ways to properly dis-pose of lubricant: returning the contaminated oil to the oil vendor, disposing of the oilin an environmentally safe manner, or purifying and reusing the oil (if all the contami-nants can be removed).

REMOVING LUBRICANTS FROM CONTAINERS

Lubricant to be used in a facility must be removed from its container for use. Thereare several ways of handling lubricants. One method uses a barrel pump that connectsto the drum. Different type pumps are used for oil and grease because of their differentconsistencies. A barrel pump, or drum pump, is an easy way to remove the lubricantwithout contaminating the rest of the drum. A barrel pump may be hand-driven

(see Figure 9.6), electric, or driven by nitrogen or air.In order to install a barrel pump, several steps must be taken. First is to clean

off the top of the drum. Second ids to remove the larger drum seal to open thedrum. The pump is cleaned and inserted into the drum. And finally, the pump is




tightened securely to the drum. Most drum pumps screw into the larger threaded

opening in the drum.The drum must be vented for the barrel pump to work properly. A drum is usually

vented by removing a small cap from the top before the pumping starts. The cap isreplaced after the pumping is finished so that the lubricant stays clean.

Another way to remove oil is to attach a spigot to the top of the drum. The drum islaid on its side and vented through the smaller opening, and then oil is drawn from thespigot. The vent is replaced (or closed) when the work is finished.

Drums with spigots are often placed in rocking frames that are stored in an uprightposition. When oil is required, the drum is rocked over on its side, the lubricant iswithdrawn, and the drum is returned to its upright position.

Sometimes a funnel is used to transfer oil from the drum, or other container, toa small piece of equipment. Any funnel used must be cleaned after use. Whatevermethod is used, the following precautions must be observed:

• Add the correct amount of lubricant.• Use the proper lubricant for that particular job.• Make sure all the filler caps are tightly replaced.• Be careful that the lubricant is not contaminated.

The Process Technician’s Role in Lubrication

Each process unit has a lubrication schedule that specifies the proper lubricant foreach piece of equipment, the intervals for changing and sampling lubricant, and what

to look for in lubricant samples. The facility maintenance technicians perform many ofthese tasks. Each process unit has a lubrication manual with the name of the properlubricant for each piece of equipment. Using the wrong lubricant can damage theequipment. If unsure about what type of lubricant to add to a piece of equipment,refer to the lubrication manual for clarification. Process technicians are responsiblefor maintaining this schedule and for making routine, on-shift checks on all lubricatedequipment. Bearing failure due to lack of proper lubrication can cause costly equipmentrepairs as well as process shutdown.

The process technician may be responsible for the following checks during theirroutine rounds:

• Lube oil level

• Oil temperature• Leak checks• Oil sampling• Oil changes

FIGURE 9.6 Hand-DrivenDrum Pump




LUBE OIL LEVEL

The oil level in lubricating systems is critical. The level should be checked before theequipment is started and routinely during operation. Reservoir levels in circulatingsystems, force-feed oilers, and oil-mist systems should also be checked regularly.Sight glasses, oil bottles, and clear reservoirs must be kept clean so levels are clearlyvisible. Covers should be closed at all times to prevent contaminants, like dirt and water,

from entering the oil. Sight glasses, tattletales, or the bottom of oil-bearing reservoirsmust be drained of water, because water can be a major cause of bearing failure.

OIL TEMPERATURE

One of the first signs of bearing failure is an increase in temperature. Bearing housingsshould be checked by hand. If running hotter than normal, report it to a supervisor.Some bearings in very hot service cannot be checked in this manner. In this situation,sample the oil and check its temperature with a thermometer or a temperature gun.Normal temperature should not be above 140° F. It is very important to monitorclosely any bearing temperature increase.

LEAK CHECKSExcessive leakage may indicate that the oil is foaming due to contamination, or that aplug or oil bottle has loosened. Slinger rings may also cause leakage. These rings aremounted to shafts outside bearing housings to prevent contaminants from moving downthe shaft and into the bearing. The rings are larger in diameter than the shaft, and the ringrotation “slings” liquid from the rings via centrifugal force. If the ring is mounted too nearthe bearing housing, however, it may pump the lubricating oil from the bearing housing.

OIL SAMPLING

Oil in bearing housings should be sampled as specified in the sample schedule.To sample, drain a small amount of oil into a clear bottle. As with any sampling, be

sure to wear the proper PPE for the job. Check the sample for:• Metal particles, which indicate that the bearing has started to fail• Dirt, water, or other contaminants; contaminated oil will not provide adequate

lubrication and should be changed

OIL CHANGES

At some locations, oil is changed in rotating equipment routinely, or when the oilappears contaminated with water. Dispose of the contaminated oil per guidelinesissued by the process facility.

Turnarounds and Turnaround MaintenanceTurnarounds are scheduled large-scale maintenance activities when an entireprocess unit is taken off stream for an extended period for comprehensive repair andmaintenance. This operation involves a lot of preparation, and many precautions aretaken to prevent hazardous situations.

Turnaround is a blanket term that encompasses more specific tasks suchas debottlenecking, revamps, catalyst regeneration, shutdowns, and outages.Turnarounds are expensive due to labor costs, heavy equipment, and othermaterials required to execute the turnaround. There is also the heavy cost of lostproduction while the unit is off line. Planning is essential to reduce turnaroundcosts. Turnarounds are a significant portion of a facility’s annual budget and, if notmanaged properly, can affect the company bottom line.

Turnaround maintenance activity is required on specific pieces of equipmentthat cannot be maintained or repaired unless the unit has been shutdown andde-inventoried. Maintenance is usually scheduled 18 to 24 months in advance and the




cost may approach 30% of the facility’s annual maintenance budget. Turnaroundsrequire a great deal of organization, planning, personnel, and data input.

There are three phases in a turnaround that must be properly executedto ensure the turnaround is a success. Turnarounds consist of pre-execution,execution, and post-execution phases. A turnaround team is appointed specificallyfor the execution of each turnaround phase. The turnaround team consists of thefollowing facility personnel:

• Turnaround manager• Operations representative (i.e., a process technician or leader assigned to the unit)• Maintenance representative (i.e., a craftsperson or maintenance leader assigned

to the unit)• Inspector (i.e., may require multiple inspectors based on size of turnaround and

specialty required of the inspectors)

• Turnaround planner (i.e., may be multiple planners based on the size of theturnaround or planners may be craft specific)• Engineering representative (i.e., a process engineer, mechanical engineer, and

support engineers assigned to the unit)• Member of the facility leadership team (i.e., an operations manager or delegate)• Member of the safety department (i.e., an industrial hygienist and safety engineer)• Member of the facility fire department (i.e., fire chief or fire chief’s designate)

The turnaround team meets weekly in the early stages of turnaround planning,and daily during the execution phase. The team discusses the following topics duringthe three phases of a turnaround:

• Pre-Execution Activities

• Defining the work list• Planning work activities• Purchasing parts and equipment• Setting up contracts for contractor services if required• Preparing the work-site and equipment for the turnaround

• TAR Execution Phase Activities• Working the work list• Reporting progress on planned work versus actual work• Managing the schedule and cost• Creating/planning follow-up work

• TAR Post-Execution Phase Activities• Demobilizing the work site• Materials reconciliation• Planned versus actual reconciliation• Invoice payments

Not every unit is impacted during every turnaround. For example,the industry average is about 4 years between turnarounds fora catalytic cracking unit.

Did you know?




The goal of a turnaround is to achieve as much work as possible within a narrowwindow of time to minimize lost production. The turnaround success is gauged not only

whether it came in under budget and on time but also on how safely it was accomplished.One of the key activities during a turnaround is inspection of the equipment.As towers and other vessels are opened, the inspection department will beginto perform internal and external inspection on specific pieces of equipment.Inspection is the examination of a part or piece of equipment to determine if itconforms to specifications, traditionally following the completion of work.Inspections may include ultrasonic thickness tests on pipes or vessels. Relief valvesmay be re-certified or overhauled, depending on the process facility strategy. Manycompanies send their relief valves to outside vendors for overhaul and certificationto prevent unwarranted shutdowns when a relief valve prematurely lifts. Figure 9.7shows an inspection of equipment.

Many facilities conduct post-turnaround audits, focused on key participants

in the turnaround, utilizing questionnaires discussing key topics such as planning,safety, engineering, communication, inspection, construction, and operations support.This allows the facility to gauge the effectiveness of the turnaround team, and providesfeedback that may be useful in conducting subsequent turnarounds.

The Process Technician’s Role in TurnaroundsThe role of the process technician is different for a turnaround versus the role inroutine maintenance. In a turnaround, the process technician will be in charge ofsystems rather than individual pieces of equipment.

In preparation for turnaround, the process technician is responsible for performingpre-turnaround duties, which include:

• Participating in the planning and scheduling meetings for the turnaround• Participating in the review of the proposed turnaround work list• Writing or reviewing shutdown procedures• Writing or reviewing lock-out/tag-out (LOTO) procedures• Acting as a single point of contact for maintenance craftsperson, participating

in job safety analysis or hazard identification, and showing maintenancecraftsperson blinding locations and equipment locations

• Hanging blind tags associated with blinding locations for turnaround• Preparing lock-out/tag-out (LOTO) devices for use (shown in Figure 9.8)• Ordering miscellaneous supplies such as fittings, hoses and tags

The unit moves toward a controlled shutdown as scheduled on the timeline

developed during planning. A controlled shutdown avoids any upset conditions. Duringthe shutdown period, process levels may be lowered or raised, material may be pumpedout to tanks, pressures may be increased or decreased, unit throughput rates are lowered,

0 . 8

4 5

FIGURE 9.7 Inspection ofEquipment




The process facility must establish and implement written procedures tomaintain the ongoing integrity of process equipment. Maintenance techniciansinvolved in maintaining the ongoing integrity of process equipment must be trainedin an overview of that process and its hazards, and in the procedures applicable to atechnician’s job tasks.

Inspection and testing must be performed on process equipment usingprocedures that follow recognized and generally accepted good engineering practices.The frequency of inspections and tests of process equipment must conform to themanufacturer’s recommendations and good engineering practices, or as determined

to be necessary. Each inspection and test on process equipment must be documented,identifying the date of the inspection or test, the name of the person who inspected ortested, the serial number or other equipment identifier, a description of the inspectionor test performed, and the results of the inspection or test.

Equipment deficiencies outside the acceptable limits defined by the processsafety information must be corrected before further use. In some cases, equipmentcan continue operating despite deficiencies as long as deficiencies are corrected ina safe and timely manner. At that time, other necessary steps are taken to ensuresafe operation.

In constructing new facilities and equipment, the employer must ensure thatequipment being used is suitable for the process application. Appropriate checks andinspections must be performed to ensure that equipment is installed properly and use

is consistent with design specifications and the manufacturer’s instructions.

MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE

Management of change (MOC), or change management, is a method of managingand communicating changes to a process, changes in equipment, changes intechnology, changes in personnel, or other changes that will impact the safetyand health of employees. A written method contains a section on procedures formanaging changes to processes. Written procedures to manage changes, except forin-kind replacements, to process chemicals, technology, equipment, procedures, andfacilities that affect a covered process, must be established and implemented. Thesewritten procedures must ensure that the following considerations are addressed

prior to any change:

• The technical basis for the proposed change• Impact of the change on employee safety and health




• Modifications to operating procedures• Time period necessary for the change• Authorization requirements for the proposed change

Process technicians who operate the process, and maintenance and contractemployees whose job tasks are affected by a change in the process, must be informedof and trained in the change prior to start-up of the process or affected part of theprocess. If an alteration covered by these procedures results in a change in therequired process safety information, or requires changes to the required standardoperating procedures (SOPs) or practices, documentation must be updated also, andall employees notified.

PRE-START-UP SAFETY REVIEW

Pre-start-up safety review (PSSR) is conducted to help ensure that certain importantconsiderations have been addressed before hazardous materials are introduced into theprocess or the modified section(s) of an existing process. Conducting the pre-start-upsafety review (PSSR) is important to ensure that a unit is ready for start-up. The review isconducted within days to a week of a units expected re-start date, and must be completedprior to introducing hazardous chemicals into the process.

Each process facility has developed a PSSR checklist of tasks that will becompleted to ensure compliance with the OSHA regulation. Each process facilitiesPSSR checklist must confirm the following:

• Construction and equipment are in accordance with design specifications.• Safety, operating, maintenance, and emergency procedures are adequate and

in place.• A process hazard analysis has been performed on new facilities, and

recommendations have been resolved or implemented prior to start-up, andmodified facilities meet the management of change (MOC) requirements.

• Necessary employee training has been completed.

Shutdowns and Start-Ups

The two most critical periods in the operation of a process unit are shutdowns and start-ups. No two shutdowns are alike, due to the circumstances surrounding the shutdown.There are differences between shutting the unit down for a turnaround versus shuttingthe unit down for inventory control. An inventory shutdown is completed to maintainthe unit in such a condition that it can be restarted when required without the additionalcost associated with re-inventorying.

Depending on the circumstances, circulation is stopped and temperaturesand pressures are allowed to decrease in order to maintain the unit in a safe mode

while maintaining the chemical composition of the unit. In most turnarounds, all ofthe material is pumped to tankage or waste, and the unit is purged with an inert gasand prepared for maintenance work. The process technician should follow her or hisroutine or normal shutdown procedures at all times.

Like shutdowns, start-ups will differ. If the unit was idled and remained filled, caremust be exercised when returning to normal conditions. Material that has been cooled mustbe heated up to begin a chemical reaction, increasing the likelihood of thermal expansionin flanges and valves. Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to increase in volume inresponse to an increase in temperature. Figure 9.9 shows a possible reaction to expansion.

If the unit has been de-inventoried for a turnaround, then extreme care must betaken to re-inventory the unit. Process technicians must ensure that the equipmenthas been purged of air prior to introducing any hydrocarbons. During the re-inventory

process, leaks can occur at flanges and valves, so the process technician should conductroutine unit monitoring during the inventory phase. The unit is then slowly heatedor cooled to normal operating conditions. The process technician should follow his orher routine or normal start-up operating procedures at all times.




Summary

The role of the process technician is critical, providing the first line of defense inmaintaining the unit in a safe and reliable state. The process technician must preparethe equipment for maintenance, following standard operating procedures (SOPs)and lock-out/tag-out (LOTO) procedures, ensuring the equipment is properlyde-energized. Frequent communication is necessary with maintenance technicians toensure that work is proceeding safely. Safety concerns brought up by the maintenancetechnicians should be addressed promptly to ensure safety.

During shutdowns and turnarounds, follow standard operating, de-inventory, andmaintenance preparation procedures. Willing participation in pre-turnaround activitieswill utilize the turnaround as a basis for experience. It is necessary to become familiar withprocess facility requirements for personal protective equipment (PPE). It is important torequire anyone working on equipment to use proper PPE.

The process technician must ensure that all isolation devices are removed priorto restarting the unit. For example, one missing blind can create problems for aunit operation. Ensure that all tagging devices are removed and equipment is linedup per procedure.

Technicians should be familiar with process facility requirements for process safetymanagement. Being an active participant in the PSM process, and knowing the processsafety management requirements for a job, is advisable.

During start-ups, utilize the process facilities normal start-up procedures.While re-inventorying a unit, be alert and look for leaks that may occur during theinventory process. While heating up or cooling down a process, remain alert and beready to respond to any situation that may develop.


a. Frictionb. Inspectionc. Isolationd. Lubricants

e. Lubricatioenf. Mechanical integrityg. Predictive maintenance (PM)

FIGURE 9.9 Possible Reactionin Equipment to ThermalExpansion




h. Preventative maintenancei. Reactive maintenance j. Routine maintenancek. Statistical process control (SPC)l. Thermal expansionm. Turnaround maintenance

2. Management of change is a method of managing and communicating changes to:

a. Chemical processesb. Equipment changesc. Technology changesd. Personnel changese. All of the abovef. Only A and B

3. There are ____________________ elements to process safety management.a. sixb. tenc. thirteend. fourteene. None of the above

4. Name three maintenance strategies that an organization may use as its normal maintenance

strategy.a. ____________________b. ____________________c. ____________________

5. Turnarounds are relatively easy to plan, and they require only two months of planning.a. Trueb. False

6. List five of the eight process technician duties mentioned in this chapter that a processtechnician is responsible for during pre-turnaround activities.

a. ____________________b. ____________________c. ____________________

d. ____________________e. ____________________ 7. During post-turnaround activities, which of the following will occur?

a. Demobilizing of the work siteb. Materials reconciliationc. Planned versus actual reconciliationd. Invoice paymentse. All of the above

8. List the disadvantages of a reactive maintenance strategy. 9. A preventive maintenance strategy does not eliminate catastrophic failures of equipment.

a. Trueb. False

10. List the advantages of a preventive maintenance strategy.

11. Process safety management mechanical requirements apply to which of the followingequipment:

a. Pressure vessels and storage tanksb. Piping systems, including piping components such as valvesc. Relief and vent systems and devicesd. Controls, including monitoring devices and sensors, alarms, and interlockse. All of the above

Activities 1. Using the following information, develop a cost estimate for the following work: Your unit has just experienced a minor upset due to the loss of a bottoms pump on a

distillation tower. You have inspected the pump and have determined that the pump motor

is shorted. You have also noticed that the pump would not rotate by hand and you suspectthat the pump has internal damage requiring new bearings and seals. Scaffolding is required




for the installation of blinds at both the suction and discharge valves. Use the followinglabor and equipment costs to develop your cost estimate:

Cost of contract labor: $50.00/hrCost of company labor: $73.65/hrCost of new motor: $7,500.00Cost of bearings/seals/etc.: $8,500.00

Cost of renting go-devil: $43.00/hr Develop an estimated timeline for repairs and include in your cost estimate. 2. Perform research on a reactive, preventive, and predictive maintenance programs, and

write a five-page essay describing your preferred choice of a maintenance program. 3. Perform research on OSHA 1910.119 Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous

Chemicals. Select two of the fourteen elements and write a two-page essay describing theactions a process technician must take to be in compliance.

4. Together with a classmate, develop a preventive maintenance schedule for a process unitwith twelve pumps, one compressor, eight control valves (including eight bypass valvesaround the control valves), and six pump screens. Place your work in a spreadsheet and

include the cost per quarter, then annually. Use the cost of labor in Activity 1.



137

10C H A P T E R

Unit Commissioning

Objectives


■ Define the term commissioning.

■ Differentiate between starting up a new unit versus starting up an existing unit.

■ List the tasks that must be completed in order to adequately prepare a new processunit for commissioning.

■ Explain the role of the process technician in the commissioning of a new processunit.

■ Discuss the role of the process technician in the pre-commissioning phaseof a grassroots project.

■ Define the phases of the commissioning process.

■

Differentiate between the commissioning of a new unit and the re-commissioningof existing facilities or process equipment.

■ Discuss the importance of following procedures (initial start-up and normalstart-up).




Key Terms

Acceptance—documents that the unit has achieved its design capacity andspecifications, and the facility agrees that the unit will function as engineered.

Commissioning—systematic process by which process units are placed intoactive service, and can include the initial start-up of a newly built or there-commissioning of a revised process unit.

Commissioning Team—group of individuals selected from current facility personnelwho play a key role in the planning and implementing of the commissioning orde-commissioning of a process unit or facility.

Construction Phase—building phase of an initial process unit or facility, or thebuilding phase of an expansion project upgrading an existing unit or facility.

Initial Start-Up Procedures—set of guidelines or instructions used to perform theinitial start-up of a new process unit or facility.

Mechanical Completion—documented checking and testing of the constructionto confirm the installation is in accordance with construction drawings andspecifications, and is ready for commissioning in a safe manner in compliance withproject requirements.

Nameplate Capacity—designed capacity of the unit.Performance Testing—step-test of the unit to determine if the process unit is able toachieve its maximum design intent.

Planning Phase—phase of the project where justification and plans are developedfor the construction of a new process unit.

Pre-Commissioning—activities that must be completed prior to moving into thestart-up phase of a new process unit.

Post-Commissioning—last phase of the commissioning process, which begins afterinitial start-up is completed.

Punchlist—list of uncompleted construction items from contracted design that arenot safety critical, but must be addressed by the contracted construction firm.

Re-Commissioning—returning existing process units or equipment to active service

after an extended idled period.Start-Up—initial commissioning of the unit that involves the introduction of

feedstock to produce a defined product at a given purity.

Introduction

Commissioning is the systematic process by which process units are placed into activeservice, and can include the initial start-up of a newly built or the re-commissioning ofa revised process unit or facility. The intent of the commissioning phase is to test theprocess unit to verify that it functions in accordance with the engineered design intentand the owner’s operational requirements.

Unit Commissioning

The unit commissioning process consists of five phases:

• Planning• Construction• Pre-commissioning• Start-up• Post-commissioning

Each phase of commissioning contains different activities that must be completedprior to proceeding to the next phase of the process. Unit commissioning has three keycriteria that must be met to consider the commissioning process successful:

1. No lost time accidents or injuries—not a success if the process is not completedsafely. Safety is stressed from the very beginning of the design, construction, andcommissioning.



CHAPTER 10 Unit Commissioning 139

2. No equipment damage—not a success if the process includes damaging currentor new equipment (depends on many disciplines, including design andconstruction).

3. On-test product within a reasonable period—varies by process, but typically lessthan 2 days is considered very good, 7 days is acceptable, and more then 14 daysis less than acceptable.

PLANNING

Prior to the construction phase, the facility determines the need that exists to construct anew process unit or facility, or close an existing unit or facility. The planning phase is thestage of the project where justification and plans are developed for the construction of anew process unit or facility. During this phase, the facility selects an engineering firm to aidin the design. Then, together with the engineering firm, a general contractor is selected toprovide unit construction. The facility also selects the commissioning team representatives.

A commissioning team is a group of individuals selected from current facilitypersonnel who play a key role in the planning and implementing of the commissioningor de-commissioning of a process unit or facility. The lead process technicians serving

on the commissioning team are typically process personnel with more than 10 years ofoperating experience.

The Commissioning Team works jointly with the engineering firm during thedesign phase for a new unit or facility. Process technicians provide valuable resources tothe engineering firm during the design phase in terms of valve locations, safety-relatedequipment, equipment location, safety policies, how policies may affect schedules, aswell as other valuable information for construction of the unit.

During the planning phase, the following subjects are addressed:

• Training—the initial development of training material is likely to begin.• Procedures/Checklists—the initial development of operating, emergency,

maintenance procedures, and checklists begins.• Safety—Process safety management (PSM) items are developed, meetings are

held to determine environmental impact of the project, risk assessments begin,and safety strategy documents are developed.

• Budget—detailed budget plans are developed.• Construction plans—planning for construction commences, and schedules are

developed.• Staffing plans—staffing needs are assessed and a timeframe for hiring is set.• Maintenance items—spare parts list is developed for the unit, and the lubrication

and greasing manuals are developed.• Operational planning—plans for staffing needs, run plans, benchmark targets,

and plans to achieve design capacity and performance testing are created.

Many of these developments continue into the construction phase.




CONSTRUCTION

Once the construction phase begins, the process technician is actively engaged in thefield with the construction crew. The construction phase is the building phase of aninitial process unit or facility, or the building phase of an expansion project upgradingan existing unit or facility. The process technician provides the crew with a wide varietyof support that includes:

• Ensuring construction activities are moving along safely and per facility policies• Issuing work permits, including hot work and confined space entry• Performing or providing firewatch duty as requested by the construction crew• Performing safety audits as required per the project’s Safety Strategy

document• Ensuring that construction of the facility is proceeding per issued and approved

ISO drawings, P&IDs, and PFDs• Assisting new technicians on the project in training and in performing required

duties

During construction, and as the unit moves toward mechanical completion, theprocess technician’s job duties will additionally include:

• Inspection of vessels and equipment• Pressure testing of vessels, piping, and other equipment• Line blows of process piping (i.e., nitrogen purging and water washing)• Flushing and cleaning of vessels and equipment• Electrical instrumentation loop checks

The training of the process technician on the process unit takes place asthe facility is constructed. The construction is considered complete when themechanical completion documentation is signed. Mechanical completion is a

documented checking and testing of the construction to confirm the installation isin accordance with the drawings and specifications, and is ready for commissioningin a safe manner in compliance with project requirements. Once the unit reaches




mechanical completion, the commissioning team moves into the next phase of theprocess: pre-commissioning.

PRE-COMMISSIONING

The pre-commissioning of a new process unit undertakes activities that must be completedprior to moving into the start-up phase of a new process unit or facility. This allows the

process technician time to become more familiar with the process piping and equipment.These activities are generally completed in phases, using either the system approachor the specific equipment approach. During pre-commissioning, the process technicianhas more hands-on experience, and begins to take ownership of the unit. As part of thepre-commissioning activities, steam and other utilities are commissioned so that necessaryutility services are available for other pre-commissioning activities.

The process technician is responsible for ensuring that the following items arecompleted:

• Hydrostatic leak and pressure testing of piping and equipment• Equipment inspection (i.e., towers and reactors)• Flushing as well as chemical and mechanical cleaning

• Installation of temporary screens, strainers, and blinds• Purging and removing air from equipment• Drying out equipment• Verification of instrumentation

The pre-commissioning activities should be completed in 15 days for small-scaleunits and in 25 to 35 days for larger-scale units.

As the unit nears completion of the pre-commissioning activities, a processsafety review takes place as part of the process safety management requirements forthe facility. The process technician is a valuable part of this process.

START-UP

One of the most critical periods for safety during the life of a process unit is the initialstart-up. The unit start-up is the initial commissioning of the unit that involves theintroduction of feedstock to produce a defined product at a given purity. The start-up




process consists of many unknown factors and can be potentially hazardous becauseunit operability has not been established.

The process technician gains valuable experience during the unit start-up. The unit isprepared for start-up using initial start-up procedures, a set of guidelines or instructionsto perform the initial start-up of a process unit or facility. These procedures are differentfrom the normal start-up procedures followed for subsequent start-ups. Utilizing the

initial start-up procedures, the process technician:

• Commissions the unit piping and instrumentation• Slowly brings raw materials into the unit• Fills vessels, process lines, pump cases, and compressors per procedure• Starts pumps, agitators, mixers, and compressors, as required• Takes readings, as required, for start-up purposes• Assists unit maintenance personnel, as required

Initial start-up procedures are extremely important and should be followedthoroughly. However, if deviations are required, the process technician shouldfollow the facility procedure deviation policy. The process technician is required

to troubleshoot and correct problems as they occur during the initial start-upperiod.

The operation run plan defines how the unit process technicians initially runthe unit, usually at 80 to 100% capacity. The unit runs at a set rate until the on-testspecifications are met. On-test specifications should be met within a reasonable period,normally from 2 to 7 days.

After achieving on-test production, the unit is slowly brought to full operation,or 100% capacity. This begins the performance trial of the unit. The unit runs at100% capacity for a fixed period, and then the acceptance documentation is signed.Acceptance documents that the unit has achieved its design capacity and specifications,and the facility agrees that the unit will function as engineered.

After acceptance, the unit is pushed to maximum capacity to see if the unit is capable

of maximum production. This push is known as performance testing, or a step-test of theunit to determine if the process unit is able to achieve its maximum designed intent.The unit will not normally run at max capacity, but time and changing marketconditions may necessitate an increase in the unit max capacity requirement.Once the unit successfully runs at max capacity, plans are made and the unit eventuallydebottlenecks to increase its nameplate capacity. Nameplate capacity is the designedcapacity of a unit.

POST-COMMISSIONING

Post-commissioning, the last phase of the commissioning process, begins after

initial start-up is completed. By this time, the unit is on-stream and in normalproduction. The process technician continues to make adjustments, troubleshoot,and solve problems, as they occur. During this phase, any outstanding punchlist items, or the list of uncompleted construction items from the contracted designthat are not safety critical but must be addressed by the contracted constructionfirm, are completed. These items may be related to paint, bracing, insulation, orother items that had no impact on the health and safety of operating personnel(see figure 10.1).

RE-COMMISSIONING

Re-commissioning is returning existing process units or equipment to active service

after an extended idled period. The phases in re-commissioning are the same as aninitial commissioning project. A team is assembled (one that includes several processtechnicians) to oversee the re-commissioning.




Summary

Process technicians play a key role during the design, construction, and initial start-upof a new process unit. The unit commissioning process consists of five phases:

• Planning

• Construction • Pre-commissioning • Start-up • Post-commissioning

Each phase of commissioning contains different activities that must be completedprior to proceeding to the next phase of the process. Unit commissioning has three keycriteria that must be met to consider the commissioning process successful:

• No lost time accidents or injuries • No equipment damage • On-test product within a reasonable period

A commissioning team is a group of individuals, selected from current facility

personnel who play a key role in the planning and implementing of the commissioningor de-commissioning of a process unit or facility. The commissioning team works jointlywith the engineering firm during the design phase and is actively engaged in the field

FIGURE 10.1 Example of a Punchlist




with the construction crew. During pre-commissioning, the process technician gainshands-on experience and begins to take ownership of the unit.

One of the most critical periods for safety is the initial start-up. The unit start-up,or initial commissioning of the unit, includes the introduction of feedstock to producea defined product at a given purity. The start-up process consists of many unknownfactors and can be potentially hazardous because unit operability has not been

established.The process technician gains valuable experience during the unit start-up.The unit is prepared for start-up using initial start-up procedures (a set of guidelines orinstructions to perform the initial start-up of a process unit or facility).

During post-commissioning, the unit is on-stream and in normal production.The process technician makes adjustments, troubleshoots, and solves problemsas they occur. Any outstanding punchlist items (the list of uncompleted items fromconstruction that are not safety critical) are completed.


a. Acceptance

b. Commissioningc. Commissioning teamd. Construction phasee. Initial start-up proceduresf. Mechanical completiong. Nameplate capacityh. Performance testingi. Planning phase j. Pre-commissioningk. Post-commissioningl. Punchlistm. Re-commissioning

n. Start-up 2. Name the five phases of the commissioning process.a. ____________________b. ____________________c. ____________________d. ____________________e. ____________________

3. List five responsibilities of the process technician during the pre-commissioning phase.a. ____________________b. ____________________c. ____________________d. ____________________e. ____________________

4. A lost time accident that occurs during the commissioning process will not affect the successof the project.

a. Trueb. False

5. Name the four items that the process technician should complete while on shift.a. ____________________b. ____________________c. ____________________d. ____________________

6. Punchlist item completion may be delayed prior to start-up, if they are of the nonsafety-critical type.

a. Trueb. False

7. List the responsibilities of the process technician while the unit is in the start-up phase.




8. Name five additional job duties for which the process technician is responsible during theconstruction phase.

a. ____________________b. ____________________c. ____________________d. ____________________e. ____________________

9. Initial start-up procedures only have to be followed in the pre-commissioning phase of aproject.

a. Trueb. False

10. Explain the difference between commissioning and re-commissioning. 11. At both the beginning and end of shift, the process technicians should have an exchange of

information denoting the operational condition of the unit.a. Trueb. False

Activities 1. Perform research on companies that offer commissioning and pre-commissioning services.

Select one and complete a one-page report on why you chose that particular company. 2. Work with a classmate to simulate the process of commissioning a new unit. Develop a

timeline from idea creation to production, and complete a two-page report that explains thetimeline details.

3. Perform research on safety-related incidents that have occurred when commissioning a newunit or re-commissioning an existing facility. Write a two-page report covering the researchand explain how the incident could have been avoided.



146146

11Unit Start-Up

C H A P T E R

Objectives


■ Differentiate between the different types of start-ups:

• Normal/routine

• After an emergency shutdown

• Equipment start-up after maintenance

• After a turnaround

■ Describe the process technician’s role in the execution of unit start-ups.

■ Describe the risks and hazards associated with unit start-ups.

■ Describe the safety and environmental activities associated with a unit start-up andhow these activities are covered by OSHA’s PSM (Process Safety Management of

Highly Hazardous Materials) standard.



CHAPTER 11 Unit Start-Up 147

Key Terms

Air Free—removal of air from process piping and equipment prior to the introduc-tion of hydrocarbon.

Feed Forward Flow—when raw material is introduced to a process unit on a con-tinuous basis to effectively begin the processing of the finished or intermediateproduct.

Hydro Test—strength and integrity test, using water, for process piping andequipment.

Start-Up Execution Plan—a strategic document for a normal process unit start-upthat typically includes consideration for, or makes provisional reference to otherinstructions for, required staffing, coordination with other units, utility and aux-iliary systems commissioning, hazardous chemical inventory procedures, detailedequipment and unit start-up procedures, and notification of the EPA or otherregulatory agencies in advance of the scheduled start-up.

Tightness Test—pressurization test, typically using nitrogen or other inert gas, forprocess piping and equipment to ensure that equipment is leak free prior to theintroduction of hydrocarbons; also known as the leak test.

Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of various types of unit start-ups that take placein a process facility. A unit start-up is the initial commissioning of a unit, includingthe introduction of raw materials to manufacture a defined product at a given purity.This entails the systematic placement of process equipment into service in order tostart the process. Unit start-ups are an integral part of process operations that areexecuted when a process unit is ready to be brought into service for production.

There are several types of unit start-ups. Each start-up brings common and uniquehazards if not managed correctly. One type of start-up is the planned sequenced event,such as an initial commissioning start-up after a new process has been constructed.

Another is a start-up after a turnaround, a planned, scheduled process unit or facilityshutdown for maintenance and repair. There are also start-ups that involve individualsystems and equipment, or start-ups that take place after an emergency shutdown. Thehazards associated with unit start-ups are unit specific.

Each type of unit start-up and the basic planning requirements are furtherdefined and discussed later in this chapter. Unit start-ups are a diversion from normaloperations. This diversion carries an increased level of risk that, if not managedproperly, can cause injury to personnel, or damage to equipment, the environment,and surrounding communities.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is a U.S.government agency created to establish and enforce workplace safety and healthstandards, conduct workplace inspections, propose penalties for noncompliance, andinvestigate serious workplace incidents. Many of the activities that take place duringa unit start-up are covered by OSHA’s PSM (Process Safety Management of HighlyHazardous Materials) standard, including:

• Process safety information must be in place for use as reference material and mustreflect the details of the process; this includes Piping and Instrument Diagrams(P&IDs), which are detailed drawings that graphically represent the equipment,piping, and instrumentation contained within a process facility. They show theinterconnection of process equipment and the instrumentation used to control theprocess. They are the primary schematic drawings used for laying out a processcontrol installation in a factory or facility. Additional process safety informationincludes Instrument and Control Loop Diagrams, Plot Plans, Electrical One-Line

Diagrams, Operating Procedures, Training Material, and Operating Manuals.• Hazard analysis of the process must be complete, and all safety and

environmental action items resulting from the analysis must have been completedprior to start-up.




• Process technicians must be trained and in place for start-up with sufficientknowledge and understanding of the process equipment and associated hazards.

• Activities related to mechanical integrity and inspection of process equipmentmust be complete, including maintenance procedures and work practices,equipment files, inspection files, inspection frequencies, and equipment healthmonitoring programs that are intended to prolong or improve equipment

integrity.• Guidelines for Emergency Planning and Response, Pre-Start-Up Safety Review(PSSR), Incident Investigations, and Contractor Management are also defined inthe OSHA 1910 PSM requirements that must be in place for start-up.

Unit start-ups require a vast amount of pre-planning that primarily incorporates theskills and abilities of the operations staff. Unit process technicians, process engineers,maintenance craftspeople, and contractor craftspeople are engaged in start-up activities.The operations team will have developed unit-specific standard operating procedures(SOPs) for equipment and system start-up or shutdown in normal operation, as well asemergency situations. The procedures developed for start-up are used for equipment andsystem start-up that ultimately leads to product manufacturing.

Normal/Routine Start-Up

A normal or routine start-up takes place after a planned product outage, shutdown,or turnaround has been completed. As stated in the introduction, the operations teamdevelops unit specific standard operating procedures (SOPs) for equipment and sys-tem start-up that ultimately lead to the start of production.

Unit start-up procedures are executed by the process technicians in a plannedand sequenced order during a normal or routine start-up. With the assistance of thenecessary personnel, material sampling and specification verifications are made whileprocess systems are brought on line. Maintenance and contractor craftspeople areavailable to troubleshoot problems associated with equipment start-up.

Even during normal, routine start-ups there can be electrical, mechanical,and instrumentation problems that must be solved before a start-up can continue.For this reason, engineers, craftspeople, and operations personnel are often staffedaround the clock to provide the necessary support for start-up activities.

One of the key activities in preparation for a normal, routine start-up isdevelopment and communication of a start-up execution plan, which is a strategicdocument for a normal process unit start-up that typically includes consideration for,or makes provisional reference to, other instructions for the following:

• Required staffing• Coordination with other units• Utility and auxiliary systems commissioning

• Hazardous chemical inventory procedures• Detailed equipment and unit start-up procedures• Notification of the EPA or other regulatory agencies in advance of the scheduled

start-up

Part of the start-up planning process includes establishing communication withraw material suppliers and vendors to ensure raw materials, tools, and equipmentare available and delivered on time for start-up. Communication with adjacent andconnected process units must also be established to provide raw material for theprocess that is in the start-up mode, or to receive effluent materials from the process,once the unit is making product.

The order of system start-up is determined by those systems required to be

placed in service first. Safety systems like firewater, deluge, and hydrocarbon or otherchemical detection systems are given priority in the beginning phases of a unit start-up.During start-up, auxiliary systems such as hot oil, seal oil, dry gas seal, water, steam,condensate, plant air, instrument air, nitrogen, and other utilities must be started in the




proper sequence based on the needs of the process. These utility systems are usuallystarted up first. The process equipment and systems are then started.

Systems for hazard mitigation, preventing hydrocarbon exposure, and protectingpersonnel and the environment are usually the next to start-up. Flare and ventsystems, API separators, and closed drain systems are examples of systems placedin service early during start-up activities in order to manage hydrocarbons safely,

prevent exposure to personnel, and potentially harm the environment or surroundingcommunities. Raw material from tank farms, pipelines, marine vessels, and specialtymaterials from tank cars, tank trucks, and other vendors can be safely brought into theprocess unit once these types of systems are in service.

Major pieces of equipment and systems that are many times considered the heartof a process unit can be started up once the required utilities and safety systems arein operation. Key pieces of process equipment, like centrifugal compressors in recyclegas or refrigeration service, can be brought on-line to circulate prior to the actual startof production. Operation of large and more expensive pieces of rotating equipmentrequire maintenance craftsmen to monitor and evaluate performance of the equipmentprior to start of production.

After fuel gas systems are in service, large cylindrical or cabin-type furnaces and

hot oil systems can be started up to provide heat for fractionation and dehydrationtowers, as well as reactor systems.

Refrigeration systems can be placed in service for raw material and productcooling. Placing seal oil and dry gas seal systems in service allows operation of pumpingequipment for circulation and transfer of material.

Once all process unit major equipment and systems are either in operation or onstandby, raw material can be introduced on a continuous basis. Feed forward flow iswhen raw material is introduced to a process unit on a continuous basis to effectivelybegin the processing of the finished or intermediate product.

After start-up, when production has been successfully established, the sitestaff transition to routine operations and equipment monitoring with the processtechnicians using methods such as audio visual olfactory (AVO), a method used by

process technicians to monitor the sounds, sights and smells of a process unit or areaduring unit walk-through inspections.

Start-Up after an Emergency Shutdown

Safely managing an emergency shutdown and ultimately the unit re-start dependsheavily on the knowledge, skills, and abilities of the process technician. Due to thelarge quantity of process equipment and instrumentation on a process unit, there is anunlimited number of variables and scenarios that can cause an emergency shutdownor interruption of production. Emergency operating procedures should be in placeto minimize the effect of an emergency shutdown and to place the unit in a safecondition quickly.

The emergency operating procedures should include step-by-step instructions forsecuring a process unit for each possible type of emergency and include the effect onthe process, the environment, and surrounding communities. Emergency shutdowns cancause, or be caused by, the sudden failure of major process equipment such as compressorsand furnaces, or failure of utilities such as instrument air, steam, or electricity. Faulty tripor shutdown instrumentation can also cause emergency shutdowns.

Emergency shutdowns caused by equipment or instrument failure require completeand careful evaluation of the unit equipment, instrumentation, and safety systems priorto re-start activities. The evaluations often dictate post-emergency start-up activities.Start-up after an emergency shutdown requires process technicians to exercise cautionand awareness of the hazards that may be present due to process interruption. Once

the unit is deemed safe, procedures should be in place for re-starting the unit afteremergency shutdown.

Failure or shutdown of minor process equipment, and implementation of spareprocess equipment, may have only a minimum effect on the unit and may not require




removal of the unit raw material or feed. Spare equipment and instrumentationavailable for service can effectively minimize process interruptions and eliminate thehazards that can result from upset conditions.

Minor equipment failure can many times be evaluated, repaired, and re-startedin a short period so that the unit is returned to normal process conditions relativelyquickly. In these cases, once the hazards have been fully evaluated and spare or failed

equipment is ready for service, personnel on shift can develop a logical start-up planat the time of the incident. Even during minor equipment outages, it is required thatthe applicable unit-specific standard operating procedures be used for the purpose ofequipment and system start-up.

Failure or shutdown of major process equipment has the greatest effect on unitproduction and usually requires temporary removal or diversion of the unit rawmaterial or feed. Major equipment failure and long-term process interruptions requireoperations, engineering, and maintenance staff to work together to evaluate equipmentand process conditions in order to determine a logical start-up plan. After the unitcondition is evaluated and deemed safe to re-start, the applicable unit specific standardoperating procedures should be executed in the planned and sequenced order to bringthe unit back to normal operations.

Equipment Start-Up after Maintenance Activities

During occasional instances of maintenance activities, auxiliary and individualpieces of equipment, and some process systems, can be removed from service toconduct maintenance activities without the need for an entire unit shutdown. As withmost operations and maintenance activities in a process unit, there are precautionsthat must be taken in order to mitigate the hazards associated with the equipmentshutdown, repair, and re-start. Precautions and hazards should be identified andmanaged with the use of shutdown, isolation, repair, and start-up procedures. Theseprocedural tools, when written and applied correctly, are critical to safely managing

the hazards.The complexity of the equipment being removed from service predicts theassociated hazards, which can range from limited to severe when not shutting downan entire process unit. Proper communication and coordination between operationsand maintenance personnel is always critical to the safe removal, efficient repair,and start-up of process equipment. Planning and execution of the repair, evaluationof the hazards and the effect on the rest of the unit can be extensive or a minor taskthat can be completed with the process technicians and maintenance craftspeoplethat are on shift.

Safely managing equipment start-up, after maintenance activities are completed,can be as simple as placing a repaired pump back in service. It could have a minimumeffect on the process, or it might be as complex as placing an entire system back in

service with major impact to the process operation.The hazards associated with even minor repairs to equipment in hydrocarbon and

process service can be severe. At all times:

• Operating procedures must be used to safely shutdown and remove equipmentfrom service, and to minimize the effect on the rest of the unit.

• Control of work (COW) procedures must be used to identify, isolate, and preparethe equipment for repair activities.

• Maintenance procedures should be used to ensure a quality repair and tomaximize equipment integrity.

• Operating procedures must be used to safely start up and place the equipmentback in service.

• Proper personal protective equipment (PPE) must be used to protect individualsfrom exposure and associated hazards, including hard hats, safety glasses,goggles, and protective clothing.




Adhering to site policies and procedures, as required by the OSHA 1910 PSMStandard, ensures that the proper shutdown procedures, control of work procedures,and proper start-up procedures are used to safely place equipment back in serviceonce maintenance craftspeople have completed repairs or replacement.

Unit Start-Up

The effort required during commissioning and initial start-up of a process unit, andstart-up after a turnaround (TAR) has been completed, are very similar in scope.An initial commissioning start-up and a start-up after a turnaround are the mostinvolved start-up procedures. This is because, in both cases, there are many piecesof process equipment whose condition must be evaluated and made safe for theintroduction of hydrocarbon, steam, high pressure, high temperature, corrosive service,and many other potentially hazardous services that are unit specific.

These start-ups are planned and sequenced events that require the maximumlevel of coordination and communication among site personnel, and usually requirethis elevated level of effort for a prolonged period. Operations and other personnelinvolved in major unit start-ups include:

• Process technicians and operations management team• Maintenance planners, craftspeople,m and inspection staff • Process, control, mechanical, and electrical engineers• Warehouse and procurement staff • Safety, health, and environmental (SHE) and PSM staff • Contractor managers, contractor engineers, contractor craftspeople, and specialty

contractor staff

All of the staff work together to plan and execute unit commissioning start-upsand post-TAR start-ups. Planning for a new unit commissioning start-up may begin sixmonths to a year, or longer, before the actual start-up date.




Maintenance and operating procedures play a critical role in the tracking andcompletion of start-up activities. These procedures define the necessary stepsrequired to prepare process equipment and systems for service and include activitiessuch as:

• Line and equipment flushing• Hydrostatic testing

• Line and equipment dry out• Tightness test, pressurization test, typically using an inert gas, for process piping

and equipment to ensure that equipment is leak free prior to the introduction ofchemicals; also known as leak testing

• Removing air from process piping and equipment prior to the introduction ofhydrocarbon, making them air free

• Verifications of alignment and rotational direction for rotating equipment• Performance tests for specialty equipment

The Process Technician’s Role in Planning and Executing Start-Ups

Process technicians play a key role in the planning and safe execution of unit start-ups. A start-up for a large process unit with many systems, and sometimes hundreds ofpieces of equipment, can take several days to complete, so start-up planning is extensive.The process technician’s knowledge of the process technology, design criteria, processequipment and interconnecting piping, valves, safety and control systems, as well asprocess specific hazards, makes process technicians one of the most important personnelgroups on the unit during start-ups. A process technician’s primary responsibilitiesbefore and during start-up includes:

• Assist in the pre-start-up safety review (PSSR).• Execute unit start-up and inventory procedures to facilitate safe, efficient,

controlled start-up.

• Properly line up process equipment, piping, and control valves.• Start up, monitor, and control rotating equipment.• Prepare special equipment and start up utilizing any normal or special control

of work procedures.• Establish and maintain control of process conditions within operating limits.• Coordinate all work activities while the start-up is in progress.• Monitor all site and contractor craftspeople to ensure compliance with safe work

practices and health, safety, and environmental (SHE) policies, including thosefor PPE.

• Ensure that hazards to personnel, the environment, and equipment are managedcorrectly, and report all deviations from the site safety, health, and environmentalpolicies.

• Maintain all unit safety equipment in good order so that it is available to mitigateemergency situations, allelviate environmental hazards, and provide personnelprotection.

• Participate in employee health monitoring programs when the potential forunique exposure hazards are present.

• Complete control of work procedures and permit processes for managing workactivities surrounding process equipment.

• Complete lock-out/tag-out (LOTO) control of work procedures for equipmentpreparation and energy isolation when there is a need to inspect, repair, orreplace process equipment.

• Complete hydro testing, a strength and integrity test, using water, for piping and

equipment.• Complete strength and integrity tightness tests for process piping and equipment,and ensure that the equipment is leak free prior to the introduction ofhydrocarbons.




• Maintain the facility in a clean, orderly, safe condition. This is significantlydifficult during a post-turnaround or commissioning start-up due to the vastamount of equipment preparation and related activities that take place. Somehazard mitigation and other benefits to maintaining good housekeeping duringa start-up include:

• Eliminates slipping and tripping hazards• Eliminates potential for chemical exposure• Eliminates environmental hazards• Improves operating and maintenance efficiency• Assures that tools and equipment are in the proper place and available for use

when needed• Helps maintain a higher level of equipment integrity and reliability

During a unit start-up, coordination is critical between the process techniciansassigned to field and control panel duties. The field technician is engaged in proper lineup of process equipment, piping and control valves, as well as the start-up of rotatingequipment. The control panel technician is engaged in establishing and maintaining theoperating conditions and process variables as systems and equipment are brought on-line.

The start-up of a process unit requires manipulation and control of hundredsor, depending on the size of the unit, thousands of process variables. The variablestemperature, pressure, level, and flow, along with unit specific systems and equipment,

are unique to the products made in each process facility.Newly constructed process units are usually equipped with a fully instrumented

Distributed Control System (DCS) for controlling the process. A DCS refers to an automatedcontrol system consisting of field instruments and field controllers connected by wiringthat carries a signal from the controller transmitter to a central control monitoring screen.Networks for communication and monitoring connect the entire system of controllers.

A combination of previous generation electronic and pneumatic instrumentationand control systems are often found on many of the older process units. Regardless ofthe type or sophistication of control technology available to the process technician, it isthe process variables and operating conditions that, once established within the correctcontrol limits, fulfill the process unit purpose by delivering on-specification products.

Unit start-ups also provide a unique learning experience for the new or inexperiencedtechnician. The diversion from normal operations enables personnel to execute operatingprocedures; safety, health, and environmental policies; and work practices that areseldom encountered during routine or normal operations. This is especially true of a newunit commissioning start-up or post-TAR start-up due to the high volume of work andthe introduction to new work processes and procedures. These activities give the processtechnicians an opportunity for hands-on experience with new or repaired equipment thatincreases their knowledge. Unit-specific, as well as site-specific, knowledge can be gainedin relation to how unit start-up activities can affect an entire process facility or community.

During unit start-ups, the process technician may also find opportunities, or the need,to revise operating procedures where corrections or deviations to previously establishedwork practices are necessary. Each facility should have guidelines in its safety, health, and

environmental policy for operating procedures that define the steps required for deviationsand corrections to operating procedures. Note that certain corrections or deviations fallwithin the OSHA PSM guidelines for management of change (MOC) and could requirethat a hazard analysis of the deviation be conducted prior to executing the deviation.




Employee participation is an invaluable opportunity where process safetyinformation included in operating procedures is improved on for the benefitof all personnel. A vast quantity of the risks and hazards associated with theprocess industry can be eliminated with the proper development and use ofoperating procedures. It is critical that the process safety information containedin the procedures is true and accurate. The practice of revising process safety

information provides each process technician with the unique opportunity tomake a job or work practice more safe for himself or herself as well as the sitepersonnel.

Prior to every start-up, a pre-start-up safety review should be completed in aneffort to verify that the unit is ready for safe start-up. The review team consists ofsite operations; maintenance; safety, health, and environmental staff; technical andcontractor managers; as well as process technicians, maintenance staff, and contractorcraftspeople. The PSSR activities include verification that:

• Rotating equipment is installed per manufacturer specifications and ready forstart-up.

• Electrical equipment and control systems are installed per manufacturerspecifications and are ready for start-up.

• Piping and structural equipment are installed per manufacturer specifications andare ready for start-up.

• Construction and mechanical completion checklists defining equipment turnoverrequirements are completed.

• Process safety information, operating procedures, and training materials are inplace prior to start-up.

• Operations staff and maintenance craftspeople are trained on the process andready for start-up.

• Hazard and operability (HAZOP) study has been done to determine potentialhazards associated with process systems, equipment, process materials, and workprocesses, and all of the safety and environmental action items are closed.

The process technician’s familiarity with the site safety, health, and environmentalpolicies is also critical to the safe execution of unit start-ups. Safety, health, andenvironmental policies are implemented by process facilities to minimize or preventthe risks and/or hazards associated with the process industry, and to ensure that thefacility is operated within the strict guidelines provided by applicable regulatoryagencies.

These policies should be readily available thorough a site computer system,through local area network (LAN), or in hard copy manual form. Using thesepolicies as a reference to understand and implement the established safe workpractices for a given activity should be a common practice for process technicians.Typical safety, health, and environmental policies that are utilized during unit

start-ups include:• Employee health monitoring—defines the need for employee health monitoring

while activities are conducted in hazardous areas, in hazardous chemical sampling,or where extended exposure to hazardous chemicals may occur during TARs

• Environmental reporting—defines the requirements and reportable quantitiesof hydrocarbons or other hazardous substances that, when released to theenvironment, require reporting to the proper regulatory authorities

• Housekeeping—defines activities that must be completed in order to maintainthe facility in a clean, orderly, safe condition

• Management of change (MOC)—policy that defines the need and application formanaging changes associated with an industrial process in support of the OSHAPSM regulation

• Material release reporting—defines reporting requirements of regulatoryauthorities such as the EPA when venting, purging, or draining equipment, or inthe event of a material release




• Operating procedures—unit-specific procedures used for the purpose of equipmentand system start-up, shutdown, normal operation, as well as emergency situations

• Personal protective equipment (PPE)—defines equipment that must be worn bypersonnel when working in process areas or conducting specific activities such assampling of hazardous materials, entering hazardous areas, or opening processequipment

• Process hazard analysis—defines the need and application for the systematicassessment of the potential hazards associated with an industrial process insupport of the OSHA PSM regulation

• Process safety information—defines the type of documentation that is consideredprocess safety information in support of the OSHA PSM regulation, including but notlimited to operating procedures, inspection and maintenance procedures, operatingmanuals and training material, process and instrument drawings (P&IDs), electricalone-line diagrams, instrument loop drawings, and electrical classification drawings

• Process safety management—defines the 14 elements of the OSHA 1910regulation; includes requirements related to Management of Change, ProcessSafety Information, Incident Investigations, Employee Participation, HAZOP,Operations Procedures, Mechanical Integrity, Inspection, Training, Trade

Secrets, Contractors, Pre-Start-Up Safety Review, Compliance Audits, andEmergency Planning and Response

Potential Hazards

Many of the same hazards on a process unit are present during unit start-ups,shutdowns, emergencies, and even during normal operations. Much like unitshutdowns, unit start-ups occur infrequently and are considered a nonroutine activity.The human element associated with performing unfamiliar activities adds to thehazard level. Demand for product usually dictates the start-up timing, duration, andschedule.

Process units can be systematically started up to manufacture the intendedproduct while consciously managing the hazards. Hazardous conditions can quicklydevelop and emergencies can occur during the start-up of a process unit, which canlead to personnel injury, irreparable damage to equipment, material release, fire, orexplosion. Every process facility has the responsibility to identify potential emergencyscenarios and to have documented mitigation plans (emergency procedures) in placeto manage such scenarios safely.

Detailed start-up planning, and the strict use of standard operating procedures andsafe work practices, should help eliminate hazardous incidents. Proper managementof the inventorying procedures for introducing hydrocarbons into process equipmentcan minimize flaring and the affect of a material release. The ability of the processtechnicians to maintain control of the process throughout start-up is critical toeliminating these hazards, which can also affect an entire process facility andsurrounding communities. Other start-up hazards can include:

• Atmospheric hydrocarbon release or a material release due to poor equipment,valve, or flange tightness testing

• Uncontrolled release of hydrocarbon to flare and vent systems prior to establishingprocess control

• Pipe and equipment damage due to thermal expansion or contraction• Failure of new, repaired, or replaced rotating equipment• Hazards from slips, trips, or falls due to poor housekeeping• Personal injury due to the failure to wear proper PPE once hydrocarbon is

introduced and equipment is placed in service• Hazards associated with continuation of work activities paralleling start-up

activities (i.e., hot work, vehicle entry, inspection and x-ray, excavations, heavylifting, installation of new piping, equipment, and support structures)




Summary

Unit start-ups are an integral part of process operations and provide unique opportunitiesfor process facilities, site personnel, and the process technician. The activities that takeplace during start-ups require all of the skills and abilities of process technicians and mostsite personnel. The deviation from normal, routine duties provides learning experiencesfor the site staff that occur only during start-ups. The safe start-up of process equipment,after maintenance, repair, or replacement has taken place, should provide opportunitiesto improve equipment performance, longevity, and integrity. When implemented duringa start-up, new technology can result in a process that is safer to operate, with reducedor eliminated risks to personnel, the facility, and surrounding community. In many cases,the installation and start-up of new technology can often reduce operating costs, leadingto higher profitability for a process facility.

A unit start-up also brings personnel together from across a facility to work moreclosely than during normal operations. This provides opportunities to establish workingrelationships that otherwise might not have occurred, and enables sharing of the uniqueskills of each individual. New career choices may be discovered when opportunities areexperienced by personnel related to start-up planning, process hazard analysis teamparticipation, writing and updating process safety information, procedures and trainingmaterial, as well as maintenance activities not experienced during normal operations.

Start-up planning and execution, when managed and completed safely,can constitute some of the most gratifying experiences in the process industry.New experiences associated with the combined effort of many work teams, workingwith new site personnel and contract personnel for the common benefit of a processfacility, cannot be matched in many industries.


a. Air freeb. Feed forward flowc. Hydro testd. Start-up execution plane. Tightness test

2. In most cases, unit start-ups occur infrequently and are considered a nonroutine activity.a. Trueb. False

3. The OSHA 1910 Process Safety Management standard covers: (Select all that apply)

a. Management of changeb. Pre-start-up safety reviewc. Operations proceduresd. Emergency planning and response




4. Process technicians play a key role in the planning and safe execution of unit start-ups.Their responsibilities include: (Select all that apply)

a. Execution of the unit start-up and inventory proceduresb. Monitoring the process and equipment while the start-up is in progressc. Monitoring all work activities while the start-up is in progressd. Special equipment start-up and preparation utilizing any normal or special control

of work procedures

5. Safely managing an emergency shutdown and unit re-start depends heavily on the knowl-edge, skills, and abilities of the process technician.

a. Trueb. False

6. Even during minor equipment outages, it is required that the applicable unit specificstandard operating procedures (SOPs) are used for the purpose of equipment and systemstart-up.

a. Trueb. False

7. Some of the primary responsibilities of the process technicians during start-ups include:(Select all that apply)

a. Executions of unit start-up and inventory procedures to facilitate a safe, efficient,and controlled start-up

b. Proper line up of process equipment, piping, and control valvesc. Start-up, monitoring, and control of rotating equipmentd. Establishing and maintaining control of process conditions within operating limits

8. The process technician’s knowledge of the process technology and design criteria, processequipment and interconnecting piping, valves, safety and control systems, as well as processspecific hazards, makes the process technician staff one of the most important groups ofpersonnel on the unit during start-ups.

a. Trueb. False

9. Pre-start-up safety review (PSSR) should be completed in an effort to verify that the unit isready for start-up. PSSR activities include verification that: (Select all that apply)

a. Rotating equipment is installed per manufacturer’s specifications and ready for

start-up.b. Electrical equipment and control systems are installed per manufacturer specifica-tions and are ready for start-up.

c. Piping and structural equipment are installed per manufacturer specifications andare ready for start-up.

d. Process safety information, operating procedures, and training materials are in placeprior to start-up.

Activity 1. Select one of the unit start-up procedures and perform procedure review together with shift

personnel. Review for accuracy to determine:• Is the procedure format correct, based on established guidelines for operating

procedures?• Are prerequisites identified that must be completed prior to starting the procedure,

and if so are they correct?• Are hazards identified and caution statements included to mitigate each hazard?• Are upper and lower control limits included in the procedure steps to help establish

process control?



158158

12Lock-Out/Tag-Out

C H A P T E R

Objectives


■ Explain the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standard forControl of Hazardous Energy (Lock-Out/Tag-Out).

■ List the various methods and devices that can be used to isolate equipment fromthe various types of energy:

• Lock

• Line break

• Tag

• Disconnect

• Blind

• Double block and bleed• Switch gear

■ List the various types of energy that must be isolated:

• Chemical

• Mechanical

• Pneumatic

• Electrical

• Hydraulic

■ Explain who should remove the Lock-Out/Tag-Out devices.

■ List the steps to follow when removing Lock-Out/Tag-Out devices.



CHAPTER 12 Lock-Out/Tag-Out 159

Key Terms

Affected Employee—process technician or other employee whose job requirementis to operate or use a machine or piece of equipment that is being serviced ormaintained under lock-out or tag-out conditions, or whose job requires thetechnician or employee to work in an area in which servicing or maintenanceis being performed.

Authorized Employee—process technician or other employee who locks out or tagsout a piece of equipment for required service or maintenance on that particularpiece of equipment.

Capable of Being Locked Out—has a multiple padlock attachment or other meansof attachment to which, or through which, multiple locks can be affixed.

Energized—connected to an energy source, or contains residual or stored energy.Energy-Isolating Device—mechanical device that physically prevents the

transmission or release of energy.Energy Sources—any source of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic,

chemical, thermal, or other energy.Interim Test—test of equipment requiring removal of lock-out/tag-out devices prior

to completion of maintenance or repair of equipment.Lockbox—safety device ensuring no lock-out/tag-out (LOTO) devices are removedwhile work is performed. Lockboxes have multiple locks into which all keys and/or tabs from the LOTO devices securing the equipment are inserted, and a singleauthorized employee using a LOTO device and a job-lock during multishift oper-ations then secures the box.

Lock-Out—placement of a lock-out device on an energy-isolating device, inaccordance with an established procedure, which ensures that the energy-isolatingdevice and equipment being controlled cannot be operated until the lock-outdevice is removed.

Lock-Out Device—a device that utilizes a positive means such as a lock, either keyor combination type, to hold equipment in a zero-energy state.

Multiple Padlock Attachment—clamp-like device used to install multiple lockson a lock-out device.

Tag-Out—placement of a tag-out device on an energy-isolating device, inaccordance with an established procedure, which indicates that the energy-isolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be operated untilthe tag-out device is removed.

Tag-Out Device—prominent warning device, such as a tag and a means ofattachment, which can be securely fastened to an energy-isolating device inaccordance with an established procedure, to indicate that the energy-isolatingdevice and the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tag-outdevice is removed.

Zero-Energy State—the state of equipment following specific process isolation andclearing procedures, followed by isolating all hazardous energy sources usinglock-out/tag-out devices.

Introduction

The control of hazardous energy is defined in the Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration (OSHA) Standard 29 CFR.1910.147, and is commonly referred to aslock-out/tag-out (LOTO). Lock-out/tag-out is a procedure used in industry to isolateenergy sources from a piece of equipment. It is used when there is a need to inspect,repair, or replace process equipment. LOTO provides a mechanism to ensure thatequipment that is to be worked on is and will remain in a zero-energy state, prior to

and during the repair process. A zero-energy state is the state of equipment followingspecific process isolation and clearing procedures, followed by isolating all hazardousenergy sources using lock-out/tag-out devices. Lock-out is to place a lock-out deviceon an energy-isolating device, in accordance with an established procedure, which




ensures that the energy-isolating device and equipment being controlled cannot beoperated until the lock-out device is removed.

In order to prevent injury to employees, the standard requires employers toestablish a program utilizing procedures for affixing the appropriate lock-out or tag-out devices to energy-isolating devices, and otherwise disable machines or equipmentto prevent the equipment from being re-energized, being started up, or having an

unexpected release of stored energy.The process technician’s employer should provide specific guidelines to directthe isolation, de-energizing, and securing of hazardous energy sources—any sourceof electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical, thermal, or other energyform—and to provide the process technician with individual control of securingdevices while performing service or maintenance activities. A device that is energized is connected to an energy source, or contains residual or stored energy. The employershould have specific lock-out/tag-out procedures for the process technician toshutdown and prepare the equipment for maintenance, performing LOTO, removingLOTO, and returning the equipment to service.

All hazardous energy sources of a machine, equipment, or piping system must beisolated, de-energized, secured, and verified in a safe position before and during service

or maintenance activities. Attempting to remove locks or tags, operating, or otherwisetampering with equipment under lock-out is prohibited. An energy-isolating device is amechanical device that physically prevents the transmission or release of energy.

Lock-Out/Tag-Out

Lock-out/tag-out is a safety procedure that is used in industry and research settingsto ensure that equipment, lines, vessels, and machines are properly isolated,de-energized, and remain in a zero-energy state while maintenance or servicework is occurring. The procedure also requires that hazardous power sources beisolated and the equipment made inoperable before any repair procedure is started.Lock-out/tag-out works in conjunction with a lock, usually locking the device or

the power source with a multiple padlock attachment, a clamp-like device used toinstall multiple locks on a lock-out device, and placing it in such a position that nohazardous power sources can be turned on. The procedure requires that a tag beaffixed to the locked device indicating who locked out the equipment and statingthat it should not be turned on. Equipment that is capable of being locked out hasa multiple padlock attachment or other means of attachment to which, or throughwhich, multiple locks can be affixed.

In circumstances when equipment design prevents affixing a lock or multiplepadlock attachment (or other device) for energy isolation or when the equipment has alocking mechanism built into it, employers may utilize a tag-out system only. Tag-out is the placement of a tag-out device on an energy-isolating device, in accordance with

an established procedure, which indicates that the energy-isolating device and theequipment being controlled may not be operated until the tag-out device is removed.Examples of facilities that would use a tag-out system are those with equipmentpredating the 1990s. However, whenever the equipment undergoes a major repair,renovation, or modification, the newly installed equipment is required to be designed toaccept a lock-out device.

OSHA policy CFR 1910.147, the Control of Hazardous Energy, establishes theminimum performance requirements for the control of such hazardous energy. Eachprocess facility has developed its own policies to ensure compliance with the standard,and each facility must provide training to its employees to ensure understanding andcompliance with the standard.

The lock-out/tag-out process starts with a procedure. The procedure is intended to

assist the process technician in preparing the equipment for maintenance or servicing,getting the equipment to a zero-energy state, performing LOTO, and then returningthe equipment to service after the completion of work. Figure 12.1 shows an exampleof a generic lock-out/tag-out procedure.




DANGER

Equipment

Lockout By

FIGURE 12.1 Example of a Generic Lock-Out/Tag-Out Procedure




A LOTO procedure contains the following 15 sections:

• Procedure unit identification nomenclature• Procedure number• Procedure name• Purpose• Lists of potential hazards associated with the equipment

• Instructions related to safety items• Instruction related to handling deviations in the procedure• Prerequisites• Signature area to record those working on the procedure• Notes or definitions related to the procedure• Overview• Detailed steps in taking the equipment out of service, preparing for maintenance,

tagging and locking out• Signature area for completion• Area for comments• Signatures of reviewers and procedure approver

The intent of the LOTO procedure is to ensure that an authorized employeerefers to the company procedure to identify the type and magnitude of energy that themachine or equipment utilizes, understands the hazards, and knows the methods tocontrol the energy. An authorized employee is a process technician or other employeewho locks out or tags out a piece of equipment for required service or maintenance onthat particular piece of equipment.

In some facilities, all process technicians have received the required training andmay serve as an authorized employee, when needed. In other facilities, the authorizedemployee is designated by the employer based on knowledge and training on thecompany LOTO program and the unit process.

The LOTO procedure also allows affected employees working in or near thearea to be aware that work is taking place. An affected employee is a process

technician or other employee whose job requirement is to operate or use a machineor piece of equipment that is being served or maintained under lock-out or tag-out conditions, or whose job requires the technicians or employees to work in anarea in which servicing or maintenance is being performed. An affected employeebecomes an authorized employee when the employee’s duties include performingservicing or maintenance.

Lock-Out and Isolating Devices

LOCKS AND LOCKBOXES

A lock-out device is a device that utilizes a positive means such as a lock, eitherkey or combination type, to hold equipment in a zero-energy state. The lock istypically taken from a lockbox, which is a safety device ensuring no LOTO devicesare removed while work is performed. Lockboxes have multiple locks into which allkeys and/or tabs from the LOTO devices securing the equipment are inserted, anda single authorized employee using a LOTO device and a job-lock during multishiftoperations then secures the box. Much of the equipment today has been designed witha locking mechanism built directly into that piece of equipment such as valves, start/stop stations, and electrical switchgear. When multiple locks are needed, a multiplepadlock attachment, shown in Figure 12.2, is placed into the locking mechanism andthen locks are attached.

Lockboxes are used in situations involving a large number of workers andequipment, and have advantages over using only a multiple padlock attachment.Lockboxes, like the one shown in Figure 12.3, contain keyed alike locks and are usedwhen locking out larger pieces of equipment. The amount of locks placed inside




a lockbox varies and can be up to 50. Generally, for larger systems requiring over50 locks, a second lockbox can be used, and the lockboxes piggybacked together.

When two or more contractors are working on different parts of a larger overallsystem, the locked-out device is first secured with a multiple padlock attachmentthat has many holes for multiple people attaching locks. Lockboxes and multiplepadlock attachments can be used for contractors in this situation, and can greatlyreduce the number of locks that have to be used. Generally, the operations lock isplaced first and removed last. Each subcontractor applies his or her own lock tothe clamp. The lock-out device cannot be removed until all workers have signedoff on their portion of the work and removed their lock from the multiple padlockattachment.

Generally, the locks are different in color, such as red, blue, or orange, or theshape/size is used to designate different crafts, functions, and contractors of a facility.Group locks may be used in conjunction with personal locks. No two keys or locksshould ever be identical when utilizing personal locks. A personal lock and tag must notbe removed by anyone other than the individual who installed the lock and tag, unlessremoval is accomplished under the direction of the employer. Employer proceduresand training for such removal must be developed, documented, and incorporated intothe energy control program.

CHAINS/CABLES

Chains and locking cables are also utilized as lock-out devices. Chains are generally

utilized with nonlocking valves, and are placed through the valve and secured with alock. Figure 12.4 shows an example of using chains to secure a valve. Locking cablesare used to secure multiple valves with one lock, such as the valves to or from a seal oilpot with a valve leading to the flare.

FIGURE 12.2 Example ofa Lock and Multiple PadlockAttachments

FIGURE 12.3 Example ofa Lockbox




TAGS

The control of hazardous energy standard defines the requirement for tag-outdevices. Tag-out devices are prominent warning devices, such as a tag and a means ofattachment, which can be securely fastened to an energy-isolating device, in accordancewith an established procedure, to indicate that the energy-isolating device and theequipment being controlled may not be operated until the tag-out device is removed(shown in Figure 12-5). Tags are to be substantial enough to prevent inadvertent oraccidental removal, be attachable by hand, have the strength of no less than 50 pounds,and be weather resistant. Tags can be affixed using a variety of methods, but for safetypurposes they are generally affixed using a cable tie. Some of the tag types currently inuse in the industry include:

• DO NOT OPEN

• DO NOT CLOSE• DO NOT ENERGIZE• DO NOT START• DO NOT OPERATE

The process technician may be required to sign his or her name to the appropriate tag.In a maintenance situation, the craftsperson completing the maintenance may also signthe tag.

FIGURE 12.5 Examples of Tag-Out Tags

FIGURE 12.4 Example ofusing Chains to Secure a Valve




BLINDS

Blinds are installed as energy-isolating devices, a mechanical device that physicallyprevents the transmission or release of energy, but in certain instances can be consideredlock-out devices. Blinds cannot be installed in systems that are still energized. Blindscome in different sizes, ratings, and styles. The most common style used in the processindustry is the figure 8 blind (shown in Figure 12.6).

In addition to the figure 8 blind, there are paddle blinds (shown in Figure 12.7), alsoknown as T-handle blinds, line blinds, and blind flanges used in the process industry.

A blind is considered a lock-out device when it is the primary isolation of a system.If a LOTO requires a larger system to be isolated from a smaller system, then a linebreak is used, requiring a blind to be installed at the break location. The blind is thenlocked into place using a chain and lock as shown in Figure 12.8.

FIGURE 12.6 Example of a figure 8 Blind

FIGURE 12.7 Example ofa Paddle Blind

FIGURE 12.8 Example of a Locked Blind




DOUBLE BLOCKS AND BLEEDS

Double blocks and bleeds consist of a valve configuration in which a full flow vent valveis installed in a pipeline between two shut-off valves to provide a means of relieving pres-sure between them. Double blocks and bleeds, in the simplest configuration, consist oftwo gate valves on either end of a short run of pipe with a bleeder located on the pipe run.The valves are locked and tagged DO NOT OPEN or DO NOT OPERATE, with the

bleeder valve in the open position tagged DO NOT CLOSE or DO NOT OPERATE.The simplest configuration of a double block and bleed is shown in Figure 12.9.

FIGURE 12.9 DoubleBlock and Bleed

FIGURE 12.10 Example of a Typical Lock-Out/Tag-Out for a Pump Breaker

The double block and bleed is frequently used when working on analyzer systems,and may be utilized when isolating and working on nonhazardous processes such asfirewater and potable water systems. Double blocks and bleeds may be utilized onhazardous systems if certain criteria have been met.

SWITCH GEAR

The electrical components of equipment must also be locked and tagged. For example,to LOTO a pump, the main breaker is de-energized and tagged DO NOT OPERATEwith a multiple padlock attachment and lock placed through the eyelet of the breakerhandle. The process technician then returns to the pump in the field and depresses thestart button to ensure that the electrical components are de-energized. Figure 12.10shows an example of a typical lock-out/tag-out for a pump breaker.

The process facility should issue specific requirements about who energizes andde-energizes electrical equipment. Some facilities allow the process technicians toenergize and de-energize 480V breakers and below, whereas others require a qualifiedelectrician to perform this function.




Types of Energy Requiring Isolation

Several types of energy must be isolated and purged from the system prior to allowingwork to begin. These include the following:

• Mechanical—sum of kinetic and potential energy of a mechanical system; forexample, a compressor or pump

• Pneumatic—power transmission system that uses the force of flowing gases totransmit power; for example, an industrial complex that produces its own instru-ment and plant air systems through compression

• Hydraulic—system that uses pressurized fluids as a means of generation, control,and transmission of power; for example, mobile cranes

• Electrical—energy made available by the flow of electrons through a conductor;for example, motors

• Chemical—energy stored in chemicals (compounds) and energy released orabsorbed in chemical reactions

Removing Lock-Out/Tag-Out Devices

Lock-out/tag-out devices must be removed only by authorized employees. If work isfinished prior to the end of the shift, the process technician locking and tagging theequipment removes the lock-out/tag-out devices and places the equipment in ser-vice. However, since this is not always possible, the oncoming process technician maybecome the employee authorized to remove LOTO devices when the work is com-pleted. This transfer of authority is given at shift change when passing on unit informa-tion from one technician to the other.

There are also times when equipment must be unlocked prior to work comple-tion in order to perform an equipment test. An example would be to check for motorrotation. Only the authorized process technician, or her or his immediate supervisor,may remove any locks to permit the test to take place. A test of equipment requiring

removal of lock-out/tag-out devices prior to completion of maintenance or repair ofequipment is called an interim test. Immediately after the interim test is concluded,and prior to any work commencing, the process technician must return the equipmentto a zero-energy state and re-lock the equipment.

STEPS FOR REMOVING LOCK-OUT/TAG-OUT DEVICES

The process technician should always refer to the facility LOTO procedure beforestarting the LOTO removal process. The following basic steps should be completedprior to returning the equipment to active service:

1. Ensure that the equipment has been returned to normal operating condition aftermaintenance, service, or repair, by ensuring the following: a. All blinds or blind flanges have been removed. b. All piping has been re-installed. c. All guards or protective guards are re-installed. d. All fuses have been replaced, if necessary. e. All maintenance locks or group locks have been removed.

2. Inspect the area for housekeeping; all nonessential items should be removed. 3. Remove locks and tags from valves, control panels, or other equipment. 4. Close bleeder valves and remove tags. 5. Perform pressure tests of equipment if necessary. 6. Notify affected employees of impending start-up. 7. Remove locks and tags from the circuit breakers. 8. Start up equipment.

Once the equipment is on-line, the process technician should check the equipmentperiodically for line leaks, unusual noises, higher-than-normal temperatures, or highvibration.




Summary

The control of hazardous energy is critical in the process industry. The process facilitypolicies are guides for the process technician to ensure safety and compliance withOSHA regulation 1910.147. The process technician is the first line of defense in theprevention of an incident or accident stemming from an uncontrolled release ofhazardous energy.

Training is pivotal in the establishment and continued success of a control ofhazardous energy program. Training for the facility control of hazardous energyprogram should occur as employees are hired, and retraining should occur as policies orequipment changes are implemented.

The lock-out/tag-out procedure is the process technician’s guide to controllinghazardous energy. The process technician should strictly follow each step of the LOTOprocedure created by the facility, and any deviations to the procedure should bedocumented.


a. Affected employeeb. Authorized employeec. Capable of being locked outd. Energizede. Energy-isolating devicef. Energy sourcesg. Interim testh. Lockboxi. Lock-out j. Lock-out devicek. Multiple padlock attachment

l. Tag-outm. Tag-out devicen. Zero-energy state

2. There are _____________ examples of hazardous energy mentioned in this chapter.a. twob. fourc. fived. six

3. A lock-out device utilizes a positive means, such as a lock, to hold equipment in azero-energy state.

a. Trueb. False

4. Name five of the fifteen sections that an operations lock-out/tag-out procedure should con-

tain.a. _____________b. _____________c. _____________d. _____________e. _____________

5. After the equipment has been returned to service, the process technician should:a. Check for leaks in the equipment or associated pipingb. Check for unusual noisec. Check for unusual vibrationd. Check for higher-than-normal temperaturese. All of the abovef. Only a and c

6. The purpose of the control of hazardous energy standard is to establish the minimumrequirements of such hazardous energy:

a. Trueb. False



170170

13Utility and Auxiliary Systems

C H A P T E R

Objectives

After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:

■ Describe a typical steam-generation system and the uses of the various steampressures.

■ Explain the importance of boiler feed water treatment.

■ Explain the factors needed to ensure safe and efficient boiler operation.

■ Describe the refrigeration cycle and identify the major components.

■ Describe an aeration-type sanitary sewage package.

■ Explain the inspection requirements for a cooling tower system.

■ Explain the importance of lock-out/tag-out while working on high-voltage electricalequipment.

■ Explain the difference between plant air and instrument air. ■ Explain the basic operation of a flare system.

■ Identify hazards associated with nitrogen use.

■ Explain the differences between natural gas and process off gas.



CHAPTER 13 Utility and Auxiliary Systems 171

Key Terms

Boilers—highly regulated, steam-generating pressure vessels that burn natural gas,plant fuel gas, and/or waste gas streams to generate the heat for the phase changeof boiler feed water.

Electric Heat Tracing—series of self-regulating heating cables designed to providefreeze protection and temperature maintenance to metallic and nonmetallic pipes,tanks, and equipment.

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)—highly toxic, highly flammable, colorless gas with a verydistinctive, rotten egg-like odor.

Natural Gas—combination of light hydrocarbons, with methane the most prevalent,although ethane, butane, propane, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide can also completethe chemical makeup of natural gas.

Nitrogen—colorless, odorless, inert, gaseous element constituting ≈ 78% of theearth’s atmosphere, used in manufacturing and air-freeing process equipment.

Potable Water—water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumedor used without risk of immediate or long-term harm.

Steam—vaporized water, especially at a temperature above the boiling point of

water at sea level and atmospheric pressure (>100°C or 212°F).Steam Clouds—tiny drops of water that have condensed from steam and are carriedalong by the invisible vapor.

Steam Generators—any plant process shell and tube exchanger or kettle typeexchanger using boiler feed water (BFW) to remove process heat, convert BFWto steam, and pressure control that steam to a supply header.

Steam Jets—steam-jet vacuum systems combine ejectors, condensers, andinterconnecting piping to provide relatively low-cost and low-maintenancevacuum pumping with no moving parts.

Steam Tracing—series of coiled or straight run tubing, either copper or stainless,wrapped around or attached to a pipe or valve, which carries steam as a heatmedium.

Steam Turbines—rotating mechanical drivers for compressors and generatorspowered by high-velocity steam flowing through the vanes on the turbine’srotor.

Water Hammer—Hydraulic action associated with a non-compressible fluid in apipe. Sounds like a pipe being hit with a hammer. The energy developed by thesudden stoppage of fluid in motion.

Introduction

Every process facility is dependent on one or more utility or auxiliary systems toproduce products. All facilities require energy, and most manage utility sectionsspecializing in steam generation, water systems (boiler feed water, firewater, potablewater, cooling water, and wastewater), and compressed gases (nitrogen, air, andnatural gas). In addition, process facility auxiliary systems include electricity, flaresystems, and refrigeration.

The process technician is responsible for maintaining and operating these systemsaccording to the operating guidelines of the process facility. He or she ensures that theutility systems operate efficiently by minimizing or eliminating steam, water, and otherutility leaks. The process technician is also responsible for minimizing or eliminatingany packing leaks that may occur in the refrigeration systems.

Steam Generation and Distribution

Steam, typically at pressures ranging from 15 to 600 psig, drives turbines, operatespumps, provides process heating, warms heat tracing, and provides building heat.Steam is vaporized water, especially at a temperature above the boiling point of waterat sea level and atmospheric pressure (>100°C or 212°F).




A steam distribution system is comprised of valves, fittings, piping, and connectionsdesigned for the steam pressure and temperature transported. Boilers are highlyregulated, steam-generating pressure vessels that burn natural gas, plant fuel gas,and/or waste gas streams to generate the heat for the phase change of boiler feedwater (BFW). They generate steam at a given design pressure to satisfy the processrequirements. High-pressure steam, such as 250 to 600 psig, drives turbines on large

generators, processes gas compressors, and supplies lower pressure let-down stations.High-pressure steam from boilers may be supplemented with high-pressure super-heated steam from various plant process coolers.

Let-down stations are pressure control valves that reduce high-pressure steam toa lower-pressure supply header. Let-down stations vary by the type of process, buttypically are 400 to 150 psig and 150 to 50 psig. Some processes require lower pressuressuch as 37 and 15 psig.

Steam turbines are rotating mechanical drivers for compressors and generatorspowered by high-velocity steam flowing through the vanes on the turbine’s rotor.The work performed by the steam (power) is increased by reducing the pressureof the turbine steam exhaust. In a process using a large steam-driven turbine,the steam typically exhausts from the turbine and condenses in a water-cooled

surface condenser, which creates a partial vacuum on the turbine discharge.The steam condensate typically requires little treatment before returning to theboiler feed water system.

A surface condenser is normally a large horizontal, shell-and-tube exchangerhaving cooling water flowing through the tubes. Condensate is level-controlled to theBFW system, and the vessel operates under a partial vacuum. Some process units maysupplement the vacuum on the condenser utilizing steam ejectors.

TURBINE-SUPPLIED STEAM LET-DOWN

Steam turbines using high-pressure steam, such as 300 psig or higher, may exhaustdirectly into a lower-pressure steam header and function as a pressure let-down system,such as 150 psig, although that is not as efficient for the turbine. Depending on design,turbines can exhaust at various pressures. However, the turbine is not the final controlfor the let-down station pressure.

If users consume a larger volume of 150-psig steam than the steam turbine exhaust

produces, the 150-psig steam header pressure falls. When the 150-psig steam pressurefalls below 150 psig, a pressure control valve lets down additional high-pressuremakeup steam into the 150-psig steam header.




DE-SUPERHEATING

When steam is let-down to a lower pressure, it becomes superheated, so that thetemperature is higher than saturated steam of the same pressure. The temperatureof the 150-psig let-down steam can be de-superheated, or cooled with atomizedcondensate, from approximately 600°F to 385°F. The degree of superheat is dependenton the facility design and the amount of de-superheating needed depends on the

downstream demand for process heating using exchangers.Heat exchangers function more efficiently when heating the process with saturated

steam, which condenses in the heat exchange. Steam yields the greatest amount ofheat, measured in British Thermal Units (BTUs), when the phase change from steamto condensate occurs. Although superheated steam has a higher temperature, undermost circumstances it does not condense in a heat exchanger and yields less heat thandoes saturated steam.

POWER GENERATION

To produce electricity with steam turbines, pressure greater than typical process steamis necessary. Turbine inlet steam pressure is usually in the range of 250 to 850 psig at

700 to 900°F. The 600-psig steam turbines drive many single and two-stage processcompressors and exhaust into a condensing system or a considerably lower pressuresteam header, such as 50 psig.

Typically, high-pressure steam enters the turbine casing, and since the casingis much larger than the steam supply line and connected to the exhaust, almostimmediately drops to near exhaust pressure, which is either the partial vacuumof the condensing system or the let-down steam header pressure. Most turbinerotors, which are wheels attached to the turbine shaft, are equipped with bladesor“buckets.” The steam velocity impacting the blades or buckets forces the rotor toturn. Some turbines incorporate inlet nozzles, which increase the steam velocity tothe rotor.

Many turbines contain two types of blades, those on the rotor and others attached

inside the turbine case, between rotors. If the case is equipped with blades, thesetypically act as nozzles and impart a velocity increase to the steam. Exhaust steampressure varies depending on the type of turbine, such as single stage, multistage,condensing, or noncondensing. Whatever the type of turbine, the rotating turbineshaft drives the generator, which produces electric power.

HAZARDS AND MITIGATION

Superheated steam is invisible because the temperature is very high and thereare no condensing droplets to see in the atmosphere. Steam leaks are difficult tolocate visually, but normally make sufficient noise to alert you of a leak in the area.However, use extreme caution because a high-pressure superheated steam leak

necessitates wearing hearing protection, which may make sound location moredifficult. Wear all appropriate PPE when attempting to locate a leak.Steam leaks are very costly; process technicians should tighten packing leaks on

steam valves to eliminate waste. Large steam leaks can produce steam clouds, tinydrops of water that have condensed from steam and are carried along by the invisiblevapor, which can become hazardous, reducing the visibility in an area and possiblycreating tripping hazards.

Condensing steam can cause damage to equipment or create other hazards. Whenequipment is purged with steam, a suitable gas must then be used to clear the steam toprevent creation of vacuum by condensing steam. If a vessel is left full of steam withclosed valves, and is not rated for full vacuum, equipped with vacuum breaks or otherwisevented, condensing can produce sufficient vacuum to collapse the vessel. This is a

concern during turnarounds when vessels are steam cleaned. Since valves frequently donot close tightly, the vacuum may draw in air, thereby creating an explosive atmosphereor fire hazard when hydrocarbons are introduced, or drawn in. This is a concern duringstart-up preparations.




Steam-heating isolated equipment that is liquid full can result in dangerouslyhigh pressure. Excessively high pressure first develops within a confined space dueto liquid expansion from heating and from phase change after further heating, withspace permitting and if the vessel has not yet ruptured. Procedures, which typicallyprovide for flare or atmospheric venting, should be followed during vessel steamingand drying. Equipment not designed for high temperature and pressure may sustain

damage if steaming and drying are not performed properly.Steam turbine casings failure normally occurs if exposed to the full pressure of theinlet steam. Therefore, the exhaust valve of a steam turbine must be opened beforeopening the inlet.

Steam jets, which combine ejectors, condensers, and interconnecting piping toprovide relatively low-cost and low-maintenance vacuum pumping with no moving parts,can produce large static electrical charges. This hazard is avoided by properly groundingequipment when using steam or making sure that in-place grounds are intact.

During start-up or normal operation, water hammer can occur when water vaporor steam condenses quickly and the accumulated condensate creates a temperaturedifferential with, and an obstruction to, steam entering the space. Water hammer is actionassociated with a non-compressible fluid in a pipe, which sounds like a pipe being hit

with a hammer. It is the energy developed by the sudden stoppage of fluid in motion.”Water hammer can be extremely dangerous if not properly controlled. To prevent waterhammer, steam should be admitted very slowly until equipment warms up and condensateshould be lined up for removal through drain valves or steam traps.

When steam tracing is used on stainless steel piping or vessels, it is important touse chloride-free steam. Steam tracing is a series of coiled or straight run tubing, eithercopper or stainless, wrapped around or attached to a pipe or valve, which carries steamas a heat medium. Figure 13.1 shows an example of steam tracing.

FIGURE 13.1 Example of Steam Tracing

If leaking steam contains chlorides, chloride-induced corrosion of the stainlesssteel is likely. It is worth noting that 316 stainless steel is more resistant to chloridecorrosion than 304 stainless; however, chlorides, over time, damage either. Steamtracing should be drained and purged with an inert gas or air to maintain the integrityof the system when it is not needed. This will eliminate the potential of leaks whenthe system is returned to service.

Uninsulated steam piping and tracing can be a source of serious burns. Steampiping should be insulated to prevent personnel from suffering serious burns that mayresult from the inadvertent contact with hot steam piping. Steam, if breathed, canproduce serious lung burns or suffocation.




Water Systems

Except for potable water, water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can beconsumed or used without risk of immediate or long-term harm, service water orraw water is the source of all process facility water systems. Raw water, typicallysurface water from a channel, river, or canal, supplies the cooling water system,boiler feed water treatment system, firewater, utility water stations, and somerestrooms. Raw water is usually pretreated for sediment removal in sedimentclarifiers for all systems supplied, except firewater. Drinking or potable water istypically supplied from a city water source or, in some cases, a water treatment andchlorination unit within the facility. Potable water supplies all sources for drinking,safety showers, and eye-wash stations throughout a facility.

BOILER FEED WATER TREATMENT

Water for steam generation is thoroughly treated to remove impurities thatcompromise the integrity of process systems and operations. Boiler feed wateris treated mechanically and chemically to remove or control contaminants.Poor-quality BFW can cause extensive corrosion, pitting, and scale buildup within steam

generators, steam piping, and exchangers. Steam generators are any plant process shelland tube exchanger or kettle type exchanger using boiler feed water to remove processheat, convert BFW to steam, and pressure-control that steam to a supply header.

When the steam is generated, impurities in the water become more concentratedin the boiler, causing a marked reduction in boiler efficiency. Specific chemicals areadded, usually vender supplied, to mitigate this problem by keeping these dissolvedsolids in suspension for blowdown.

When the dissolved solids reach an unacceptable concentration, the blowdownprocess flushes the impurities from the boiler bottom, out to the sewer. Makeup waterand additional chemicals replace the water lost through blowdown. Boilers have acontinuous blowdown that the process technician adjusts, as needed, based on water

sample testing. Boilers also have manual blowdowns that the process technician opensbriefly, normally once per shift.High-pressure steam generators require extremely pure water to avoid premature

failure. Clarified raw water makeup may pass through resin-bed water softeners, resin-bed dealkalyzers, and then cation and anion bed demineralizers.

Roughly speaking, water softeners utilize salt-regenerated resin beds to removeheavy minerals, such as iron, by exchanging sodium ions from the resin for iron inthe water. Dealkalyzers reduce the alkaline mineral compounds, such as calciumand magnesium, which build up in the boiler bottom and require blowing down. Thedemineralizers further remove minerals, mineral salts and ions, positive or negative,including the sodium ions remaining from the softening process.

To mitigate corrosion in a boiler or other steam generator by dissolved gases,

especially oxygen, BFW is deaerated. Treated BFW is transferred to a horizontalvessel known as a deaerator. The deaerator takes BFW makeup on level control andprovides suction to the BFW pumps. Typically, low-pressure steam is injected into thedeaerator and noncondensable gases are removed via an overhead atmospheric vent.The deaerator prevents BFW from dissolving and absorbing oxygen.

Low-pressure steam systems may utilize less sophisticated methods to controlcorrosive minerals, such as introducing lime or soda ash to the BFW, which controls pHand aids in dissolved solids suspension for blowdown. The treatment of BFW depends onits application. Boiler feed water treatment may use some or all of the following methods:

• Clarification

• Sedimentation

• Filtration• Softening

• Dealkalyzation• Demineralization




• Deaeration

• Chemical addition

• Blowdown

The boiler section of the facility produces high-pressure steam. Boiler feed waterpumps take suction on the deaerator and transfer the treated BFW to each boiler andsteam generator, which heats the water to make saturated steam. The high-pressure

saturated steam is exported to some users throughout the facility, while for other usersthe steam flows through a pressure let-down station and de-superheater. Figure 13.2illustrates this process.

Steam

Drum

Riser

B-201A,B

Mud

Drum

Downcomer

F-203

Low Pressure Steam

Steam Condensate

Demin Water from Treated

H20 Pumps

G-203 A,B

Deaerator

D-205

BFW Pumps

G-201 A,B,C

Sewer

Superheater

Burner

Forced Draft Fan

C-201 A,B

Fuel

Superheated Steam

Flash

Tank

FIGURE 13.2 Illustration of Boiler Feed water Treatment


In addition to process heating, steam is commonly used to purge or air-free naturaldraft gas-fired heaters before igniting the pilots and burners. If a heater or boileris shutdown for any reason, faulty fuel gas isolation valves or a hydrocarbon leakfrom a tube may create a flammable atmosphere within the firebox. Older heatersare purged by opening manual block valves to admit steam into the firebox forseveral minutes to purge any hydrocarbon vapor that might be present. Pilot ignition

follows purging.Today’s heaters, boilers, and furnaces are very much automated, monitored,

and managed by what is commonly known as a burner management system (BMS). On heater start-up, the BMS automatically takes the heater through the purge




cycle and, in most BMSs, illuminates a pilot-ready light on a local control panelfor the process technician, who then may press the pilot ignition button. A flamescanner monitors the ignition of pilots and, if all pilot flames are scanned, provideslocal panel indication for the technician to proceed with burner ignition. The BMStypically shuts the system down if the pilot flames are not seen.

Most burner management systems do not trip an online heater for loss of a single

burner; they activate an alarm. Normally, more than one scanner must lose flamerecognition to shutdown a heater. Forced draft and balanced draft heaters use a fanfor purging with air.

Snuffing steam is opened, usually via manual block valves, to a heater firebox inthe event of tube failure resulting in a process fire. The steam displaces oxygen andhydrocarbon vapor to extinguish the fire.

The following knowledge and protocols provide for safe, efficient processoperation:

• Safety—Boiler feed water and boilers must be kept within prescribed operatingparameters to reduce the risk of overheating and failure. By infiltrating the steamdistribution system, excess water can cause irreparable damage to turbines.Removing impurities from BFW greatly increases operating efficiency, improvesequipment life, and reduces possible upsets. Blowdown systems reduce steamdrum dissolved solids and slow the accumulation of impurities on turbine blades.Knockout pots, also known as knockout drums, remove liquids from the fuel gasso they do not reach heater or boiler burners.

• Health—Work safety protocols and proper PPE have been developed to helpmitigate the possibility of exposure when dangerous scenarios and environmentspresent themselves during normal inspection, routine maintenance, redundantsampling, shutdowns, and turnarounds.

• Process Hazard and Boiler Firing—Boiler feed water must be pumped at ahigh pressure (e.g., 600 psig) to flow into a lower-pressure steam boiler (e.g.,400 psig). Use caution anytime work is being performed on the boiler feed

water system due to the high pressure and temperature of the system. Beespecially cautious when opening the block valves on a standby BFW pump.If the discharge check valve fails, the pump will spin backward fast enough todisintegrate if block valves are not closed quickly.

Firewater

The firewater system stores and distributes a supply of firewater to all users withinthe facility in case of an emergency, typically through underground pipelines toprevent damage to the supply lines. Depending on the process facility, the firewatersystem will generally consist of a firewater storage tank (shown in Figure 13.3),

firewater pumps (which may consist of one electric, one diesel, and one backup),control valves if the system has been automated, and the piping associated withdistribution.

FIGURE 13.3 Example of aFirewater Storage Tank




Fire hydrants, monitors, hose reels, and deluge systems are checked routinelyfor condition, valve operation, valve position, valve handles in place, connectionscapped for hydrants, and position of monitor nozzles. The firewater system shouldbe tested weekly to ensure that it is functioning properly. Valve operation is checkedfor free movement opening and closing. Freeze protection requires bleeders to beopen. Caps should be on each connection, hand-tight only. Monitor nozzles should

be in full fog position and aimed toward the equipment they are to protect.Anytime a fire or spill alarm is sounded, the firewater pumps are startedimmediately. The firewater pressure must be held at a minimum set pressure, forexample 110 psig, during any emergency. If the pressure falls below the set pressure,the spare or diesel pump should start. If either pump were to fail during an emergency,the backup firewater pump is used.

Potable Water

Potable water is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumedor used without risk of immediate or long-term harm. The normal supply of potablewater comes from an outside source. The potable water system stores and distrib-

utes a supply of potable water to all users, which include safety showers, eye-washstations, and potable water used in sinks, restrooms, and water fountains. The pota-ble water system consists of potable water tanks, potable water pumps, and pipingassociated with distribution. Potable water used in sinks, restrooms, and drinkingfountains drains into the facility sanitary sewer. Figure 13.4 illustrates this process.

FIGURE 13.4 Illustration of a Potable Water System

The State Water Commission sets the minimum acceptable operating practices forPublic Potable Water Systems, which dictate that certain tasks be performed to ensure safeand healthy potable water for use in the facility. The process technician may be requiredto perform a routine monthly survey to determine if there are any potential sources ofcontamination in the potable water system. The survey checks for the following:

• Are there any hoses hooked up to the potable water system that may be

inadvertently hooked to an unsafe water system?

• Are there any valves on the potable water system that do not have bull plugs orcaps on them to discourage cross-contamination by connecting piping or hosesbetween the potable water system and unsafe water systems?

• Are the pH, system pressure, and tank level within range?




Potable water flows through 5-micron filters that remove particulates beforedistribution to the users. Normally, one filter is in service and the other is on standby.The filters are normally switched when the differential pressure across the one inoperation increases to 15 psig. Local pressure gauges indicate the differential pressure.A bypass may be temporarily opened if both filters become plugged. Chlorine addition,at prescribed flow rates to meet specific ppm concentration, destroys bacteria and

algae growth to meet local drinking standards.The portions of the potable water supply header that are above ground maybe steam or electrically heat traced and insulated to prevent damage to the pipingin freezing weather. Electric heat tracing is a series of self-regulating heating cablesdesigned to provide freeze protection and temperature maintenance top metallic andnonmetallic pipes, tanks, and equipment (shown in Figure 13.5).

FIGURE 13.5 Example of Electric Heat Tracing

FIGURE 13.6 Illustration of a Sanitary Sewer System

A heat trace panel controls electric heat trace circuits. A thermostat mountedinside the panel energizes the circuits when the selector switch is in the AUTOposition and the outside temperature decreases to a predetermined temperature as set

by the process facility. The heat trace panel may contain many circuits with differenttemperature settings for different applications.

Sanitary Sewer System

The purpose of the sanitary sewer system is to process sewage waste from all unitsand buildings within the site. Sewage can be treated onsite, such as in a factory-builtaeration type package, or collected and transported via a network of pipes and pumpstations to a municipal treatment plant. As an overview of onsite treatment, biologicalmatter is progressively converted into a solid mass by microorganisms, neutralized, andultimately disposed of or used as land fill in environmentally suitable areas. The treatedwater may be discharged into a process wastewater system or into a public water systemif the discharge meets regulatory guidelines. Figure 13.6 illustrates this process.




AERATION-TYPE PACKAGE

An aeration-type package is a type of sewage treatment system that consists of liftstations, an aeration section, and a settling section for internal biological treatment ofsewage before disposal.

Lift Stations

The lift station lifts sewage out of a sump and discharges it into a screen to removevery large solids and debris. Sewage then flows directly into the aeration compartment,which is the heart of the system.

Aeration Section

Plant air is blown through diffusers that break up the air into small bubbles.The turbulence produced by the plant air tends to break up sewage solids and mixes thefresh sewage with the activated sludge in the aeration compartment. The air also circulatesthe contents of the compartment to pick up additional oxygen from the outside air surface.

Aerobic bacteria and other living microorganisms present in the sewage becomeactive due to the abundance of oxygen and they digest the organic solids in suspension

and solution. The aerobic bacteria divide and multiply. The soluble organic mattermetabolized by the bacteria converts to carbon dioxide and bacterial floc, which settlesfrom the solution.

Settling Section

The sewage flows from the aerator into the settling basin. Solids are returned fromthe bottom of the settling basin to the aeration tank for further treatment and forseeding the incoming sewage with living organisms. The settling basin effluentflows over a weir into a trough and through the effluent pipe to the effluent sump.A sanitary sewer pump takes suction on the effluent sump and discharges to theprocess wastewater system.

A hydraulic skimming system provides continuous automatic removal of floating sol-ids from the settling basin surface. The system consists of a skimming trough, which drawsfloating material from the surface of the settling basin and discharges it to the aerationcompartment through a specially designed eductor. Eductors function much like steamejectors, which pull vacuum, except the eductor usually uses water or air for motive force.Eductors are available in many designs. Figure 13.7 shows one example of an eductor.

FIGURE 13.7 Example of an Eductor

Hazards and Mitigation

The following knowledge and protocols provide for safe, efficient process operation:

• The sanitary sewer may not retain the proper biological activity over long periodsand can become septic or poisoned. This can kill the bacteria (sometimes referredto as “bugs”) that are in the sewer system and that are used to break down organicmaterial. To provide proper treatment of sewer wastes and maintenance for the




sanitary sewer system, it is periodically reseeded with a bio-augmentation productor “bugs.” This maintenance addition of bacteria helps prevent the system fromgoing septic and discharging untreated waste to the process wastewater system.

• A tablet chlorination injection system can be used as an added treatment step to

improve the quality of the process wastewater. This system should be checkeddaily to verify that the chlorine tablets are in place to ensure proper water

treatment.

Wastewater

Most process units collect oil and water from the process and storm drains into anAPI Oil-Water Separator. API stands for the American Petroleum Institute, fromwhich the operating standards and design are derived. Oil skimmers are economicalat removing hydrocarbons from water and assist meeting water quality objectives. Oilis skimmed from the water and recycled, while the water is pumped into the processwastewater (PWW) header. Water collects in a large sump, also known as an oilguard, from which it is transferred to the wastewater treatment section. In the eventof heavy rain exceeding the pump capacity, water will overflow the oil guard into theopen ditch. This is considered an outfall. Samples must be collected if an outfall occursto ensure that the outfall did not contain hydrocarbons. If sampling determines theoutfall-contained hydrocarbons, remedial action must be taken for recovery.

Wastewater treatment is a process for cleaning contaminated water before recyclingor release. Hydrocarbons and other contaminants, along with solids, are characteristiccomponents of wastewater. Wastewater treatment takes water from processes that dostripping, steam boiler and cooling tower blowdowns, waste neutralization, and otherprocess functions. Figure 13.8 illustrates the process.

FIGURE 13.8 Water Treatment Process

WATER TREATMENT OPERATIONS

Water treatment operations consist of the following:

• Pretreatment Operations—The first step in treating wastewater is separating solidsand hydrocarbons. API separators, interceptor plates, and settling ponds capture




fugitive contaminants, process matter, and sludge by separating, skimming, andfiltering. Emulsions of oil and water are typically separated by heating.The difference in the specific gravity of water and oil particles enables fugitiveoils to be captured from wastewater surfaces. Wastewater that is acidic (pH< 7) isneutralized with ammonia, lime, or soda ash. Wastewater that is alkaline (pH >7)is neutralized with sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, sulfur, or carbon dioxide-rich

flue gas. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) interact to form carbonic acid(H2CO3), which is a naturally occurring component of acid rain.• Secondary Treatment Operations—Wastewater containing suspended solids

requires a removal process such as sedimentation, air flotation, screening, orfiltering. The process of flocculating further facilitates separation of particulatesthat may have escaped the pretreatment and initial secondary removal processes.Flocculating is similar to the initial clarification of raw water in that typically,a polymer is added that brings smaller particles together into larger masses forsettling out or removal by filtration. Secondary treatment operations decomposebiological matter, and oxidize soluble organic matter using biologically activatedsludge (anaerobic bacteria added), lagoons, or filters. High-adsorption molecules(added polymers) aid fixed-bed filters by forming slurries that are removable

by sedimentation or filtration. Other methods for removing oils and chemicalsfrom wastewater include stripping and solvent extraction. Stripping is a processfor removing sulfides and/or ammonia, and solvent extraction separates phenols.

• Tertiary Treatment Operations—Tertiary treatments including, but not limitedto, chlorination, ozonation, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and activated carbonadsorption capture regulated contaminants to satisfy regulated fugitive emissionpermit limits. Wastewater must contain a sufficient level of oxygen for somewastewater streams to oxidize specific chemicals and fulfill requirements. Wastewaterrecycling by cooling or oxidizing alleviates impurities by spraying or air stripping.

Hazards and Mitigation


• Fire Protection and Prevention—During treatment operations, vapor fromhydrocarbons in wastewater can possibly create an explosive atmosphere.

• Health—Adhering to safe, responsible work procedures is essential for personalsafety, health, and environmental integrity. Using the proper PPE for processsampling, inspection, maintenance, and turnaround activities lessens the prob-ability for an accident that may harm people and damage equipment, facilities,or the environment.

Refrigeration Systems

In 1820, British scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressedammonia chilled the air as it evaporated. Refrigeration absorbs heat from an enclosedspace or a substance and rejects that heat to another location. Some large, commercialrefrigeration systems still use ammonia.

Refrigeration removes excess heat from chemical reactions, liquefies processgases, separates gases, and purifies products by preferential freeze-out of onecomponent from a liquid mixture. Refrigeration also provides plant air conditioningfor comfort, and instrument and analyzer cooling. A “ton of refrigeration” is said to bethe refrigeration output of melting one short ton of ice at a temperature of 32°F overa period of 24 hours, which is an energy equivalent of approximately 12,000 BTU/hr.

Five components of a refrigeration system are:

• Refrigerant: Class 1—a substance capable of absorbing and releasing considerablequantities of heat during liquid-to-gas and gas-to-liquid phase change, or latent heat.

Class 2—typically brine or other nonfreezing solution that is first chilled tothe desired temperature by a Class 1 refrigerant and then circulated to remove




process heat, or sensible heat. Commonly used Class 1 refrigerants includeammonia, propane, propylene, butane, and Freon. The refrigerant used isbased on the needed refrigeration temperature as well as economics, such asreadily available light hydrocarbons in the process unit that function well asrefrigerants.

• Evaporator: A heat exchanger having refrigerant that has undergone a sudden

pressure reduction, partially flashed, and experienced auto-refrigeration, flowingthrough the tubes and absorbing heat from the air or process outside the tubes.The remaining refrigerant liquid flashes from the heat absorption and flows tothe compressor suction.

• Compressor: The compressor, including centrifugal, reciprocal, screw, orrotary, takes suction on the refrigerant within the evaporator, compresses therefrigerant, and circulates it through the condenser for heat removal, either by airor water, the expansion valve for pressure reduction and auto-refrigeration, andback to the evaporator for heat absorption.

• Expansion valve: Located immediately before the evaporator, the valve creates asudden refrigerant pressure drop, which brings about a partial refrigerant phasechange from liquid to vapor and auto-refrigeration, which lowers the refrigerant

temperature considerably.• Condenser: The condenser is a heat exchanger that uses air or water to cool and

condense the hot high-pressure refrigerant from the compressor discharge.

Figure 13.9 depicts a simple vapor compression refrigeration system, such ashousehold and automotive air conditioning.

FIGURE 13.9 Vapor Compression Refrigeration

The refrigeration cycle starts with cold liquid and vapor refrigerant in theevaporator that absorbs heat from air or a product and fully flashes to a vapor.The refrigerant leaves the evaporator for the compressor suction as a low-pressure,

low-temperature, or warm vapor that is then compressed. The refrigerant leaves thecompressor discharge as hot high-pressure vapor, due to the heat of compression,and flows through the condenser. The condenser utilizes either air or water to cooland condense the refrigerant. The cooled liquid refrigerant then flows through the




expansion valve, experiences a sudden drop in pressure, and partially flashes. Auto-refrigeration, due to the flashing, lowers the refrigerant temperature considerably andit returns to the evaporator as a cold mixture of liquid and vapor.

PROCESS APPLICATIONS

Refrigeration is widely used in the process industry for process cooling and separation.

Many large-scale facility applications utilize available propane or propylene forrefrigerant cooling. Discharged by a large compressor, the refrigerant flows through acooling water exchanger and then a control valve provides the pressure drop for flashingand auto-refrigeration. From the control valve, the refrigerant flows to the users.

In a large gas facility, a compressor may take suction on the overhead vapor line ofa large tower and compress propane product for cooling and storage. A refrigerationsystem may take a slipstream from the product cooler outlet.

Some processes use a large reciprocating commercial refrigeration compressorcirculating propane in a closed loop with cooling water exchangers serving as condensersand a pressure control valve serving as the expansion valve. Other processes use Class2 refrigeration, such as a brine circulation system, that is lowered to ≈ 30°F by a smallcommercial reciprocating chiller that uses dichlorodifluoromethane (FreonTM).



Safety and Health and Operations

• Lines throughout a refrigerant system can be extremely hot or cold; therefore, these

lines should be insulated. Extremely high temperatures can lead to thermal burns.Extremely cold temperatures can injure personnel who touch the lines withunprotected skin.

• Compressors generate high noise and vibration levels. Guards should be in place to

protect personnel, and hearing protection is required per OSHA and site regulations.

Operation

• Lubricating oil tends to accumulate in the cold sections of the refrigeration

system. If necessary, a slipstream from the bottom of the evaporator is drainedinto a reclaimer where oil is removed periodically.

• Lighter constituents in the refrigerant, such as ethane in a propane system or an

ammonia system, tend to accumulate in the receiver, causing higher condensingpressure. This can be reduced by periodically purging the vapors from thereceiver.

• Moisture, if present, will form ice and plug up the system either at the control valves

or in cold spots, like the evaporator. Moisture normally enters the system with the

purchased refrigerant charge or due to lack of drying the system before start-up.Moisture can be a source of considerable operating problems until it is removed. Somerefrigeration systems employ a continuous drier; some use only a moisture indicator.Moisture must be removed prior to start-up by evacuating the system, purging thesystem with nitrogen or dry gas, injecting methanol, or a combination of these methods.

Cooling Towers

Cooling towers reject process waste heat to the atmosphere that was absorbed by thecirculating cooling water system. Process heat exchangers transfer heat to coolingwater and the cooling water rejects that heat to the atmosphere through the latent

heat of evaporation, in most cases with the assist of forced draft fans. Cooling towersare designed as either cross-flow or counter-flow, where cross-flow towers force airto intersect at right angles to water flow, and counter-flow towers have process waterand air flowing counter to one another. Spray nozzles are distributed throughout the




bottom of the cells that collect returning water on the top of the cooling tower.Thenozzles dispense water into the tower, which falls and collects in the tower basin.

Air enters the bottom of the cooling tower and flows upward, counter to thedownward-falling water. The cooling water pumps take suction on the basin andcirculate water through the process and back to the cooling tower top.

Two cooling tower types are forced draft, where fans are positioned at the inlet,

and induced draft, where fans are positioned at the outlet. Figure 13.10 shows anexample of a cooling tower.

FIGURE 13.10 Cooling Tower

WATER TREATMENT

Water contains oxygen and is naturally corrosive to steel piping and equipment.Corrosion inhibitor is typically added into the cooling water return or the cooling waterbasin. Vender-supplied totes, such as portable polyethylene chemical tanks, equippedwith metering pumps inject the corrosion inhibitor.

Vender-supplied biocide, typically injected intermittently from a tote, controlsalgae and microbial growth that could foul piping and exchangers, if left unchecked.Sulfuric acid injection controls the cooling water pH and is monitored by analyzerprobes to control acid injection. The probe periodically needs cleaning to ensureproper function of the acid injection. Improper or excessive acid injection is veryharmful to piping and equipment.



• Fire Prevention and Protection—A leaking tube in a process cooling waterexchanger may lead to hydrocarbons entering the cooling water return and posethe risk of ignitable vapor within and above the cooling tower. Although there aremany possible sources of ignition, lightning can instantaneously ignite lingeringflammable vapors and create a fire.

• Safety—Power loss to cooling tower fans or water pumps can severelycompromise process operations in a process facility. Cooling water with

contaminants invite corrosion and fouling in pipes and process equipment,accumulation of scale on pipes from impurities, and production of an




environment of microorganisms that are detrimental to the structural integrityin wooden cooling towers.

• Health—Cooling tower water is prone to contamination from processes thatcontain substances such as legionella, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, andcarbon dioxide, as well as other hydrocarbons. Legionella is the bacteriumthat causes Legionnaires’ disease, a form of pneumonia. Legionella is

controlled at acceptable levels by the biocide injection or shock treatment.It is, however, good work practice to utilize relevant personal protectiveequipment during process sampling, inspection, maintenance, and turnaroundactivities to prevent exposure to these bacterium and chemicals. Wastewatersystems are also known for the presence of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a highlytoxic, highly flammable, colorless gas with a very distinctive, rotten egg-likeodor. Personal H2S gas detectors warn of hazardous environment above apreset threshold, measured in partsper million.

• Process Concerns—To protect the cooling water piping from freezing duringthe winter months the piping is electrically traced. A thermostat controlstracing temperature. It is important to periodically inspect cooling towers, heatexchangers, and pumps. Scheduled preventive maintenance and inspection is

the key to trouble-free operation and enhances safety. A check of all fans forvibration should be made regularly. Also:

• Check and replace worn or cracked belts.

• Inspect fan blades for deflection and for cracks.• Grease all bearings and fill oil cups.

Electricity

Process facilities may receive electricity from beyond their site, or onsite steamturbines and gas-fired turbines may generate and supplement power. Electricalsubstations transform and disseminate power within a facility, and are positioned

away from vapor-laden areas or cooling tower moisture. Transformers, circuitbreakers, and feed-circuit switches are all devices synonymous with substations.Distribution stations can be located in hazardous areas, with sufficient classificationrequirements, and typically have a liquid-filled transformer and an oil-filled orair-break disconnection device.

Even if all power comes from outside battery limits, it is important that personnelbe aware of the electrical equipment services on the unit that may be managed by theelectrical and maintenance departments, and the location of all equipment breakersand switchgear for reset and LOTO purposes.

Many facilities may have 230,000 volts (230 KV) entering the facility. Substationsand transformers lower this voltage to 34.5 KV, 13.8 KV, 480V, and 230V to supply

various equipment and building requirements. Figure 13.11 shows an example of afacility power grid.



• Fire Protection and Prevention—Generators too close to other process unitscan increase the possibility of ignition from a process upset if not properlyclassified.

• Safety—Safety policies and practices such as dry footing, high-voltagewarning signs, and guarding are necessary for prevention againstelectrocution. Along with other appropriate safety practices, electrical

lock-out/tag-out (LOTO) procedures must be followed for work on high-voltage electrical equipment.




FIGURE 13.11 Example of a Facility Power Grid

• Health—Safety practices and utilizing relevant personal protective equipmentprepares the worker for noise and hazardous environments when inspecting,maintaining, and performing other work around transformers and switches.Be cautious of transformer fluid leaks, which may contain hazardous chemicals.




Air Systems

The utilities unit provides facility and instrument air to the facility using compressors,coolers, receivers, dryers, controls, and piping. Compressed air discharges throughknockout drums where moisture separates from the air and either traps out or is blowndown. A portion of this air supply flows to the facility air header, while the remainderflows to air driers and provides instrument air.

PLANT AIR

Plant air is normally used for purging equipment containing inert gas to allow entry formaintenance and to operate pneumatic tools and pumps. These tools are at ambienttemperatures and have a short residence time for the air—that is, the air passes throughvery quickly. Therefore, there is little opportunity for condensed moisture to collect.Consequently, plant air is normally filtered to prevent debris from entering the toolsand compressed to 90 to 105 psig (shown in Figure 13.12).

FIGURE 13.12 Plant Air Schematic

INSTRUMENT AIR

Instrument air is supplied throughout the facility to operate pneumatic instrumentationsuch as control valves, controllers, and indicators. Instrument air is always dried to adew point that will not cause condensation, typically a dew point of ≈ 20°F belowthe minimum ambient temperature. This reduces the risk of condensation and coldweather freeze-up in small-bore piping and instruments. Instrument air should be

cleansed of any materials that could impede normal operation. The pressure shouldrange between 60 and 105 psig (typically 92 psig).



• Fire Protection and Prevention—Air compressors should be located so that thesuction inlet is sufficiently distant from flammable vapor and corrosive gassources in order to reduce the potential for fire and explosion.

• Safety—Knockout drums for removing condensation from instrument air helpskeep liquid from entering into the distribution system. Strainers must cleangases containing unwanted materials. Upset of automatic compressor controls

can lead to unit upset or shutdown. Air compressors and associated equipmentmust be capable of handling pressures in the system and if not, pressure relief isessential for preventing equipment damage and process upset. Guarding around

exposed moving parts prevents accidental physical encounters with moving




or reciprocating equipment. Compressor buildings need correct electricalclassification and proper ventilation.

Upstreamn instrument air drying systems help prevent moisture fromcontaminating instrumentation. In the event of instrument air supply failure dueto insufficient power or process equipment failure, nitrogen can be used in placeof the instrument air.

•

Health—Safe work protocol and/or relevant personal protective equipmentreduces chances of exposure to hazardous environments while inspecting andmaintaining processes. Utilizing safety procedures while operating is essentialso that plant and instrument air are kept separate from breathing systems andpotable water systems.

• Operation and Maintenance—Aspects of instrument air systems are relativelystraightforward and depend on manufacturer recommendations for compressorsand driers. Equipment typically requires:

• Regular inspection, usually weekly, of filters downstream of the compressor.If oil-lubricated machines are used for plant air systems, then more frequentinspection and draining of filters is recommended to avoid buildup of oil.

• Annual inspection of drier desiccant and changeover valves.

• Monthly monitoring of air dew point.

• Regularly blowing through take-off points not normally used to check formoisture condensation.

Pressure Relief and Flare System

PRESSURE-RELIEF SYSTEMS

Flare systems help control vapor and liquid releases from pressure-relievingdevices and blowdowns. Relief valves release pressure automatically when

the valve design release pressure is reached. Blowdowns are a purposeful androutine release of material through blowdown valves during process unit start-ups, furnace blowdowns, shutdowns, and emergencies. Depressurization is a swiftdisposal of vapor from pressure vessels in the event of a fire, and takes place bybreaking a ruptured disc that usually requires a higher differential pressure than arelief valve.

Safety Relief Valve Operation

Safety relief valves service air, steam, gas, vapor, and liquid. They assist othervalves in managing an above-normal increase in process operating pressure. Safetyvalves that discharge large volumes of steam tend to open up to their full capacity.

The pressure required to open liquid-relief valves is typically higher due to higherspring resistance. Pilot-operated safety relief valves have a sixfold greater abilityto seal and discharge than do normal relief valves. Nonvolatile liquids are normallysent to oil-water separation and recovery systems, whereas volatile liquids may goto liquid or vapor separation drums located upstream of the flare. Some processrelief valves relieve to a lower pressure part of the unit process.

FLARE SYSTEMS

Closed pressure release and flare systems consist of relief valves and lines from processunits to receive discharges, knockout drums for vapor and liquid separation, liquid orvapor seals, purifying vapor to prevent from flashback, and flare and ignition systems

that burn vapor not allowed into the atmosphere. Atomizing steam injection is oftenused at the flare tip to better mix and provides combustion air and reduces detectablesmoke. Figure 13.13 shows an example of a flare and vent system.






• Fire Protection and Prevention—Vapor and gas in proximity of ignition sourcesshould be eliminated.

• Safety—Liquids should release to liquid-vapor separators upstream of vapordisposal systems. Flare knockout drums and flares should have sufficientcapacity to control emergency blowdowns. Drums should require relief forover-pressurization scenarios. Pressure relief valves are necessary for over-pressurization in processes because of the following:

• Loss of cooling water to condensers and coolers can raise the pressure in

process units.• Loss of reflux can raise the pressure in distillation towers and disrupt the

volume of vapor leaving the distillation tower.• Swift vapor and pressure increases occur from the injection of a lower

boiling-point liquid, such as water, into a process vessel operating at hightemperature.

• Excessive steam pressure may upset heaters, damage equipment, and lead to

fire, upset automated controls, heat exchangers, and so on.• There is a risk of equipment internal explosion, uncontrolled chemical

reactions, thermal acceleration, or amassed gases in vessels.

Proper maintenance of relief valves is imperative, as valves must function as

designed. The most prevalent operation problems are listed here:• The threshold pressure fails to open due to plugged valve inlets or outlets, or

corrosion impeding normal operation of disc holders and guides.

FIGURE 13.13 Example of a Flare and Vent System




• After opening, reseat fails to open due to fouling, corrosion, accumulated

deposits, or residue from gas streams that deteriorate the valve disc.• Operating pressure is too near the valve set point leading to chattering and

early opening.

• Health—Safe work protocol and appropriate PPE are safeguards againsthazardous environments while inspecting and maintaining process operations, as

well as during turnaround activities.• Pilot and Ignition Operation—Dependable flare pilot operation is critical through

extreme weather. Flaring operations are infrequent and unscheduled. The flare shouldalways be available for emergency releases to mitigate hazards, protect equipmentand personnel, and prevent harmful environmental release. Most flares are equippedwith multiple pilots to ensure flammable gas is ignited under any circumstance.

Wind shields and flame retention devices help keep the pilots lit even in extreme

weather conditions. The majority of pilots are intended to function through wind at100 miles per hour or greater and incorporate remote pilot ignition systems.

Nitrogen Several industrial gases are used as a general utility for inerting—air or hydrocarbonremoval. Nitrogen, the most widely used inert gas in industry, is a colorless, odorless,inert, gaseous element constituting ≈ 78% of the earth’s atmosphere, used inmanufacturing and tair-freeing process equipment. Being inert, or nonreactive, nitrogenis used for blanketing, purging, and drying. Blanketing includes storage tanks and processequipment. Examples of purging include flare purging after a safety relief valve blows,removing hydrocarbons from equipment on shutdown, or removing air during start-up.Hot nitrogen is also used for regenerating dryer desiccant.

The nitrogen header distributes nitrogen to all users within a facility.The nitrogensystem consists of a pressure reduction and metering station and the associated distributionpiping. Typically, nitrogen is supplied by an industrial gas company and is metered as

it enters a facility. Nitrogen pressure is typically lowered by local pressure regulatorsor control valves to ≈ 115 psig for the unit supply header. Users may utilize other localpressure control schemes to maintain lower design operating pressure. The high-pressurenitrogen supply may be utilized for special purposes such as catalyst regeneration.



Nitrogen is an inherent danger in confined spaces because it is an asphyxiant, whichdisplaces oxygen and causes suffocation. Considerable care must be taken whenentering equipment after purging. The equipment must be properly cleared with air

and the atmosphere tested prior to entering for maintenance.If nitrogen hose connections are observed on the high-pressure line during normalrounds, the connections must be removed and the responsible parties contacted. It isconsidered unsafe to connect nitrogen hoses to the high-pressure header system becausethe nitrogen hoses are not rated for the higher pressures.

STORAGE

Compressed nitrogen cylinders must be kept in cool, dry, ventilated areas with properseals that are clearly marked according to OSHA Hazard Communication Standard29 CFR 1910.1200. Nitrogen cylinders must be isolated from physical damage, heat,and proximity to ozone.

SPILLS AND LEAKS

Spills or leaks of gaseous or liquid nitrogen require persons without breathingequipment and protective clothing to remain clear of the hazardous area until




removal of the spill or the leak is repaired. The following steps are helpful after aspill or leak:

1. Evacuate all personnel to ventilated areas until oxygen level returns tonormal.

2. Notify proper personnel of the incident. 3. Isolate the leak, if safe to do so.

4. Require emergency personnel to use self-contained breathing apparatus(SCBA).

5. Allow time for fugitive nitrogen to dissipate.

Natural Gas

The natural gas system distributes natural gas to all users within the processfacility. Natural gas is a combination of light hydrocarbons, with methane the mostprevalent, although ethane, butane, propane, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide can alsocomplete the chemical makeup of natural gas. Some uses of natural gas includefurnace firing, driving gas turbines, vessel blanketing, and use as a feedstock.

The natural gas system consists of a pressure reduction/metering station and theassociated distribution piping. Typically, natural gas is supplied by a third partyat high pressure—for example, 600 psig. Depending on the natural gas use, thepressure is reduced to various pressure levels for facility use, such as 400 psig, 350psig, 250 psig, 160 psig, and 100 psig.

Process facilities produce off gas from various processing units. Process off gaspressure may be as low as 3 psig and is generally high in hydrogen sulfide (H2S), thus itis called sour fuel gas. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a colorless gas and smells like rotteneggs. The low-pressure off gas is compressed to 55 to 80 psig and sent to scrubbers forH2S removal, and carbon dioxide or CO2, if present. Without the fuel gas scrubbers,processing of high-sulfur crudes would result in high H2S and sulfur dioxide (SO2)emissions in the process facility 55-psig fuel gas system that would be environmentally

unacceptable. Natural gas is added, as required, for maintaining fuel system pressure.The fuel gas system, which contains mostly methane, is the primary source of fuel forfiring boilers and furnaces.


T-butyl mercaptan is notable for smelling similar to rotting cabbage, but is useful whenadded to colorless, odorless gases, such as natural gas, to better enable leak detectionprior to fire or explosions. Thiophane is a similar compound that is also utilized for thesame purpose and carries a rotten-egg smell.

Summary

Every industrial facility depends on the provision of utilities—steam, water, fuel,compressed air, inert gases, and cooling systems. Utilities play a vital role in industrialoperations. Some 70 percent of the energy used on a typical process facility sitepasses through the utility systems. Besides the cost factor, energy waste contributes toenvironmental pollution. Therefore, utilities are a serious subject.

Steam drives turbines, operates pumps, provides process heating, warms heattracing, and provides building heat. Refrigeration and cooling water systems removewaste heat and enable certain process component separations. Wastewater treatmentand API separators enable environmental compliance, as do flare systems andrelief systems.

Instrument air provides process control and nitrogen enables purging and

drying. Fuel gas use for heaters, boilers, and furnaces improves process facilityeconomics. Proper use of utilities enables a modern process to function, improvesthe safety and economics of the process, and helps make process facilities moreenvironmentally friendly.





a. Boilersb. Drinking waterc. Electric heat tracingd. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)

e. Natural gasf. Nitrogeng. Potable waterh. Steami. Steam clouds j. Steam generatorsk. Steam jetsl. Steam tracingm. Steam turbinesn. Water hammer

2. List the uses of steam in a chemical facility. 3. During start-up or normal operation of a steam system, explain how ‘water hammer’ can

occur and how it can be prevented.

4. Potable water is supplied throughout the facility for use as water, safety, and stations. 5. A quite hazardous operation for generating steam is start-up of a heater. Volatile mixtures

comprised of gas and air may accumulate after a burner loses its flame during light off.Should True or False options be given with this statement?

a. Trueb. False

6. What are the basic components of a refrigeration system?a. _____________b. _____________c. _____________d. _____________e. _____________

7. Explain why the presence of moisture in a refrigeration system can cause considerable

operating problems, and how it can be removed. 8. List some of the uses of plant air and instrument air.

a. _____________b. _____________c. _____________d. _____________

9. Overpressurization in a process facility can be mitigated with implementation of pressurerelief valves. List three possible causes of overpressurization.

a. _____________b. _____________c. _____________

10. What must be done before entering a vessel that has been purged with nitrogen? 11. Explain the reason for scrubbing off gas that contains H

2S.

12. What are the problems that must be addressed to maintain a cooling water system?

Activities 1. Work with a classmate to develop a simplified block flow diagram of a propane refrigeration

system, based on the description of a refrigeration cycle beginning on page 183. Identify themajor components. Use air cooling to condense the propane.

2. Write a paragraph identifying the important factors that require attention when starting upa unit after a turnaround. Refer to the following sections described in this chapter:

• Steaming of equipment

• Water hammer in steam piping

• Heater start-up considerations

• Purging equipment with nitrogen.



195

Objectives


■ Describe the routine duties of a field technician.

■ Describe the routine duties of a control room technician.

■ Describe how to monitor the following unit equipment:

• Compressors

• Exchangers

• Motors

• Cooling towers• Safety equipment

• Valves

• Drums/Vessels

• Pumps

• Control valves

• Instrumentation

■ Describe how to check various pieces of equipment for liquid and vapor leaks.

■ Explain the corrective action to take for liquid and vapor leaks.

■ Describe the PPE required for performing routine field tasks in special operatingenvironments.

■ Explain the methods used to document the technicians work in the field.

■ Describe how the control board technician monitors and controls the unit.

■ Describe the tools commonly used in performing routine tasks in the field.

■ Describe the hazards of handling process raw materials and finished products.

■ Explain how the field technician monitors various areas and systems within theoperating area.

■ Explain the duties of a process technician in preparing equipment for maintenanceand returning equipment to service.

Process Technician Routine Duties:

Normal Operations

14C H A P T E R




Key TermsCentral Control Room—room or building housing the facilities Distributed Control

System (DCS) that may incorporate all of the facility operating control boards.Control Board Technician—process technician whose primary job function is

to remotely monitor and control the process unit within normal operatingparameters.

Equipment Health Monitoring (EHM)—efficient system for protecting rotatingassets and facility operations from unscheduled downtime that provides person-nel with the equipment knowledge they need to schedule maintenance, manageinventories, and support efficient workflow scheduling.

Field Technician—process technician whose primary job is to monitor the fixed androtating field equipment, perform sampling, and ensure that the unit operateswithin normal operating parameters.

Monitoring—act of observing and listening to the equipment routinely to preventprocess upsets.

Normal Operations—actions performed or procedures followed when a process unitis operating within design parameters.

Rounds—routine walk-through of the unit, monitoring the fixed and rotatingequipment, and performing other routine tasks.Route—sequential path followed in order to perform Equipment Health

Monitoring (EHM).Routine Duties—duties performed that are rigidly prescribed by control over

the work or by written or verbal procedures, or well-defined, constant, andrepetitively performed duties that preclude the need for procedures or substantialcontrols.

Vibration Readings—check and documentation of rotating equipment for undesir-able vibration.

IntroductionThe process technician plays key roles in the operational success of the process unit.The primary goal of the process technician is to ensure safe and reliable operationsduring the shift. She or he should know and understand every process parameterof her or his unit. The process technician must be familiar with how each piece ofequipment operates, how the equipment sounds, the normal operating temperaturesand pressures of the equipment, and how the instrumentation on the unit controls theprocess. Normal operations are those actions performed or procedures followed whena process unit is operating within designed parameters.

The process technician not only reads the documentation for the unit but alsomakes rounds, a routine walk-through of the unit, monitoring the fixed and rotatingequipment and performing routine tasks. Each technician should be trained in bothfield and control board duties to ensure greater understanding of the process.

Routine Duties

The field technician is a process technician whose primary job is to monitor the fixedand rotating field equipment, perform sampling, and ensure that the unit operateswithin normal operating parameters. The control board technician is a process techni-cian whose primary job function is to remotely monitor and operate the process unitwithin normal operating parameters. The way each technician goes about achievingsafe and reliable operation is different, but the outcome is the same.

The role of the field technician differs from the control board technician in that

the field technician is hands-on in the field. The control board technician is locatedwithin the central control room, the room or building housing the facility’s DistributedControl System (DCS) that may incorporate all of the facility operating controlboards. A DCS is an automated control system consisting of field instruments and field



CHAPTER 14 Process Technician Routine Duties: Normal Operations 197

controllers connected by wiring that carries a signal from the controller transmitter to acentral control monitoring screen. Process diagrams, controllers, valves, and operatingvariables are displayed and the DCS operator can manipulate the parameter set-pointsor valve positions. Automated systems such as the DCS allow greater control and opti-mization of one or many processes simultaneously, ease communication between fieldand control room, and provide easy transmission of large amounts of data to and from

a central location.The field technicians have a wide range of routine duties, or duties performedthat are rigidly prescribed by control over the work or by written or verbal proce-dures, or well-defined constant and repetitively performed duties that preclude theneed for procedures or substantial controls. The process facility develops guides andchecklists specifically for the operating parameters that dictate the process techni-cian’s routine duties. Normal routine duties of the field technician may include thefollowing:

• Having a thorough exchange of information during shift change. The exchange ofinformation should include the following:• Safety and environmental issues that exist or were corrected• Process and equipment problems, including corrective actions taken• Material transfers in progress• Special operating instructions• Current coordination or cooperative efforts with other process units• In-progress or completed maintenance or contractor work on the unit• Technical support remaining on the unit

• Making a thorough inspection of the unit at the beginning of the shift, and atregular intervals throughout the shift

• Overseeing and assisting maintenance personnel, contractors, and technicalpersonnel working on the unit

• Performing safety checks as required by the facility• Performing equipment inspections or surveys as directed by the facility

• Checking the technician’s area of responsibility for leaks• Checking rotating equipment for proper lubrication• Checking for proper operation of the cooling tower• Preparing equipment for maintenance using accepted facility practices and

guidelines• Catching routine samples and special samples as directed• Receiving supplies for the unit, such as lube oil, soap, cooling tower chemicals,

and other supplies as required• Notifying the control board technician of any process or equipment problems and

suggesting corrective actions• Performing equipment health monitoring as directed by site policies• Performing housekeeping as required

• Recording normal duties performed in the logbook or eLog

The control board technician has a narrow range of routine duties that are per-formed on a daily basis. The process facility develops guides and checklists specifi-cally for the operating parameters. Routine duties of the control board technician mayinclude the following:

• Having a thorough exchange of information during shift change. The exchange ofinformation may include the following:• Safety and environmental issues that exist or were corrected• Process and equipment problems, including corrective actions taken• Material transfers in progress• Special operating instructions• Current coordination or cooperative efforts with other process units• In progress or completed maintenance or contractor work on the unit• Technical support remaining on the unit




• Monitoring all process parameters and equipment on the unit• Thoroughly inspecting the unit utilizing the control system at the beginning and

throughout the shift at regular intervals• Monitoring alarm screens and taking corrective action as required• Coordinating process activities with the field technician• Coordinating maintenance, contractor, and technical department activities with

the field technician• Recording all lab data• Recording shift activities in the unit logbook or eLog, including the recording of

all personnel on the unit• Performing other duties as directed by the facility

The duties of the control board technician are equally as important as the fieldtechnician duties. Effective communication between the field and control board tech-nician is necessary in running the unit safely, efficiently, and reliably.

Tools

The field technician is required to use a variety of tools while performing routineduties. Tools that are commonly used by the field technicians include valvewrenches, pliers, and oil cans. The facility may provide specialty tools for performingcertain tasks.

Valve wrenches of different sizes are available for opening and closing valves.The valve wrench depicted in Figure 14.1 is used in opening and closing smaller-sizedvalves ranging from ½” to 2”. The facility may equip each technician with a small valvewrenched, which should be carried at all times while on the process unit.

The operator wrench depicted in Figure 14.2 is a double-ended wrench, fittedwith a pipe wrench on one end, and is used to open and close valves ranging from½” to 2”. The pipe wrench is used to install and pull bull plugs and is not for openingand closing valves because it causes burring of the valve wheel rim, which may

cause hand injuries. The process technician often carries this style of wrench duringroutine rounds.

The valve wheel wrench depicted in Figure 14.3 comes in various sizes, isgenerally used in the opening and closing of valves ranging from 3” to 48”, andis manufactured out of carbon steel or aluminum. This type of valve wrench isgenerally placed at specific equipment locations throughout the process unit toallow easy access when needed.

FIGURE 14.1 Small Valve

Wrench

FIGURE 14.2Double-EndedWrench

FIGURE 14.3 Valve WheelWrench




The technician should also carry a set of pliers when making routine rounds. Thepliers depicted in Figure 14.4 are known as tongue and groove pliers. They are used fortightening packing nuts and installing or removing bull plugs.

FIGURE 14.4 Tongue andGroove Pliers

FIGURE 14.5 CuttingPliers

FIGURE 14.6 Oil Can

FIGURE 14.7 Grease Gun

Cutting pliers, depicted in Figure 14.5, are useful tools for removing tie-wrapsattaching lock-out/tag-out tags to equipment.

The field technician is also responsible for maintaining adequate oil levels in rotat-ing and reciprocating equipment. Oil levels in pumps should be checked and oil addedas needed, using oil cans with flexible spouts for small quantities or cans with goose-neckspouts for larger quantities. Figure 14.6 depicts a typical oil can that keeps oil clean forstorage. The lid is removed and a flexible spout is added prior to use. Oil cans come invarious sizes and can be closed or open top. Closed top containers prevent water fromentering and contaminating the oil, which could ultimately cause equipment damage.

Grease guns, as depicted in Figure 14.7, are used to lubricate valves, usually on amonthly basis, to ensure that the valves operate easily.

Equipment MonitoringThe unit must be monitored. Monitoring is the act of observing and listening to theequipment routinely to prevent process upsets. Monitoring includes the field techni-cian making routine rounds at regular intervals to ensure that the equipment and pro-

cess are running optimally. The technician is also aware of normal odors in the unit,and takes note of and investigates any abnormal odor. Control board technicians rou-tinely monitor the process and equipment remotely. A proactive monitoring approachby a board technician helps avoid process alarms during the shift.




When monitoring equipment, the process technicians may consider the following:

• Compressors—Check oil flow, verify pressure and temperature instrumentation,verify control valve positions, check motor amperage, and take vibration readings,or check and document rotating equipment for undesirable vibration.

• Exchangers—Perform periodic exchanger surveys to verify that the exchangersdo not experience fouling. Local instrumentation allows checking the

temperature and/or pressure differential across exchangers. Monthly surveys aretypically for records and reviews by engineering. The field technicians should befamiliar with the normal differentials from making routine rounds and shouldalways bring attention to a high differential on any exchanger. Surveys may beperformed utilizing control loop data for some equipment.

• Motors—Regularly check vibration using a hand held vibration pin on pumps,mixers, and compressors. The control board technician may check motor ampsand vibration remotely if the technology has been installed.

• Pumps—Check for proper lubrication and vibration, and add correct viscosityoil per the pump lubrication manual. Vibration can be checked using a hand heldvibration pin or the control board technician may check pump vibration if thetechnology has been installed. Check seals for leakage and seal pots for normallevel and pressure.

• Valves—Visually inspect valves to ensure that valve handles are in place andoperable. Grease the valves on a monthly basis to ensure that the valves operateeasily.

• Control Valves—Inspect visually and grease once a month. The control boardtechnician relies on the field technician to check these valves if sluggishness orsticking is suspected.

• Drums and Vessels—Inspect gaskets for leaks on vessels, associated pipe flanges,and man-ways several times per shift.

• Cooling Towers—Check for proper levels, adequate chemical composition,temperature, and proper fan and pump operation.

• Safety Equipment—Visually inspect weekly. Remove defective equipment fromservice and replace immediately, including any air bottles for escape packs not atfull pressure.

• Instrumentation—Check periodically for leaks. The control board technicianshould have the field technician check and verify instrument readings.

Equipment Health Monitoring (EHM)Many facilities today have an established Equipment Health Monitoring (EHM) pro-gram as an efficient system for protecting rotating assets and facility operations fromunscheduled downtime that provides personnel with the equipment knowledge they

need to schedule maintenance, manage inventories, and support efficient workflowscheduling. EHM is designed to increase uptime, reduce maintenance costs, and moni-tor assets after start-up or repair. The field technician is responsible for performingdaily checks and recording the data for specific pieces of rotating equipment. The tech-nician may be required to record the vibration levels on pumps and motors, oil levelsin pumps and other pieces of equipment, temperature and pressure variables at vari-ous locations, storage container levels (such as bulk oil or chemical drums), and otherreadings as denoted by the process facility.

Vibration readings are generally taken with a vibration pin, and temperaturereadings are taken recorded from local gauges and/or taken with a temperature gun(shown in Figure 14.8). The readings are taken on a technician’s route, a sequentialpath followed to perform equipment health monitoring, and stored in the memory

of a hand held device until they are uploaded later in the shift. The readings may berecorded on a route log sheet in the event a computerized hand held device is notavailable. The EHM program, if used effectively by the field technician, can alsoproduce data that can be utilized for better planning and root cause failure analysis.




FIGURE 14.8 Vibration Pen and Temperature Gun

CHECKING FOR LEAKSThe field technician checks for small leaks in the process during routine rounds usingthe senses of sight and smell. If a leak is found, the technician first notifies the controlboard technician, who then reports the leak to the next level of supervision. Additionalnotifications are made as necessary. The field technician may attempt to stop the leakif it is small, but proper personal protective equipment, such as hard hat, safety glasses,goggles, and protective clothing, is required when attempting to stop a leak.

The leaks a field technician may encounter include:

• Valve Packing Leaks—Alternately tighten each packing nut, equally, until theleak is stopped.

• Analyzer Tubing Leak—Tighten fittings up to one-half turn. If the leak does not

stop, notify the control board technician to request the appropriate craftspersonto repair the equipment.

• Control Valve Packing Leaks—Alternately tighten packing nuts one revolution;request the control board technician to stroke the valve to ensure valve is notsticking; repeat the process until valve begins sticking and then back off packingnuts equally one-half turn.

• Flange Leaks—Tighten opposite bolts equally until the leak is stopped.• Vapor Leaks—Use proper PPE for the situation. If the chemical component

is Ethylene or Propane, then water or steam may have to be used to de-ice thesuspected area.

• Leaks under Insulation—Strip the insulation away slowly to assess the leak.• Exchanger Leaks—Iinternal or external, an indication may be the lack of heat

transfer, off-specification material, or water or other components in the outletstream. If safe to do so, wear appropriate PPE and verify an exchange tube leakby following these steps:• Block in the shell side.• Open a low point bleeder on the shell side of the exchanger slightly.• Check for material leaking out of a tube and into the shell side.

The primary responsibility of the process technician regarding any process leak is toprotect themselves, then notify the control board technician, and assist in securing theleaking area.

Starting/Stopping EquipmentThe process technician is required to start and stop rotating equipment periodicallyduring routine duties. During the first inspection after coming on-shift, a processtechnician should become knowledgeable about equipment in service and spare




equipment available. During shift change, the in-coming field technician should alsolearn about any maintenance preparations that must be made during the shift.

When starting pumps, the technician should follow normal operating procedures.Some generic suggestions for starting up spare pumps include:

• Verify that the standby pump has proper oil levels.• Ensure that any seal oil, external or internal, is lined up properly.

• Ensure that the standby pump suction and discharge valve are in the open position.• Notify the control board technician, and ensure that the unit is prepared for

pump swap.• Start the spare pump.• Allow time for flow conditions to stabilize, then shutdown and secure the pump

to be prepared for maintenance or service.

The field technician must make sure that all pumps on standby that are equippedwith auto-start capabilities have fully open suction and discharge valves. He or shemust notify the control board technician prior to the start-up or shutdown of anyequipment. The use of normal start-up procedures for returning equipment to serviceis equally important to prevent an accident or incident.

Personal Protective Equipment

Field technicians use personal protective equipment for a variety of routine dutiesperformed during the course of a shift. Personal protective equipment (PPE) is designedto protect employees from serious workplace injuries or illnesses from contact withchemicals, radiological materials, electrical power, mechanical equipment, falling objects,and other workplace hazards. Some of the types of PPE a technician may use during thecourse of a normal working day include:

• Hard hats

• Safety glasses with side shields

• Steel-toed shoes or boots

• Goggles

• Gloves of various types

• Respirators




Many facilities in the industry have adopted minimum PPE requirements for enter-ing a process area, such as a hard hat, safety glasses, steel-toed boots, flame-retardantclothing, and hearing protection.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s (OSHA) Title 29 of theCode Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 1910 subpart I regulates the PPE standard.OSHA’s general PPE standard mandates that employers conduct a hazard assessmentof their workplaces to determine the hazards present that require the use of PPE andprovide workers with the appropriate PPE. It also requires employers to train employ-ees to use and maintain PPE in a sanitary and reliable condition. The employer must

also provide training for employees in the following:

• Proper PPE use• Necessary PPE use• Proper PPE needed• PPE limitations• Correct wear and adjustment of PPE• Proper PPE maintenance

Personal protective equipment is often essential to performing tasks. However,engineering controls, work practices, and administrative controls are also methods forcontrolling workplace hazards.

When working with materials such as lube oil, cooling tower chemicals suchas sodium hypochlorite or sulfuric acid, catalyst for certain processes, or otherspecialty chemicals, consult the material safety data sheets (MSDS) for the properPPE requirements prior to handling.

• Flame-retardant clothing

• Chemical-resistant suits

• Hearing protection




The field technicians must be familiar with the hazards of their process, and befully compliant with the PPE requirements of their facility.

ProceduresProcess technicians commonly use standard operating procedures during the perfor-

mance of routine duties. Operating procedures are very important documents in theindustry for preparing equipment for maintenance, returning equipment to serviceafter repair, loading or unloading bulk materials, changing out pressure gauges, orother tasks that have been identified by a facility.

Procedures are critical for performing certain tasks. Poorly written or improperlyexecuted procedures can and have led to accidents, injuries, and deaths. The techni-cians should follow all procedures, initialing and providing a time of completion foreach step, and signing the procedure when the tasks are completed. The technicianmay deviate from a procedure if required, but must follow the deviation policy of thefacility.

Documenting Routine DutiesThe field technician is required to document work activities in the unit logbook orunit eLog. The technician should provide as much detail as possible for his or her shiftrelief regarding what took place during the shift. Some items that should be docu-mented include:

• Process alarms that activated during the shift and the corrective actions taken inorder to help the relieving shift troubleshoot in the event of a similar alarm, or toeliminate the alarm on subsequent shifts.

• Vibration and temperature alarms experienced on equipment, especially thosecritical for the continued safe operation of pumps and compressors. Documentingthese types of alarms builds vibration and temperature trends, which may prevent

catastrophic equipment failure.• Equipment oil levels and the amount of oil added in order to establish rotating

equipment oil usage trends for planning pump seal and bearing maintenance.• Chemicals used in the process, such as cooling tower chemicals, which may

identify trends that may prevent cooling water exchanger fouling.• Maintenance activities performed and planned.• Unusual events, such as leaks in the process, process upsets, and equipment

malfunctions.

Summary

The routine duties of the process technician are extremely important to the safe, effi-

cient, and reliable operation of a process unit. A process technician should be veryobservant during his or her rounds, investigating any abnormal conditions and takingappropriate corrective action. The field technicians must monitoring fixed and rotatingequipment, perform the equipment health monitoring route, and report any unusualobservations.

The process technician should be aware of her or his surroundings and alert at alltimes. Proper PPE must be utilized, as needed, and the technician should check thePPE prior to use. Wearing personal protective equipment prevents exposure to hazard-ous chemicals, excessive noise, falling objects, and other hazards.

The field and control board technician should communicate at all times duringnormal operations and critical events. Communication between the field and controlboard technicians ensures that all relevant information is gathered and passed on tothe next shift. Technicians should always follow procedures and be thorough in docu-menting all steps. Procedures must be followed to prevent unforeseen accidents andinjuries. Any deviation from procedure should follow the facility deviation policy.





a. Central control roomb. Control board technicianc. Equipment Health Monitoring (EHM)d. Field technician

e. Monitoringf. Normal operationsg. Roundsh. Routei. Routine duties j. Vibration readings

2. List seven routine duties that the field technician performs on a daily basis.a.b.c.d.e.f.

g.3. What is the purpose of an Equipment Health Monitoring program?

a. Increase downtime, decrease cost, and monitor equipment after repair or start-up.b. Increase the field technician workload.c. Increase uptime, decrease cost, and monitor equipment after repair or start-up.d. None of the above.

4. Name four items in the process unit that a field technician should use to check for leaks.a.b.c.d.

5. The field technician should grease valves monthly in order to ensure they remain relativelyeasy to operate.

a. Trueb. False

6. What is the minimum PPE requirement to enter a process area?a. Hard hat and safety glassesb. Hard hat, safety glasses, steel-toed boots, flame-retardant clothing, and hearing

protectionc. Steel-toed boots, safety glasses, and flame-retardant clothingd. Hard hat, safety glasses, and hearing protection

7. The technicians must follow procedures, initialing all steps and providing a time stamp ofwhen that step was completed.

a. Trueb. False

8. List four of the six PPE training points that OSHA requires employers to provide foremployees.

a.b.c.d.

9. Name the six items that should be included in the shift pass-down between the fieldtechnicians.

a.b.c.d.e.

f.10. The primary purpose of PPE is to protect the employee from workplace injuries or illnesses.a. Trueb. False




11. Name four of the tools field technicians use and explain their purpose.a.b.c.d.

Activities 1. Perform research on OSHA 29.CFR.1910 subpart I, select one of the PPE topics listed in

the subpart, and complete a three-page report on your selected topic. 2. Using information learned in Chapter 6 and Chapter 12, work with three other classmates

to exchange information between two field technicians and two control board technicians.Using the scenario provided below, and working as a group, develop a working solution forthe problem. Complete a written report and simulate a shift change.

You are working in a small chemical facility when a hydrocarbon leak develops in a pumpdischarge flange. The pump can be isolated, and you will require no outside assistance. Theunit has been running smoothly and you would like to avoid an upset condition that mayresult from the leak. The field technician and the control board technician are the only twopersonnel that are immediately available to handle this situation.



207

Objectives


■ Explain the process technician’s role in the sample analysis.

■ Describe the sampling procedures and equipment used for different samplingevents.

■ Describe the personal protective equipment that must be used while performingdifferent sampling activities.

■ Explain the importance of following the sample procedure precisely.

■ Explain the importance of the sample analysis in relation to the proper operation ofthe unit.

■ Explain the various types of analysis (methods and equipment) conducted onprocess samples.

Sampling15C H A P T E R




Key Terms

Analyzer—instrument or device that performs continuous sample stream analysis.Chromatography—laboratory techniques for the separation of mixtures.Color—visual comparison scale used in the process industry to determine product

color purity; also known as the Saybolt (ASTM) color scale.

Flame Resistant—characteristic of a fabric to resist ignition and to self-extinguish ifignited.

Flame Retardant—characteristic of a fabric that has had a chemical substance addedto impart flame resistance.

Gas Chromatography (GC)—common type of chromatography used in organicchemistry for separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized withoutdecomposition.

Karl Fischer Water (KFW) Method—analytical method for quantifying watercontent in a variety of products, also known as Karl Fischer titration.

Panametric—trade name used by General Electric (GE) to distinguish their line ofinstruments used for ultrasonic flow measurement and moisture, hydrogen, andoxygen analysis.

Retention Time—amount of time it takes for each compound to separate out.Sample Containers—vessels used to collect samples for analysis; containers includeglass bottles, vials of various sizes, plastic bottles, plastic bags, metal tins or cans,metal cylinders (bombs) and others, depending on the type and quantity ofsample needed.

Sample Loop—a continuous circulation of process liquid or gas from a higher-pressure source to a lower-pressure return, such as a pump or compressordischarge back to the suction. Circulation assures capture of a representativesample. Loop is typically equipped with a sample station appropriate for thesampling required, including sample cooler if needed.

Sample Point—section of small diameter-valved tubing that extends from the mainprocess piping system for collecting low-pressure liquid samples.

Sampling—process of collecting and preserving a liquid, gas, or solid for laboratoryanalysis.

Specifications—product purity parameters that have been agreed on by the com-pany and the customers, or regulated by governmental agencies.

Introduction

Process technicians are responsible for keeping their process facilities operating safelyand efficiently to ensure the production of a high-quality product. They are respon-sible for controlling and monitoring process systems, inspecting equipment, and con-ducting routine system operations. Process technicians also routinely sample and testprocess fluids and solids at various stages of the production process. These tasks arenecessary to ensure the reliability of continuous stream analyzers, maintain correctprocess operating parameters, and ensure product stream specification.

Samples are taken from process systems for early problem detection to preventequipment damage and product waste. If testing of a sample indicates that a material isunacceptable, actions are taken to correct the problem before product is lost. Samplesare also taken to verify that waste products discharged into the environment complywith company and government regulations.

The Importance of Sampling

Catching a sample is a common and very important duty that process technicians per-

form. Sampling is the process of collecting and preserving a liquid, gas, or solid forlaboratory analysis.

Production and product sampling serves several key purposes. Sampling during aproduct transition helps to minimize off-specification production. An off-specification



CHAPTER 15 Sampling 209

(nonprime) product has the same production costs as a marketable product, but sells ata lower rate than prime product, sometimes at a loss. Some off-spec products have nomarket and are a total loss if the process cannot recycle the material.

Sampling is the primary means for analyzer verification. An analyzer is an instru-ment or device that performs continuous sample stream analysis. Analyzers providereal-time composition and quality data for the control board process technician, and

are integral to safe and effective production. However, analyzers are not foolproof.If an analyzer is plugged, damaged, or goes out of calibration, it provides errant data,and other process controllers cascaded downstream may be incorrectly controlledand compound the problem. Independent sampling verifies the accuracy of the onlineanalyzers. The more often a sample is caught and tested, the sooner corrections canbe made to return to prime production. It is critical that samples be caught correctlyand timely.

Samples are also used for customer quality assurance. In some facilities, productruns for different customers may have different specifications sheets. The specifica-tions are product purity parameters that have been agreed on by the company and thecustomers, or regulated by governmental agencies. The customer pays the negotiatedprice for the prime product. If the product fails to meet these specifications, the result

is lost revenue to the process unit.Sampling also determines the start and stop points for certain tasks. For example,

most process units use heat exchangers and condensers to control temperature andpressure in equipment, and to control reactions. After a period, the exchanger tubesbecome fouled and lose efficiency. Often, the exchangers may be chemically cleanedto restore efficiency and extend the useful life of the tube bundle. During the cleaningprocess, samples are caught and tested to determine when each stage of the cleaningprocess is complete.

Samples also protect personnel from mistakes. For example, if a vender filled aself-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) air bottle with nitrogen, it could easilyresult in a fatality. A lab test to verify the contents of the bottle could save a life.

Following Proper Sampling Procedure

Not only is the sampling process integral to efficient operation, but the manner inwhich the sample is collected is also critical to achieving reliable results and to main-taining personnel safety. Sampling procedures are intended to preserve the integrityof the sample, and provide safety measures to protect the process technician whilecollecting the sample. Deviating from procedure can result in both serious injury andequipment damage.

Most samples are collected from in-service equipment, and the associated pipingand equipment may be operating at high temperature and pressure. The sample maybe, or contain, a dangerous or explosive compound, and it may be necessary to keep

the sample container electrically grounded to eliminate the potential of a static sparkwhile collecting the sample from a process line.The sampling procedure should specify the type of container to be used to collect

the sample. Using the appropriate sample container is important for personal protec-tion, as well as correct collection and containment. For example, a sample with harmfulvapor is collected in an airtight container; a corrosive product would need a containerresistant to corrosion. The process technicians’ process facilities have procedures onsampling techniques for specific samples.

Sample Points, Sample Loops, and Sample Containers

A sample point generally consists of a short section of small diameter-valved tubing

that extends from the main process piping system for collecting low-pressure liquidsamples. A valve in the sample line can be operated to start and stop the flow of thesample to the sample container. If not a continuous flow sample loop, the sample mayneed to purge or drain into a closed drain system for a period in order to retrieve a




representative sample. The locations of sampling points can be found on process facil-ity diagrams or by consulting facility procedures. The central lab should have a masterprintout of the location of all sample points in the process facility.

If sampling with a bottle, a sample is drawn from the process and arrives at atmo-spheric pressure in the sample container. The container often consists of a bottle, sealedwith a cap and septum, which is inserted into the sleeve until the septum is pierced by

the needles extending from the needle assembly. Once in position, the product can flowinto the sample bottle via the process needle, while a vent needle vents air and gases.When the required amount has been collected, the process technician stops the productflow and the bottle is pulled out of the sleeve. The septum reseals automatically.

A sample loop, shown in Figure 15.1, provides a continuous circulation of the pro-cess liquid or gas from a higher-pressure source to a lower-pressure return, such as apump or compressor discharge back to the suction. Circulation assures capture of arepresentative sample. Loop is typically equipped with a sample station appropriate forthe sampling required, including sample cooler if needed. Sample loops are installedwith on-line analyzers and for sampling of the process where it is not convenient orsafe to perform sample line purging. Continuous circulation of the process stream isnecessary to provide the on-line analyzer with a current sample of the process.

Sample containers are vessels used to collect and contain a sample for analysis.The containers may be glass bottles or vials of various sizes, plastic bottles, plasticbags, metal tins or cans, metal sample cylinders (bombs), or others depending on thetype and quantity of sample needed. A pressurized gas sample or very hazardous liquidrequires a sample bomb. Figure 15.2 shows examples of sample containers.

Some samples may react with certain materials, such as aluminum, and requirea sample container of a specific construction for collecting samples. Sampling proce-dures are important for safety.

FIGURE 15.2 Examplesof Sample Container

FIGURE 15.1 SamplePoint and Sample Loop




• Safety glasses with side shields• Mono-goggles• Face shield

• Slicker top• Chemical-resistant gloves• Rubber boots• Fire-resistant clothing (FRC)• Respiratory protection

Wearing the required PPE provides the process technician protection from anypotential exposure in the event of unforeseen incidents. Protective eyewear, such asmono-goggles or a face shield, should be worn if there is a possibility of overspray,misting, or splash. Protective specialty gloves should also be worn when sampling fromhot or cold lines, and when collecting samples of caustic chemicals that could causechemical burns if contact is made with exposed skin.

The process technician uniform also provides a small degree of protection for skin.Most uniforms worn in process facilities are made of fire-resistant or fire-retardantclothing. Fire-resistant/retardant clothing, which is used in situations where there isrisk of electrical arc or flash or thermal burns, is regulated by NFPA-70E, ASTM,and OSHA standards. Flame resistant is the characteristic of a fabric to resist ignitionand to self-extinguish if ignited. Fabrics such as Nomex fall under this category. Flame

retardant is the characteristic of a fabric that has had a chemical substance added toimpart flame resistance. These fabrics are generally cotton or cotton blends that havehad a chemical fire retardant added to them to make them flame resistant.

Fire-resistant/retardant clothing, shown in Figure 15.4, should be worn while in aprocess unit. This type of apparel is designed to provide very brief protection in theevent of a flash fire. These materials, however, are not resistant to acids and other cor-

rosives. When sampling such substances, it may also be required to wear a protectiverubber apron, slicker suit, or neoprene suit, like the one shown in Figure 15.5.

Respiratory protection, such as a half-mask, full-face respirator, or an SCBA,protects the process technician from airborne hazards. Exposure and inhalation of solid

FIGURE 15.3 PersonalProtective Equipment

Wearing Proper PPE

Proper personal protective equipment (PPE) must be used at all times during the sam-pling process to protect the process technician. The type of sample being collecteddictates the type of PPE required. Figure 15.3 shows examples of PPE. The PPE mayinclude:




particulates and some gases is prevented by using half- or full-face respirators.These respirators can be fitted with cartridges to protect from specific hazardouschemicals. It is critical that the proper cartridge be used in order to provide adequateprotection. The process facilities’ Health, Safety, and Environmental (HSE)department will provide detailed information on which cartridges should be used in aparticular situation. A self-contained breathing apparatus, or supplied air, is used insituations where a simple respirator is unable to provide protection, or where the hazardis so great that any amount of exposure could be harmful.

The materials and work areas involved depict the hazards associated with takingsamples. Process technicians should become familiar with the materials used in theirprocess systems to determine the hazard that exist. For instance, several hazards areassociated with acidic and caustic materials, and if these types of materials encounterskin or eyes, they could cause serious burns or blindness.

Toxic fumes are another hazard that may be present when some materials aresampled. If harmful fumes are inhaled, they could cause serious reparatory injury,or death.

Some materials may be under pressure, or at very high temperature. Whensuch materials are sampled, care should be taken to avoid being sprayed or burned.The materials in some process systems are flammable or explosive and couldbe ignited by the smallest spark, flame, or static electricity in the atmosphere.

To avoid serious injuries, smoking is prohibited and open flames are not allowedaround these materials.

In addition, special care should be taken to prevent spills when materials aresampled because a spill could cause a fall and injury. If a spill occurs, it should be

FIGURE 15.4 Fire-Retardant Clothing

FIGURE 15.5 Neoprene

Suit




reported immediately to the appropriate first-line supervisor and cleaned up promptlyand properly to prevent an accident.

Contamination, Consistency, and Reliability

Samples must be collected and maintained free of outside contamination while being

transported to the lab and during analysis. For example, if a collected gas sample wereexposed to the outside atmosphere prior to testing, it would become useless if testingwas for oxygen content.

Consistent sampling and record keeping are important troubleshooting tools.Samples gathered and tested over a long period can give insight and help reveal orprevent equipment failures, or changes in the process. A single off-specification sampleresult may not be significant by itself, but when a pattern can be depicted over time, itis easier to determine the root cause of a problem. The earlier a problem is detected,the easier it is to correct, and it often saves labor and money.

Reliability is paramount for usable results. When collecting samples, it is essentialthat the test be repeatable, regardless of who collects the sample. The samples need tobe caught in exactly the same way each time they are collected. For example, suppose

a polymer powder sample is collected to determine the amount of volatile gas presentin the powder at a given point in the process. A large difference in results could be seenbased on the length of time taken to place an airtight cap on the powder sample vial.The longer the vial remains open to atmosphere, the more gas will escape, yielding aninaccurate result. If one process technician catches the sample and caps it immediately,but another process technician caps it several minutes after it has been caught, the resultswill be inconsistent. When the sample is analyzed at the lab, the lab technician may notbe aware of the variances in sampling techniques and would present the results as found,which could then cause an error in process adjustments.

Proper Labeling and Quantity

The laboratory at a refinery or a process facility is a busy place. The lab techniciansreceive dozens of samples each day and must test each according to procedure, thenreport and record the results. The lab technicians must pay very close attention to ensurethat human error does not compromise results. A decimal point in the wrong place canbe the difference between large amounts of off-specification product versus highly prof-itable prime production. The process technician needs to make sure both the quantityand the sample labeling are correct to help ensure the tests are free from human error.

The quantity of the sample also needs to be consistent. The sample size needs tobe sufficient in quantity to be a representative sample of the product at the time ofsampling. Small sample amounts are often collected over a period to make a compositesample to test a product in a time-lapse manner. This is especially useful in blend or

batch operations where a product is sold in specific quantities. A composite sample ismore representative of the batch than a single sample, which is more of a snapshot ata specific time.

Labeling may seem insignificant, but is very important, like any other part ofthe sampling and testing procedure. The sample can be correctly gathered, follow-ing a detailed procedure and tested by qualified lab technicians on precise testingequipment, but if the product is incorrectly labeled, the sample may be worthless.The sample label, shown in Figure 15.6, should contain relevant information thatmay include:

• Process unit name• Date and time

• Vessel of origin, or sample point ID• Quantity• Current analyzer result• Variables to be tested




Excess or unused portions of samples should be disposed of properly, according tocompany procedures.

Sample Analysis

Sample testing may be performed within the process unit. Cooling water testingfor pH and chlorine levels can easily be completed in a small water lab within theunit. Other samples require more time, equipment, and expertise, and can be betterperformed in a dedicated lab. The type of process facility depicts the materials andtests performed. Specific sampling and testing methods are created by the specificprocess facility.

Some sample analysis that the process technician could sample for include:

• Color—visual comparison scale used in the process industry to determine productcolor purity. A common scale used in the process industry is the Saybolt (ASTM)color scale. The Saybolt (ASTM) color scale determines the color of refined oils,such as un-dyed motor and aviation gasoline, jet propulsion fuels, naphtha andkerosene, as well as petroleum waxes and pharmaceutical white oils.

• Lead acetate test—provides a simple means of identifying the presence of sulfuror sulfur-based compounds.

• pH—measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. The process technician maybe required to measure the pH of cooling tower and condensate samples.

• Gas chromatography (GC)—can be completed online and offline.Chromatography is a laboratory technique for the separation of mixtures. Gaschromatography is a common type of chromatography used in organic chemistryfor separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized without decompo-sition. A gas chromatograph that performs the GC analysis consists of a station-ary phase and a mobile phase. The stationary phase, an inert base, is housed ina column, either in a matrix or attached to the sides of capillary-like glass tubes.The mobile phase, usually an inert gas, carries the compound to be analyzedthrough the stationary phase, separated into sections. As the gas passes throughthe stationary phase, the constituent components are separated out, and attachto the walls of the stationary chamber. The amount of time it takes for each com-

pound to separate out is called retention time (RT). The RT gives us the informa-tion we need to determine the exact makeup of the gas sample. GC analysis canbe utilized for furnace optimization as well as controlling final product purity.

• Karl Fischer Water (KFW) Method—analytical method for quantifying watercontent in a variety of products, also known as Karl Fischer titration.

• Basic solids or sediment and water (BS&W)—technical specification for certainimpurities in crude oil. When extracted from an oil reservoir, the crude oil will con-tain some amount of saltwater and particulate matter from the reservoir formation.

• Panametric—trade name used by General Electric to distinguish their line ofinstruments for ultrasonic flow measurement and moisture, hydrogen, and oxy-gen analysis. A primary use of Panametrics in most facilities is to measure gasflow to the flare, determining the mass flow rate and molecular weight.

• Gas tubes—glass vials filled with chemical reagents that react to specific chemi-cals. A sample of air is drawn through the tube with a bellows pump. If the tar-geted chemical is present, the reagent in the tube changes color and the length ordepth of the color change indicates measured concentration.

UNIT 6

12-08-09

GC, PPMN H2O, PPM Sulfur

D-106

FIGURE 15.6 Exampleof a Sample Label




• Multigas LEL meter—portable instrument for detecting the presence andconcentration of O2, H2S, CO, and combustible gases in manholes, in confinedspaces, and around tank sample-pulls.

The process technician must know the operating parameters of her or his unit andmake adjustments accordingly after receiving the sample analysis to maintain productspecification and operating efficiency.

Summary

Sampling saves the process facility money, increases customer satisfaction, and reducesoff-specification production. Sampling helps to minimize downtime and excessive laborby preventing problems before they arise. In addition, sampling can help identify andprevent hazards that could be harmful to process technicians and product end users.

While sampling or handling materials, process technicians must take all applica-ble precautions to prevent exposure to hazards. Excess or unused portions of samplesshould be disposed of properly, according to company procedures.

An important part of taking process samples is knowing where the sample pointsare located. The locations of sampling points can be found on process facility diagrams

or by consulting facility procedures. The central lab should have a master printout ofthe location of all sample points in the process facility.The basic purpose of sampling is to capture a small representative portion of the

process so that analysis may determine if it meets the desired specifications. If othermaterials are allowed to contaminate the sample, the test results could be inaccurate.The process technician must ensure that the sample container is clean and free fromcontaminants. When obtaining samples, it is important that the amount of materialdrawn be representative of the actual material in the process system (purge sufficientlyif not a continuous-flow sample loop).

Sampling is a crucial part of process operations and something that every processtechnician should master and perform exactly as per procedure.

Proper sampling and testing techniques verify analyzers, diagnose many operat-

ing problems, and allow the process technicians to react much more quickly when aproblem arises.


a. Analyzerb. Chromatographyc. Colord. Flame resistante. Flame retardantf. Gas chromatography (GC)g. Karl Fischer Water (KFW) Method

h. Panametrici. Retention time j. Sample containersk. Sample loopl. Sample pointm. Samplingn. Specifications

2. Respiratory protection is not always needed when catching samples.a. Trueb. False

3. List the six items mentioned in this chapter that will be included on a sample tag.a. _____________b. _____________

c. _____________d. _____________e. _____________f. _____________




4. If there is a chance of overspray when catching samples, which of the following PPE shouldbe worn?

a. Mono-goggles and face shieldb. Safety glasses with side shieldsc. A pair of sun shades without side shieldsd. Any of the above

5. Sample loops provide continuous circulation of the material to be tested.

a. Trueb. False

6. FRCs are for use in situations where there is risk of electrical arc, or flash or thermal burns.a. Trueb. False

7. List the seven items mentioned in this chapter that the process technician may need to wearwhen catching samples.

a. _____________b. _____________c. _____________d. _____________e. _____________f. _____________

g. _____________ 8. Samples are used only to control product variability.

a. Trueb. False

9. List the different types of sample containers the process technician may use. 10. Supplied air may be required during the catching of routine process samples.

a. Trueb. False

11. An important part of catching a sample is _____________.a. knowing the locations of the sample pointsb. understanding the hazards of the material to be sampledc. wearing the proper PPE

d. all of the abovee. only a and c

Activities 1. Conduct on-line research on sample containers known as “sample bombs” used in the refin-

ing and process industries, and write a two-page report on the types and sizes available. 2. Perform on-line research on the following chemicals and write a two-page report on their

hazards and the type of PPE that must be worn when catching such samples.a. Naphthab. Crude oilc. Paraxylened. Benzenee. Gasoline



217

Objectives


■ Differentiate between the different types of shutdowns:

• normal/routine shutdown

• emergency shutdown

• shutdown for equipment maintenance

• shutdown for turnaround

■ Describe the process technician’s role in the execution of unit shutdowns.

■ Describe the risks and hazards associated with unit shutdowns.

■ Describe the safety and environmental activities associated with a unit shutdownand how these activities are covered by OSHA’s PSM (Process Safety Management

of Highly Hazardous Materials) standard.

Unit Shutdown16C H A P T E R




Key Terms

Emergency Shutdown—sudden failure of major process equipment, such ascompressors or furnaces, or failure of utilities such as instrument air, steam, orelectricity requiring an immediate shutdown.

Evacuation Plan—documentation for the evacuation of a facility, to be used bypersonnel in the event of an emergency.

Hydrocarbon Detector—electronic device that detects, measures, and indicates theconcentration of hydrocarbons in process piping or equipment.

Hydrocarbon Free—removal of hydrocarbons from process piping and equipmentprior to opening to the atmosphere and the introduction of air.

Lift Plan—documented plan used to evaluate the hazards and define precautionsnecessary during heavy lifting activities, including lifting over live processequipment or near energized power lines.

Scaffold Plan—documented plan for the erecting and dismantling of scaffoldingused to access process piping and equipment.

Shutdown—systematic removal of process equipment from service in order to stopthe process.

Stream-to-Stream—time duration between a unit shutdown when production stopsto unit start-up when production is resumed.

Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of various types of unit shutdowns, thesystematic removal of process equipment from service in order to stop the pro-cess. Unit shutdowns are utilized industry-wide for many purposes, and are anintegral part of process operations. They can include a planned, sequenced event,the details of which are unit specific, or an unexpected shutdown that will requirequick thinking, decision making, and action on the part of the process techni -cian. Unit shutdowns, even those that are planned, are a deviation from normal

operations. Those deviations carry an increased level of risk that, if not managedproperly, can cause injury to personnel, damage to equipment, and damage to theenvironment and surrounding communities. The time duration between a unit shut-down when production stops to unit start-up when production is resumed is calledstream-to-stream.

Many of the activities listed here take place during a unit shutdown and are cov-ered by the OSHA Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials (PSM)standard:

• Changes to the process must be managed and documented according to themanagement of change (MOC) guidelines defined in the OSHA 1910 PSMrequirements.

• Process safety information must be updated to reflect changes or modifi-cations to the process, including changes to PSI Drawings such as P&IDs,Instrument and Control Loop Diagrams, Plot Plans and Electrical One-LineDiagrams, as well as Operating Procedures, Training Material, and OperatingManuals.

• Hazard analysis of any changes or additions to the process, or to process safetyinformation, must be completed.

• Subject matter experts (SME) who are associated with the process must beallowed to participate in hazard studies, as well as the development and reviewof new and revised process safety information.

• Activities related to mechanical integrity and inspection of process equipmentare covered, including new and revised maintenance procedures and work

practices, updates to equipment files and inspection files, and inspectionfrequencies and updates to existing equipment health monitoring programsthat are intended to prolong or improve equipment integrity.



CHAPTER 16 Unit Shutdown 219

• Guidelines for emergency planning and response, pre-start-up safety review, in-cident investigations, and contractor management are also defined in the OSHA1910 PSM requirements.

Unit shutdowns can require a vast amount of preplanning that not only incorpo -rates the skills and abilities of the unit process technicians but also involves site staffingat almost all levels, as well as various contractors staffing. Maintenance planners and

craftspeople, process engineers, mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, inspectionstaff, warehouse and procurement staff, safety, health, and environmental (SHE) staff,PSM staff, and contractor staff all work together with an operations management teamto plan and execute most unit shutdowns.

Normal or Routine Shutdowns

Normal or routine shutdowns are those that are planned and have a specific purpose.An example of a normal or routine shutdown might take place after a required amountof a product has been produced. Routine shutdowns of this nature are executed and theunit placed in a secure condition until the next run, or product order, is established. In

other cases, normal routine shutdowns can be based on equipment needs and processconditions. In most shutdowns of this type, there are repair, replacement, and inspectionopportunities intended to increase the production time of a unit between outages.

Major pieces of process equipment that require shutdown for maintenance andrepair may also require the entire unit to be shutdown in order to remove the equipmentfrom service. Large centrifugal gas compressors, for example, are sometimes central toa process unit. These compressors may have bearing or seals that require removal ofthe compressor from service for repair. Monitoring the bearing and seal performanceenables operations and maintenance personnel to predict and plan a routine shutdownto repair or replace the worn parts as necessary. Another example of a routine shutdownis a reactor system that needs catalyst replacement or regeneration. Monitoring of thecatalyst performance should enable operations and engineering personnel to predict

when a routine shutdown is necessary to regenerate or replace the catalyst.Planning and executing a routine shutdown for a specific purpose requires a coor-

dinated effort between the operations staff and site staffing at all levels. Maintenanceplanners and craftspeople, process engineers, mechanical engineers, electrical engi-neers, warehouse and procurement staff, and safety, health, and environmental (SHE)staff all work together with an operations management team to plan and executeroutine unit shutdowns and equipment repair or replacement.

Some of the key activities involved in performing a normal or routine shutdowncould include the development and communication of a shutdown execution plan thatshould consider:

• Shutdown purpose and priorities

• Shutdown staffing• Equipment and system shutdown sequence• Utility shutdown sequence• Shutdown timing and hold points• Notification to regulatory authorities of the potential for flaring, and possible

effects on the environment and surrounding communities• Coordination and planning for the shutdown of various process, auxiliary, and

utility systems• Coordination with connecting units as well as adjacent units• Controlled de-inventory plan for of hazardous chemicals for both pre- and

post-shutdown• Execution of operating procedures for shutting down individual pieces of process

equipment and systems• Execution of control of work (COW) procedures on process equipment• A start-up plan




Emergency Shutdown

Emergency shutdowns can be caused by the sudden failure of major process equipment,such as compressors or furnaces, or failure of utilities such as instrument air, steam,or electricity, requiring an immediate shutdown. Faulty process trips or instrumenta-tion can cause emergency shutdowns as well. Safely managing an emergency shutdowndepends heavily on the knowledge, skills, and abilities of the process technician on shift.Although an emergency shutdown is usually unplanned, emergency scenarios for eachspecific process can be identified, and emergency operating procedures are written andput in place for use by the process technicians and operations support staff. Emergencyoperating procedures lessen the stress during an emergency operation. These emergencyoperating procedures should include systematic instructions for securing the processunit during specific types of emergencies, and include the expected effect on the process,the environment, and surrounding communities. Emergency operating procedures areonly one type of procedure required by the OSHA 1910 PSM standard for managinghighly hazardous chemicals. An evacuation plan, documentation for the evacuation of afacility, to be used by personnel in the event of an emergency, is also an important pro-cedure that should be ready for use in an emergency.

Emergency scenarios are also identified during unit process hazard analysis, alsoreferred to as HAZOP studies. The operations and engineering team members areresponsible for identifying potential emergency scenarios and implementing engineer-ing or administrative controls to either eliminate or mitigate each hazard. Engineeringcontrols are a preferred method of mitigating emergency scenarios. These can include:

• Instrumentation controls in the form of alarms, trips, and shutdown instrumentation• Utilizing different types of equipment, such as using a centrifugal pump rather

than a positive displacement pump• Installation of relief devices where overpressure is a potential hazard• Properly sizing flare and vent systems

Typical types of administrative controls usually include policy, procedure, and

checklists. Some examples of administrative controls are:

• Fire and safety checklists• Car seal checklists• AVO checklists

Utilizing advanced technology can also help to manage or eliminate hazardsresulting from emergency scenarios. An example might include the installation of pro-cess equipment that would yield a specific product without the use of chemicals havingcharacteristics that are difficult to manage safely.

Shutdown for Equipment Maintenance

Examples of the need for equipment maintenance that could require an entire pro -cess unit shutdown include centrifugal compressor seal repair and reactor catalystreplacement or regeneration. Another type of shutdown could entail removing indi-vidual pieces of equipment auxiliary equipment from a process or system without theneed for an entire unit shutdown. Circumstances can occur in certain processes where acompressor, a furnace, a process pump, a centrifuge, and a fractionation tower or reac-tor system can be isolated and removed from service and have only a minimum effecton the rest of the process. This enables the process to continue to operate and produceproduct, probably at reduced rates. The associated hazards can be severe, but are muchmore limited than shutting down an entire process unit.

The complexity of the equipment removed from service determines the level of

planning required, possible hazards, level of communication, and necessary executionsteps. Safely managing such a shutdown can be an extensive undertaking and involvemany personnel, or it can be a simple task that requires only the on-shift processtechnician and maintenance craftsmen.




Examples of auxiliary equipment within many process units that can be removedfrom service with little effect on the unit as a whole include the following:

• Spare pumps and compressors• Storage tanks• Multiple pieces of process equipment that perform the same function, such as

filters, centrifuges, crystallizers, or lube oil systems

Most operations activities require precautions in order to mitigate the hazards associ-ated with the shutdown and repair of auxiliary equipment. Proper communication andcoordination between operations and maintenance personnel is critical to ensure thesafe removal and efficient repair of auxiliary equipment.

The hazards associated with even minor repairs to equipment in hydrocarbon andprocess service can be severe. A process technician should make sure of the following:

• Standard operating procedures are used to safely remove equipment from serviceand to minimize the impact on the rest of the unit.

• Control of work procedures are used to identify, isolate, energy free, and preparethe equipment.

• Proper personal protective equipment must be used to protect individuals fromexposure and associated hazards.

• Maintenance procedures are used to ensure a quality repair and maximize equip-ment integrity.

Entire Unit Shutdown for Turnaround

An entire unit shutdown for turnaround (TAR) can be the most involved type ofshutdown. TAR planning requires maximum coordination and communicationbetween process facility personnel. It also requires prolonged communication betweenthe operations staff and site staffing at almost all levels, and may include:

• Maintenance planners• Maintenance craftspeople• Inspection staff • Process engineers• Control engineers• Mechanical engineers• Electrical engineers• Warehouse and procurement staff • Ssafety, health, and environmental staff • PSM staff • Contractor managers• Contractor engineers

• Contractor craftspeople• Specialty contractors staff • And many more

All the staff works together, with an operations management team, to plan andexecute a whole unit shutdown and turnaround. TAR planning can begin many monthsbefore the actual shutdown date. The duration of a TAR can last for many months,depending on the type and amount of work scheduled.

The Process Technician’s Role in the Planning and Execution of Shutdowns

Process technicians play a key role in the planning and safe execution of unit shut-downs.Their knowledge of the process technology and design criteria, process equipment andinterconnecting piping, valves, safety and control systems, as well as process-specifichazards, makes process technicians one of the most important groups of personnel on




the unit during shutdown. The primary responsibility of a process technician duringshutdown includes the following:

• Execute the unit shutdown and de-inventory the procedures to facilitate a safe,efficient, and controlled shutdown.

• Ensure that hazards to personnel, the environment, and equipment are managedcorrectly.

• Report all deviations from the site safety, health, and environmental policies.• Shut down special equipment and prepare to use any normal or special control

of work (COW) procedures.• Monitor the process and equipment while the shutdown is in progress.• Maintain all the unit safety equipment in good order so that it is available for

emergency situations or environmental hazards for personnel protection.• Monitor all work activities while the shutdown is in progress.• Monitor all site and contractor craftspeople to ensure safe work practices and

safety, health, and environmental policy compliance, including those that defineunit PPE.

• Participate in employee health monitoring programs when the potential for

unique exposure hazards are present.• Maintain the facility in a clean, orderly, and safe condition.

Shutdowns also provide a unique learning experience for the new or inexperiencedtechnician. The deviation from normal operations enables personnel to execute operat-ing procedures, safety, health, and environmental policies, and work practices that areseldom encountered during normal operations. These activities provide process techni-cians an opportunity to increase unit and site-specific knowledge related to how a unitshutdown can affect an entire facility or community.

During shutdowns, the process technician may also find opportunities to reviseoperating procedures where corrections or deviations to previously established workpractices are necessary. Each facility should have guidelines in its safety, health, and

environmental policies for operating procedures that define the steps required forcorrections to operating procedures. Certain corrections fall within the OSHA PSMguidelines for management of change (MOC) and may require hazard analysis of thechange prior to execution.

Employee participation is an invaluable tool in improving operating proceduresfor the benefit and future use of all personnel. A vast quantity of the risks and hazardsassociated with the process industry can be eliminated with the proper developmentand use of operating procedures, and it is critical that the process safety informationcontained in the procedures be correct and without omissions. Revision of processsafety information by a process technician provides the opportunity for them to makework practice safer for all site personnel.

A process technician should be familiar with the site safety, health, and environ-

mental policies for safe execution of unit shutdowns. These policies should be readilyavailable in electronic form or hard copy. Process technicians should use these poli-cies exclusively to understand and implement the established safe work practices for agiven activity.

The following list provides an example of several typical safety, health, and envi-ronmental policies that are utilized during unit shutdowns:

• Blinding—policy that defines the process and procedure to isolate equipment forhot work or specific activities that require equipment removal

• Confined space entry—policy that defines the process and procedure for enteringconfined spaces that can include equipment, storage tanks, and excavations belowgrade

• Employee health monitoring—defines the need for employee health monitor-ing while activities are conducted in hazardous areas, during hazardous chemi-cal sampling, or where the extended exposure to hazardous chemicals canoccur




• Environmental reporting—defines the requirements and reportable quantities forchemicals that, when released to the atmosphere, require reporting to the properregulatory authorities

• Hot work—defines process and procedure for conducting hot work, such aswelding or grinding in, on, or around process equipment

• Housekeeping—defines activities that must be completed in order to maintain

the facility in a clean, orderly, and safe condition• Lock-out/tag-out—procedure used in industry to isolate energy sources from apiece of equipment

• Lift plan—documented plan used to evaluate the hazards and define precau-tions necessary during heavy lifting activities, including lifting over live processequipment or near energized power lines

• Management of change (MOC)—method of managing and communicatingchanges to a process, changes in equipment, changes in technology, changes inpersonnel, or other changes that will impact the safety and health of employees

• Material release reporting—defines reporting requirements of regulatory authoritieswhen venting, purging, or draining equipment, or in the event of a material release

• Standard operating procedures—unit-specific procedures used for the purpose

of equipment and system start-up or shutdown in normal operations, as well asemergency operations

• Personal protective equipment (PPE)—specialized gear that provides a barrierbetween hazards and the worker

• Process hazard analysis—systematic assessment of the potential hazards associ-ated with an industrial process, taking into account specific hazards and locationsof highest potential for exposure

• Process safety information—defines the type of documentation that is consideredprocess safety information in support of the OSHA PSM regulation, includingoperating procedures, inspection and maintenance procedures, operating manu-als and training material, process drawings (P&IDs), electrical one-line diagrams,instrument loop drawings, and electrical classification drawings

• Process safety management—OSHA standard that contains the requirementsfor management of hazards associated with processes using highly hazardousmaterials

• Scaffold plan—for erecting and dismantling of scaffolding used to access processpiping and equipment

• Vehicle entry—defines process and procedure for vehicle entry into process areas• Working at heights—defines requirements for working at elevated heights

Potential Hazards

Many hazards are associated with unit shutdowns. In most cases, unit shut downs occur

infrequently and are considered a nonroutine activity. Performing unfamiliar activitiesincreases hazards. Different types of shutdowns can cause different hazards.

An emergency shutdown, where the loss of multiple pieces of major equip -ment occurs, is one of the most dangerous types of shutdown. Recycle gas compres-sors, refrigeration compressors, fractionation towers, boilers, furnaces, hot oil systems,reboilers, and reactor systems are just some of the major pieces of process equipmentthat, when shutdown simultaneously in an emergency, can have severe health, safety,and environmental consequences. Typical hazards include:

• Uncontrolled rapid release of chemicals to flare and vent systems will overloadthe vent system and result in an environmental release.

• Rapid cool-down of process equipment in high-temperature service can result in

thermal contraction of piping and flanges, separation of pipe joints, and materialrelease, which can lead to a fire or explosion.• Rapid heating of process equipment that is in cold or refrigerated service can

lead to overpressure conditions. In cases involving specialty chemicals, such




as hydrofluoric acid, rapid heating can result in overpressure and lead to a cat-astrophic event that could affect an entire process facility and the surroundingcommunities.

Emergency shutdowns can also lead to personnel injury, irreparable damage toequipment, material release, fire, and explosion. A hydrocarbon atmospheric release, otherwise known as a material release, can affect the air quality of the entire facility

and surrounding communities, ground water, or waterways.Process units are typically designed to handle emergency shutdowns by the instal-

lation of adequate technology and safety systems. Adequately sized flare and ventsystems, piping systems, and piping connections that can handle rapid heating or cool-down without separation, safety instrumented systems, backup power, and redundantrefrigeration systems are all examples of ways to eliminate or minimize the hazardsassociated with an emergency shutdown. An emergency shutdown has the poten-tial to cause serious injury to personnel, damage to equipment, and damage to theenvironment as well as the surrounding community if it is not managed correctly. Itis critical to the safe operation of every process facility that emergency scenarios areidentified and documented, and that mitigation plans are in place to manage them

safely. Engineering controls must be tested regularly to ensure they will work whenneeded. Emergency procedures must be in place, and process technicians should betrained in their use. Continued practice of emergency procedures provides the skillsfor dealing with an emergency shutdown. All unit emergency procedures for a givenscenario should be reviewed as soon as the unit is secure from any immediate safety,health, or environmental hazards.

Normal or routine shutdowns, even infrequent, are typically a planned activity,and do not pose the same level threat of uncontrolled hazards. A normal or routineshutdown for a large process unit with many systems, and sometimes hundreds ofpieces of equipment, can take several days to plan. Hazards are similar to those of anemergency shutdown, but planning, operations procedure use, and safe work practicesminimize or eliminate the opportunities for hazardous accidents. Process units can

be systematically shut down while consciously managing the hazards. Hydrocarbonremoval and de-inventorying can minimize flaring and material release. A hydrocar-

bon detector, an electronic device that detects, measures, and indicates the concentra-tion of hydrocarbons in process piping or equipment, can be useful in a shutdown, tomake sure that piping is hydrocarbon free, or the removal of hydrocarbons from pro-cess piping and equipment prior to opening to the atmosphere and the introduction ofair. Controlled cool-down of process furnaces eliminate thermal stress on the furnacetubes and equipment in high-temperature service. Controlled shutdown and isolationof large frame centrifugal compressors, and associated seal and lube oil systems, shouldeliminate the possibility of damage to the equipment and help ensure equipmentintegrity for a later start-up.

Auxiliary systems, such as hot oil systems, seal oil and dry gas seal systems, watersystems, steam and condensate systems, and air, nitrogen and other utility systems, canall be shut down safely with adequate planning and procedures. These are typicallysequenced events based on the needs of the process. For example, a steam and conden-sate system is not shut down until after the process systems requiring them are shutdown and secure.

Shutdown for a turnaround is managed similarly to a normal, routine shutdown,and includes the same potential hazards and planning effort. The difference in a turn-around is the level of activity and work scope involved. The scope of work and TARduration require many site and contractor employees working on the unit simultane-ously. Mitigating the hazards associated with such a high level of work and so manyworkers on the unit at the same time requires a well-orchestrated plan for work activi -

ties. The TAR work scope and demand for product dictates the shutdown timing, turn-around duration, work schedule, and start-up timing. Isolation, de-energizing, draining,and purging of process equipment for maintenance, inspection, and repair are some of




the primary activities during a major unit turnaround. The scope of work surroundingthese activities includes:

• Equipment preparation for confined space entry and internal inspectionactivities

• Piping and equipment external inspections• Hot work

• Vehicle entry• Inspection and x-ray• Excavations• Heavy lifting• Demolition of piping, equipment, and support structures• Installation of new piping, equipment, and support structures• Installation of new technology

Summary

Unit shutdowns are an integral part of process operations that provide unique

opportunities for process facilities, site personnel, and process technicians.Activities that take place during shutdowns require maximum process technicianand site personnel skills and abilities. The deviation from normal, routine dutiesprovides learning experiences for the site staff that only occur during shutdowns.Maintenance, repair, and replacement of process equipment provide opportuni -ties to improve equipment health, longevity, and integrity. New technology, whenimplemented, can result in a process that is safer to operate, with decreased risks topersonnel, the facility, and surrounding community. In many cases, the installationof new technology can often reduce operating costs, leading to higher profitabilityfor a process facility.

A unit shutdown also unites personnel from across a facility to work moreclosely together than during normal operations. This provides opportunities toestablish working relationships that otherwise might not have occurred, and enablesthe unique skills of each individual to be shared and better understood. Careerpaths can even be altered when new opportunities are experienced by personnelrelated to shutdown planning—such as process hazard analysis; team participation;writing and updating process safety information, procedures, and training materi-als, as well as performing maintenance activities not experienced during normaloperations.

Shutdown planning and execution, when managed and completed safely, canconstitute some of the most gratifying examples of working in the field of processtechnology. New experiences gained from the combined effort of many work teams, andworking with new site and contract personnel for the common benefit of a facility, are

not matched by many industries.


a. Emergency shutdownb. Evacuation planc. Hydrocarbon detectord. Hydrocarbon freee. Lift planf. Scaffold plang. Shutdownh. Stream-to-stream

2. In most cases, unit shutdowns occur infrequently and are considered a non-routineactivity.

a. Trueb. False




3. Elements of the OSHA 1910 Process Safety Management regulation include: (Select all that

apply)

a. Management of change (MOC)b. Employee participationc. Operating proceduresd. Emergency planning and response

4. Process technicians play a key role in the planning and safe execution of unit shutdowns.

Their responsibilities include: (Select all that apply)a. Execution of the unit shutdown and de-inventory proceduresb. Monitoring the process and equipment while the shutdown is in progressc. Monitoring all work activities while the shutdown is in progressd. Special equipment preparation and shutdown utilizing any normal or special control

of work (COW) procedures 5. Emergency shutdowns can be caused by the sudden failure of major pieces of process equip-

ment such as compressors or furnaces, or failure of utilities such as instrument air, steam, orelectricity.

a. Trueb. False

6. Preplanning for an emergency shutdown requires that emergency scenarios for each specificprocess are identified, and that emergency operating procedures are written and in place for

use by the process technicians and operations support staff.a. Trueb. False

7. Safety and fire fighting equipment should be maintained at all times during unit turnarounds.a. Trueb. False

8. Many of the activities that take place during a unit shutdown or unit turnaround are coveredby OSHA’s Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials (PSM) standardincluding: (Select all that apply)

a. Management of change (MOC)b. Employee participationc. Operating procedures

d. Emergency planning and response 9. Proper communication and coordination between operations and maintenance personnel iscritical to the safe removal and efficient repair of auxiliary equipment.

a. Trueb. False

10. Isolation, de-energizing, draining, and purging of process equipment for maintenance,inspection, or repair are some of the primary activities during a major unit shutdown. Thescope of work surrounding these activities includes: (Select all that apply)

a. Equipment preparation for confined space entry and internal inspection activitiesb. Hot workc. Vehicle entryd. Piping and equipment external inspections

11. Define turnaround (TAR).

12. Explain Control of Work procedures.

Activity 1. Select one of the unit emergency shutdown procedures and perform a practice drill together

with shift personnel. Be able to meet the following objectives as outcomes of this exercise.• Explain the responsibilities of individuals in each system or section of the unit.• Define the proper sequence of events necessary to bring the unit to a safe state after

the emergency has occurred.• Identify any special or critical activities that must take place to mitigate the

emergency.• Determine whether or not any special PPE is required during equipment shutdown

and isolation during the emergency.• Specify the need for communication and proper contact numbers to adjacent or

connecting units.• Determine the need for communication and proper contact numbers to site

personnel responsible for contacting regulatory authorities.



Glossary of TermsGlossary of Terms

Abnormal operation operating a process unit in a modethat is different from normal operations.

Acceptance documents that the unit has achieved itsdesign capacity and specifications, and the facilityagrees that the unit will function as engineered.

Affected employee process technician or other employeewhose job requirement is to operate or use a machine

or piece of equipment that is being serviced or main-tained under lock-out or tag-out conditions, or whose job requires the technician or employee to work inan area in which servicing or maintenance is beingperformed.

Air free removal of air from process piping and equipmentprior to the introduction of hydrocarbon.

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) over-sees and coordinates the voluntary standards in theUnited States, and develops and approves norms andguidelines that impact many business sectors. The coor-dination of U.S. standards with international standardsallows American products to be used worldwide.

American Petroleum Institute (API) trade association thatrepresents the oil and gas industry in the areas of advo-cacy, research, standards, certification, and education forthe petroleum and petrochemical industry.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers(ASME) specifies requirements and standards forpressure vessels, piping, and their fabrication.

Analyzer instrument or device that performs continuoussample stream analysis.

Application block main part of a drawing that containssymbols and defines elements such as relative position,types of materials, descriptions, and functions.

Audio visual olfactory (AVO) method used by processtechnicians to monitor the sounds, sights, and smellsof a process unit or area during unit walk-throughinspections.

Authorized employee process technician or otheremployee who locks-out or tags-out a piece ofequipment for required service or maintenance onthat particular piece of equipment.

Blinding policy that defines the process and procedure toisolate equipment for hot work or specific activitiesthat require equipment removal.

Blinding/Un-blinding Permit a permit that allows equip-ment isolation via the installation of blinds and blind

flanges.Block flow diagrams (BFD) simple drawings that show a

general overview of a process, indicating the parts of aprocess and their relationships.

Body harness fall protection device worn while workingat heights.

Boilers highly regulated, steam-generating pressure vesselsthat burn natural gas, plant fuel gas, and/or waste gasstreams to generate the heat for the phase change ofboiler feedwater.

Bunker gear protective clothing worn for fire fighting.

Capable of being locked-out has a multiple padlockattachment or other means of attachment to which, orthrough which, multiple locks can be affixed.

Cell phone a long-range electronic device used for mobilecommunication, text messaging, or data transmissionacross a cellular network of specialized base stationsknown as cell sites.

Central control room room or building housing thefacilities Distributed Control System (DCS) that mayincorporate all of the facility operating control boards.

Checklist procedure written in a list format that requiresthe user to initial or check the completion of each step.

Chromatography laboratory techniques for the

separation of mixtures.Color visual comparison scale used in the process industry

to determine product color purity; also known as theSaybolt (ASTM) color scale.

Commission for Environmental Quality (CEQ) primarystate agency charged with enforcement of environmen-tal regulations and with issuing air and water operatingpermits to businesses operating in a state.

Commissioning systematic process by which process unitsare placed into active service, and can include the initialstart-up of a newly built or the re-commissioning of arevised process unit.

Commissioning team group of individuals selected fromcurrent facility personnel that plays a key role in theplanning and implementing of the commissioning orde-commissioning of a process unit or facility.

Communication the verbal, nonverbal, or writtentransfer of information between people.

Computer-based training (CBT) delivers trainingmaterial through a facility computing system.

Confined Space Entry (CSE) policy that defines theprocess and procedure for entering confined spacesthat can include equipment, storage tanks, andexcavations below grade.

Confined Space Entry (CSE) Permit permit that allows

human entry and work within an OSHA-definedconfined space, the issuance of which indicates allregulated and pertinent safety measures have beentaken and/or are active.

227



228 Glossary of Terms

with the equipment knowledge they need to sched-ule maintenance, manage inventories and supportefficient workflow scheduling.

Equipment location diagrams show the relationship ofunits and equipment to facility boundaries.

Equipment symbols set of symbols located on one sheetof a set of process flow diagrams (PFD) for the user

to review.Evacuation plan documentation for the evacuation of

a facility, to be used by personnel in the event of anemergency.

Explosion rapid increase in volume followed by a releaseof energy in an extreme manner, usually with thegeneration of high temperatures and the release oftoxic gases.

Feed forward flow when raw material is introduced to aprocess unit on a continuous basis to effectively beginthe processing of the finished or intermediate product.

Field technician process technician whose primary jobis to monitor the fixed and rotating field equipment,

perform sampling, and ensure that the unit operateswithin normal operating parameters.

Fire brigade local, process facility fire department com-posed of employees who are knowledgeable, trained,and skilled in basic fire-fighting techniques.

Fire-retardant clothing (FRC) wearing apparel for use insituations where there is a risk of arc, flash, or thermalburns; regulated by NFPA-70E, ASTM and OSHA.

First responder individuals who likely witness or dis-cover a hazardous substance release, and have beentrained to initiate an emergency response sequence bynotifying the appropriate authorities.

Flame resistant characteristic of a fabric to resist ignitionand to self-extinguish if ignited.Flame retardant characteristic of a fabric that has had a

chemical substance added to impart flame resistance.Friction force resisting the relative lateral or tangential

motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, or materialelements in contact.

Gas chromatography (GC) common type of chroma-tography used in organic chemistry for separating andanalyzing compounds that can be vaporized withoutdecomposition.

General Work Permit permit that allows work activityother than blinding/un-blinding, hot work, lock-out/

tag-out, and confined space.Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) formal and struc-

tured review and study method used to determinepotential hazards associated with process systems,equipment, process materials, and work processes.

Hazardous Waste Operations and EmergencyResponse Standard (HAZWOPER) OSHA stand-ard that applies to personnel who are in a role orposition to act as a first responder during an emergency.

Hot Work Permit permit that allows hot work, such aswelding, grinding, or vehicle entry in or aroundprocess equipment.

Housekeeping activities that must be completed in order

to maintain the facility in a clean, orderly, and safecondition.

Hydro test strength and integrity test, using water, forprocess piping and equipment.

Construction phase building phase of an initial processunit or facility, or the building phase of an expansionproject upgrading an existing unit or facility.

Control board technician process technician whose pri-mary job function is to remotely monitor and controlthe process unit within normal operating parameters.

Control of work (COW) work practice that identifies

the means of safely controlling maintenance, demoli-tion, remediation, construction, operating tasks, andsimilar work.

Distributed Control System (DCS) automated controlsystem consisting of field instruments and fieldcontrollers connected by wiring that carries a signalfrom the controller transmitter to a central controlmonitoring screen.

Effective communications communication skills thathelp convey the intended meaning more efficiently.

Electric heat tracing series of self-regulating heatingcables designed to provide freeze protection andtemperature maintenance to metallic and nonmetallic

pipes, tanks, and equipment.Electrical diagrams diagrams that help process

technicians understand power transmission and how itrelates to the process.

Electronic logbook (eLog) a computer-based eventlogging program developed to assist the processtechnician report and record significant shift activities.

Elevation diagrams represent the relationship ofequipment to ground level and other structures.

Emergency sudden, unexpected, or impending situationthat may cause injury, loss of life, damage to property,and/or interference with the normal activities of a per-

son or operation, which therefore requires immediateattention and demands remedial action.Emergency block valve (EBV) automatic valve, typi-

cally controlled by an operating parameter and/orhand switches for process isolation when the parameterapproaches unsafe conditions or equipment limitations;also known as emergency isolation valve (EIV).

Emergency operation mode of operation or procedurefollowed when an emergency situation has placed aprocess unit in an unsafe condition.

Emergency response effort to mitigate the impact of anincident on the public and the environment.

Emergency shutdown sudden failure of major process

equipment, such as compressors or furnaces, or failureof utilities such as instrument air, steam, or electricityrequiring an immediate shutdown.

Energized connected to an energy source, or containsresidual or stored energy.

Energy-isolating device mechanical device that physicallyprevents the transmission or release of energy.

Energy sources any source of electrical, mechanical,hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical, thermal, or otherenergy.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) independentfederal agency created in 1970 that sets and enforcesrules and standards for environmental protection and

pollution control.Equipment Health Monitoring (EHM) efficient system

for protecting rotating assets and facility operationsfrom unscheduled downtime that provides personnel



Glossary of Terms 229

Lock-out placement of a lock-out device on an energy-isolating device, in accordance with an establishedprocedure, which ensures that the energy-isolatingdevice and equipment being controlled cannot beoperated until the lock-out device is removed.

Lock-out device a device that utilizes a positive meanssuch as a lock, either key or combination type, to hold

equipment in a zero energy state.Lock-out/tag-out (LOTO) procedure used in industry to

isolate energy sources from a piece of equipment.Logbook typically, hardbound ledgers used to handwrite

significant activities that have occurred during theshift.

Loop diagrams show all components and connectionsbetween instrumentation and a control room.

Lubricants the materials used to reduce friction andremove heat between two contact surfaces.

Lubrication the process or technique employed to reducefriction and remove heat for reducing equipment wearand increasing longevity and safety.

Maintenance activity events performed by the mainte-nance department in a process facility, such as pumpor compressor repair, pipe work, and routine generalmaintenance.

Management of change (MOC) method of managingand communicating changes to a process, changes inequipment, changes in technology, changes in person-nel, or other changes that will impact the safety andhealth of employees.

Mechanical completion documented checking andtesting of the construction to confirm that the installa-tion is in accordance with construction drawings and

specifications, and is ready for commissioning in a safemanner in compliance with project requirements.

Mechanical integrity the state of being whole, sound,and undamaged; capable of functioning at designspecification.

Mentor influential senior sponsor or trainer, usually in theform of a training coordinator, chief or lead opera-tor, who delivers the training material, tracks materialcompletion, provides feedback, and conducts writtenand performance evaluations to verify knowledge.

Monitoring act of observing and listening to theequipment routinely to prevent process upsets.

Multiple padlock attachment clamp-like device used to

install multiple locks on a lock-out device.Mutual aid agreement among emergency responders to

lend assistance across jurisdictional boundaries.Nameplate capacity designed capacity of the unit.National Electric Code (NEC) specifies electrical cable

sizing requirements and installation practices.National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air

Pollutants (NESHAP) emissions standards set bythe Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) forair pollutants that may cause fatalities or serious,irreversible, or incapacitating illness if not regulated.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) speci-fies fire codes including building construction codes,

fire suppression systems, and fire-fighting capabilitiesrequired at facilities.

Natural gas combination of light hydrocarbons, withmethane the most prevalent, although ethane, butane,

Hydrocarbon detector electronic device that detects,measures, and indicates the concentration ofhydrocarbons in process piping or equipment.

Hydrocarbon free removal of hydrocarbons from proc-ess piping and equipment prior to opening to theatmosphere and the introduction of air.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) highly toxic, highly flammable,

colorless gas with a very distinctive, rotten egg-likeodor.

Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) condition from which serious injury or death topersonnel can occur.

Incident response teams groups of people who preparefor and respond to any emergency incident, such asa fire, spill, explosion, or environmental release, thatpotentially impacts the outlying community.

Initial start-up procedures set of guidelines or instruc-tions used to perform the initial start-up of a newprocess unit or facility.

Inspection examination of a part or piece of equipment to

determine if it conforms to specifications, traditionallyfollowing the completion of work.

Instrumentation system of pneumatics, electronicinstruments, digital logic devices, and computer-basedprocess controls that make up the measurement andcontrol systems for process equipment for the purposeof safe, efficient, and cost-effective unit operation.

Intercom stand-alone electronic communication systemintended for limited or private conversation.

Interim test test of equipment requiring removal oflock-out/tag-out devices prior to completion ofmaintenance or repair of equipment.

Internal procedure company-specific procedure.International Organization for Standardization (ISO) regulates safety and health standards internationally.

Intrinsically safe electronic device an electronicdevice certified safe for use in explosive atmospheres.

ISA a global, nonprofit technical society that develops stand-ards for automation, instrumentation, control, andmeasurement; formerly known as the Instrumentation,

Systems, and Automation Society.

Isolation act of separating equipment or machinery fromenergy sources.

Isometric drawings (Isoms) perspective drawings thatdepict objects, such as equipment and piping, as a

3-D image as they would appear to the viewer.Karl Fischer Water (KFW) Method analytical method

for quantifying water content in a variety of products,also known as Karl Fischer titration.

Legend section of a drawing that explains or defines theinformation or symbols contained within the drawing.

Lift plan documented plan used to evaluate the hazardsand define precautions necessary during heavy liftingactivities, including lifting over live process equipmentor near energized power lines.

Lockbox safety device ensuring no LOTO devices areremoved while work is performed. Lockboxes havemultiple locks into which all keys and/or tabs from the

LOTO devices securing the equipment are inserted,and a single authorized employee using a LOTOdevice and a job-lock during multishift operationsthen secures the box.




Predictive maintenance (PM) maintenance strategy thathelps determine the condition of in-service equipmentto predict when maintenance should be performed.

Pre-start-up safety review (PSSR) comprehensivereview process, including a list of criteria and activitiesthat must be reviewed and performed by a start-upteam to determine whether or not a unit or piece of

process equipment is ready for a safe start-up.Preventive maintenance equipment maintenance strategy

based on replacing, overhauling, or remanufacturingan item at a fixed interval, regardless of its condition atthe time.

Procedure specific series of actions that must be executed(followed) in the specified manner to obtain thedesired result under the same circumstances each timethe work is performed.

Procedure owner individual that is accountable forthe accurate development and maintenance of aprocedure.

Procedure template form or guide that accurately

and effectively shapes procedure presentation andcontent.

Procedure user process technician trained and qualifiedon the subject matter of the procedure prior to use.

Process drawings provide a visual description and explana-tion of the processes, equipment, and other importantitems in a facility.

Process flow diagrams (PFDs) basic drawings usingsymbols and directional arrows to show primary prod-uct flow through a process, including such informationas operating conditions, the location of main instru-ments, and major pieces of equipment.

Process hazard analysis (PHA) systematic assessmentof the potential hazards associated with an industrialprocess, taking into account specific hazards and loca-tions of highest potential for exposure.

Process Safety Management (PSM) policy thatdefines the 15 elements of the OSHA 1910 regula-tion. Includes requirements related to Management ofChange (MOC), Process Safety Information, IncidentInvestigations, Employee Participation, Process HazardAnalysis, Operating Procedures, Mechanical Integrity,Inspection, Training, Trade Secrets, Contractors, Pre-Start-up Safety Review, Compliance Audits, Hot WorkPermits, Emergency Planning and Response.

Process simulator stand-alone, computer-generatedsimulation of a process unit or process system thatemulates process equipment, piping systems, controlmechanisms, and behaviors that control the process.

Process technician workers in a process facility whomonitor and control mechanical, physical, and/orchemical changes throughout a process in order tocreate a product from raw materials.

Public address system (PA system) a system that rein-forces and distributes a given sound throughout a venue.

Punchlist list of uncompleted construction items fromcontracted design that are not safety critical, but mustbe addressed by the contracted construction firm.

Reactive maintenance equipment maintenance strategyin which equipment and facilities are repaired only inresponse to a breakdown or a fault.

propane, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide can also com-plete the chemical makeup of natural gas.

Nitrogen colorless, odorless, inert, gaseous elementconstituting ≈ 78% of the earth’s atmosphere, used inmanufacturing and air-freeing process equipment.

Nonoperating personnel personnel other than processtechnicians who are visiting the unit, such as engineers,

members of the management team, maintenance staffand contractors who are performing work on the unit.

Nonverbal communication (NVC) nonspokencommunication, such as gesture, expression, or bodylanguage.

Normal operations those actions performed or proce-dures followed when a process unit is operating withindesign parameters.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA) U.S. government agency created to estab-lish and enforce workplace safety and health stand-ards, conduct workplace inspections and proposepenalties for noncompliance, and investigate serious

workplace incidents.One-line diagram key electrical drawing used by the

process technician; also known as the single- line

diagram.

On-the-job training programs objective-oriented train-ing and qualification programs for process techniciansto master process equipment, control systems, safety,and hazard management.

Operations procedures unit-specific procedures usedfor the purpose of equipment and system start-up orshutdown and normal operation, as well as emergencysituations.

Panametric trade name used by General Electric to dis-tinguish its line of instruments used for ultrasonic flowmeasurement and moisture, hydrogen, and oxygenanalysis.

Paraphrasing summarizes the information received toclarify understanding.

Performance testing step-test of the unit to determine ifthe process unit is able to achieve its maximum designintent.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) specializedgear that provides a barrier between hazards and theworker.

Piping and instrument diagrams (P&IDs) detailed

drawings that graphically represent the equipment,piping, and instrumentation contained within a processfacility.

Planning phase the stage of a project where justificationand plans are developed for the construction of a newprocess unit.

Plot plans show the layout and dimensions of equipment,units, and buildings, drawn to scale, so that everythingis of the correct relative size.

Post-commissioning last phase of the commissioning proc-ess, which begins after initial start-up is completed.

Potable water water that is of sufficiently high qualityso that it can be consumed or used without risk of

immediate or long-term harm.Pre-commissioning activities that must be completed prior

to moving into the start-up phase of a new process unit.



Glossary of Terms 231

Sound-powered phones phones containing electrome-chanical transducers that convert voice directly intoelectrical energy.

Specifications product purity parameters that have beenagreed on by the company and the customers, orregulated by governmental agencies.

Spill uncontrolled discharge of a liquid, typically involving

more volume than a leak.Standard operating procedure (SOP) unit-specific

procedures used for the purpose of equipment andsystem start-up or shutdown in normal operations, aswell as emergency operations.

Start-up initial commissioning of the unit that involvesthe introduction of feedstock to produce a definedproduct at a given purity.

Start-up execution plan a strategic document for anormal process unit start-up that typically includesconsideration for, or makes provisional reference toother instructions for, required staffing, coordinationwith other units, utility and auxiliary systems commis-

sioning, hazardous chemical inventory procedures,detailed equipment and unit start-up procedures, andnotification of the EPA or other regulatory agenciesin advance of the scheduled start-up.

Statistical process control (SPC) a method of monitoring,controlling, and ideally improving a process through sta-tistical analysis to determine at what point in the futurethe maintenance activities are appropriate.

Steam vaporized water, especially at a temperature abovethe boiling point of water at sea level and atmosphericpressure (>100°C or 212°F).

Steam clouds tiny drops of water that have condensed

from steam and are carried along by the invisible vapor.Steam generators any plant process shell and tubeexchanger or kettle-type exchanger using boiler feedwater (BFW) to remove process heat, convert BFWto steam, and pressure control that steam to a supplyheader.

Steam jets steam-jet vacuum systems combine ejectors,condensers, and interconnecting piping to providerelatively low-cost and low-maintenance vacuumpumping with no moving parts.

Stream-to-stream time duration between a unit shutdownwhen production stops to unit start-up when produc-tion is resumed.

Steam tracing series of coiled or straight-run tub-ing, either copper or stainless, wrapped around orattached to a pipe or valve that carries steam as aheat medium.

Steam turbines rotating mechanical drivers for compres-sors and generators powered by high-velocity steamflowing through the vanes on the turbine’s rotor.

Subject matter expert (SME) an individual within anorganization possessing a very high level of expertiseregarding a particular job, task, or process.

Symbols figures used to represent the equipment, instru-ments, and other devices on a process flow diagram(PFD) or piping and instrument diagram (P&ID).

Systems set of interacting or interdependent equipmentand process elements that work together to deliver aspecific process function.

Re-commissioning returning existing process units or equip-ment to active service after an extended idled period.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act(RCRA) primary federal law, enacted in 1976, thatgoverns the disposal of solid and hazardous waste.

Retention time amount of time it takes for eachcompound to separate out.

Rounds routine walk-through of the unit, monitoring thefixed and rotating equipment, and performing otherroutine tasks.

Route sequential path followed in order to performEquipment Health Monitoring (EHM).

Routine duties duties performed that are rigidlyprescribed by control over the work or by writtenor verbal procedures, or well-defined, constant andrepetitively performed duties that preclude the needfor procedures or substantial controls.

Routine maintenance work routinely performed tomaintain equipment in its original manufacturedcondition and maintain operability.

Safety, Health, and Environmental (SHE) policies policies implemented by process facilities in orderto minimize or prevent risks and/or hazards associ-ated with the process industry and to ensure that thefacility is in compliance with applicable regulatoryagencies.

Sample containers vessels used to collect samples foranalysis; containers include glass bottles, vials of vari-ous sizes, plastic bottles, plastic bags, metal tins orcans, metal cylinders (bombs) and others, dependingon the type and quantity of sample needed.

Sample loop a continuous circulation of process liquid or

gas from a higher-pressure source to a lower pressurereturn such as a pump or compressor discharge backto the suction. Circulation assures capture of a rep-resentative sample. Loop is typically equipped with asample station appropriate for the sampling required,including sample cooler if needed.

Sample point section of small diameter valved tubingthat extends from the main process piping system forcollecting low-pressure liquid samples.

Sampling process of collecting and preserving a liquid,gas, or solid for laboratory analysis.

Scaffold plan documented plan for erecting and disman-tling of scaffolding used to access process piping and

equipment.Schematics shows the circuit current flow direction, typi-

cally beginning at the power source, and the circuitcomponents with the power and signal connectionsbetween the components.

Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) inde-pendent breathing device worn by rescue workers,firefighters, process technicians, and others to providebreathable air in a hostile environment.

Shift change/relief handing off the operation and mainte-nance of a facility from one operating crew to anotheroperating crew at a designated time; also known as shift handover, shift pass-down, shift turnover, making

relief , and other phrases.Shutdown systematic removal of process equipment from

service in order to stop the process.




Turnaround maintenance required maintenance per-formed on specific pieces of equipment that cannotbe performed unless the unit has been shutdown andde-inventoried.

Two-way radio a radio that can transmit and receivecontent.

Unit status report information gathered by the current

operating shift for reporting to the on-coming shiftduring shift change.

Utility flow diagrams (UFD) provide process techniciansa P&ID type view of the utilities used for a process.

Verbal communication dialogue or conversa-tion between two or more people for transferringinformation.

Vibration readings check and documentation of rotatingequipment for undesirable vibration.

Water hammer hydraulic action associated with a non-compressible fluid in a pipe. Sounds like a pipe beinghit with a hammer. Also, the energy developed by thesudden stoppage of fluid in motion.

Work permits document that allows individuals or groupsto perform work on a process unit.

Written communication communication by means ofwritten or printed symbols or letters.

Zero energy state the state of equipment followingspecific process isolation and clearing procedures,followed by isolating all hazardous energy sourcesusing lock-out/tag-out (LOTO) devices.

Tag-out placement of a tag-out device on an energy-isolating device, in accordance with an establishedprocedure, which indicates that the energy-isolatingdevice and the equipment being controlled may not beoperated until the tag-out device is removed.

Tag-out device prominent warning device, such as a tag anda means of attachment, that can be securely fastened to

an energy-isolating device in accordance with an estab-lished procedure, to indicate that the energy-isolatingdevice and the equipment being controlled may not beoperated until the tag-out device is removed.

Thermal expansion tendency of matter to increase involume in response to an increase in temperature.

Tightness test pressurization test, typically using nitrogenor other inert gas, for process piping and equipment toensure that equipment is leak free prior to the intro-duction of hydrocarbons; also known as the leak test.

Title block section of a drawing that contains informa-tion such as drawing title, drawing number, revisionnumber, sheet number, originator signature, and

approval signatures.Train parallel system that has been designed and constructed

using the exact or similar production equipment, eachof which contributes toward production.

Trunked radio system a complex type of computer-controlled radio system.

Turnaround (TAR) a planned, scheduled process unit orfacility shutdown for maintenance and repair.



Index

A

Abnormal and emergency operationsabnormal operation, 93

process technician’s role, 96–97scenarios, examples, 94train, 94

emergency operation, 93emergency situations and resulting hazards, 95engineering controls, need for testing on

a regular basis, 96process technician’s role, 97–99safety systems designed for, 96unit-specific failures, examples, 96

potential hazards, 99technician emergency response duties, 99–103

bomb threats, 102–103, 103f emergency response, 100

explosions, chemical/physical, 101–102fires, 100–101incident response teams, 100spills and releases, 100

Acceptance, 142Affected employee, 162AFFF, See Aqueous film forming foam (AFFF)Air free, 152Air systems, 189–190

hazards and mitigations, 189–190instrument air, 189plant air, 189

All Call, 77American National Standards Institute

(ANSI), 50American Petroleum Institute

(API), 50, 118, 182American Society of Mechanical Engineers

(ASME), 50Analyzer, 209API, See American Petroleum Institute (API)Application block, 40, 40f Aqueous film forming foam (AFFF), 61, 61f Audio visual olfactory (AVO), 57, 97, 149Authorized employee, 162, 167AVO, See Audio visual olfactory (AVO)

Note: Locators in bold refer to definitions. Letters ‘f’ and ‘t’ following the locators refer to figures and tables.

B

BFW, See Boiler feedwater (BFW)BLEVE, See Boiling liquid expanding vapor

explosion (BLEVE)Blinding, 55, 66, 130, 222Blinding/unblinding permit, 80Blinds, 165

figure 8 blind, 165f locked blind, 165f paddle blind, 165f

Block flow diagrams (BFDs), 29–30, 30f Body harness, 61Boiler feedwater (BFW), 172, 176, 177, 178, 178f Boilers, 3, 45, 171–172, 176, 177, 178, 193, 223Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE), 102Bomb threats, 100, 102–103

checklist, 103f

Bunker gear, 59–60Burner management system (BMS), 177

C

Calciners, 3Capable of being locked-out (equipment), 160CBT, See Computer-based training (CBT)Cell phones, 73, 75Central control room, 196CEQ, See Commission for environmental quality (CEQ)Checklist, 18

administrative control checklists (emergencyoperations), 99, 220

bomb threat checklist, 103, 103f grouping and labeling, safety checklist, 17f preventive maintenance checklist, 121f PSSR checklist, 133written checklist (logbook/eLog), 72

Chromatography, 214, See also Gas chrom-atography (GC)

Color, 214Commission for environmental quality (CEQ), 55Commissioning, 138, See also Unit commissioningCommissioning team, 139, 141, 143Communication, 70

Index

233



234 Index

Electric heat tracing, 180, 180f Electricity, 187–189

facility power grid, example, 188f hazards and mitigations, 189

Electronic logbook (eLog), 72, 86, 86f, 88, 90, 197, 198, 204

Elevation diagrams, 37Emergency, 93operation, 98–99response, 100shut-down, 220

Emergency block valve (EBV), 33Emergency isolation valve (EIV), See Emergency

block valve (EBV)Employee health monitoring, 55, 152, 154, 222Energized device, 160Energy-isolating devices, 159, 160, 164, 165Energy sources, 160

Environmental protection agency (EPA), 55, 56, 65, 66, 98, 148, 154

EPA, See Environmental protection agency (EPA)Equipment health monitoring (EHM), 148, 196,

200, 218Equipment inspection and monitoring policy, 55Equipment location diagrams, 37Equipment monitoring, 199–200, See also Equipment

health monitoring (EHM)Equipment status sheet, 121, 122f Equipment symbols, 30, 32, 45Evacuation plan, 220

Explosion, 101chemical explosions, 101–102

combination reactions, 102decomposition reactions, 101dust explosion, 102vapor cloud explosion, 102

physical explosions, 102BLEVE, 102

Extraction vessels, 3

F

Faraday, Michael, 183Feed forward flow, 149Field technician, 8, 85, 97, 99, 153, 196, 197, 198, 199,

200, 201, 202, 204Fire brigade, 100, 101Fire-retardant clothing (FRC), 60, 211, 212f Firewater, 148, 166, 171, 176, 178First responders, 98

at awareness level, 100at operations level, 100

Flame resistant, 211

Flame retardant, 211Flammable gas detector, 62, 62f Flare system, 4, 5, 64, 65, 100,

171, 190–192

Communication (Continued)effective communication, importance, 70–71electronic communication devices

cell phones, 75intercoms, 73–74, 74f PA systems, 74–75, 75f

sound-powered phones, 75–76, 76f two-way radios, 76–77nonverbal communication, 73during routine maintenance, 79–80

permits to be controlled by the processtechnician, 79–80

during start-ups/shutdowns, 78–79verbal communication, 71–72

information to be delivered at shift change, 71needs and considerations, 71written checklist, usefulness, 72

written communication, 72–73

clarity in, tips, 72email, 73logbook, 72neatness, accuracy and completeness of informa-

tion, critical factor, 73Computer-based training (CBT), 111, 111f Confined space entry (CSE), 55, 56f, 131, 140, 222, 225Construction phase, 139, 140Control board technician, 7, 8, 72, 74, 85, 97, 196, 197,

198, 199, 200, 201, 202Control loop, 5, 37, 47, 147, 200, 218Control of work (COW), 56, 79, 97, 150, 151, 152,

219, 221, 222Control panel technician, 153Control valves, types, 33Cooling towers, 3, 8, 45, 113, 182, 185–186, 197, 200,

203, 204, 214cross-flow/counter-flow, 185hazards and mitigations, 186types, 185water treatment, 186

COW, See Control of work (COW)CSE, See Confined space entry (CSE)

CSE permit, 65, 79, 85

D

Distillation towers, 3Distributed control system (DCS), 3, 7, 110, 153, 196Double blocks and bleeds, 166, 166f

E

Eductors, 181Effective communication, 70, 71, 88, 198EHM, See Equipment health monitoring (EHM)

Electrical diagrams, 29, 35commonly used electrical symbols, 36f electrical components and relationships, 35one-line diagram, 35, 36f



Index 235

K

Karl Fischer water (KFW) method, 214Knockout pots/drums, 178

L

LAN,See

Local area network (LAN)Leak testing, See Tightness testLegend, 37, 39f Letdown stations, 172, 177Lift plan, 223Local area network (LAN), 154Lockbox, 162, 163f Lock-out, 159–160Lock-out devices, 162

blinds, 165figure 8 blind, 165f locked blind, 165f

paddle blind, 165f chains/cables, 163

to secure a valve, 164f double blocks and bleeds, 166, 166f locks and lockboxes, 162–163, 163f switch gear, 166tags, 164

Lock-Out/Tag-Out (LOTO), 4, 35, 55, 65, 66, 78, 79, 80, 97, 112, 120, 130, 152, 158–169, 187, 199, See also Electrical diagrams

affected employee, 162authorized employee, 162

energy-isolating device, 160generic procedure, 161f , 162guidelines for isolation of energy-sources, 160lock-out and isolating devices

blinds, 165chains/cables, 163double blocks and bleeds, 166locks and lockboxes, 162–163switch gear, 166tags, 164, 164f

lock-out, meaning, 159–160

multiple padlock attachment, 160OSHA policy CFR 1910.147, 160removing LOTO devices, steps, 167

interim test, 167tag-out, meaning, 160types of energy requiring isolation, 167zero energy state, 159

Logbook, 8, 9, 72, 73, 85, 86, 88, 197, 198, 204, See also Electronic logbook (eLog)

Loop diagrams, 37LOTO, See Lock-Out/Tag-Out (LOTO)Lubricants, 124

disposal, 126handling, 126indoor/outdoor storage, 125–126removal from containers, 126–127

Flow control valve (FCV), 33, 37FRC, See Fire-retardant clothing (FRC)Friction, 125

G

Gas chromatography (GC), 214

General work permit, 80, 85Gun drills, 99

H

Hazard and Operability (HAZOP), 8, 9, 97, 154,155, 220

Hazardous waste operations and emergency responsestandard (HAZWOPER), 98, 112

HAZWOPER, See Hazardous waste operations andemergency response standard (HAZWOPER)

Heat exchangers, 3, 31, 33, 37, 44, 50, 113, 174, 184,

185, 187, 191, 209Hot work, 55, 65, 66, 80, 85, 131, 140, 155, 222, 223, 225Hot work permit, 55, 80, 85Housekeeping, 8, 55, 58, 59, 60, 66, 131, 153, 154,

155, 167, 197, 223common housekeeping examples, 59importance, 58PPE’s required, 60–61, 60f

hazardous environment detector, 61f unit-specific housekeeping examples, 59–60

Hydrocarbon detector, 62, 63, 224Hydrocarbon free, 224Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), 61, 187, 193Hydro test, 152

I

Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH), 60Incident response teams, 100Initial start-up procedures, 142Inspection, 130Instrumentation, 5–6Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society

(ISA), 33, 49–50instrument tag numbers, 47–49, 48f

functional identification examples, 49tISA functional identification table, 48tlogo, 49f

Intercom, 73–74, 74f, See also Intrinsically safeelectronic device

Interim test, 167Internal procedure, 12, 17International Organization for Standardization

(ISO), 12Intrinsically safe electronic device, 73–74

ISO, See International Organization forStandardization (ISO)

Isolation, 120Isometric drawings (isoms), 37, 38f



236 Index

MSDS, See Material safety data sheets (MSDS)Multiple padlock attachment, 160, 162, 163f , 166Mutual aid, 101

N

Nameplate capacity, 142

National electric code (NEC), 50National emissions standards for hazardous air

pollutants (NESHAP), 65National fire protection association (NFPA), 50, 60,

211Natural gas, 193NESHAP, See National emissions standards for

hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP)Nitrogen, 192–193

blanketing/purging/drying, uses, 192hazards and mitigation, 192spills and leaks, 192–193storage, 192

Non-operating personnel, 84, 85Nonverbal communication (NVC), 73Normal operations, 3, 14, 15, 25, 57, 66, 85, 117, 147,

148, 150, 153, 155, 175, 189, 191, 195–206, 218, 222, 223

O

Occupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA), 12, 31, 50, 55, 57, 60, 79, 85, 97, 98, 99, 107, 120, 133, 147, 148, 151, 153, 154, 155, 159,

160, 185, 192, 203, 211, 218, 219, 220, 222, 223One-line diagram, 35On-the-job training (OJT), 106–115

OSHA, 107process safety management standard, 107

purpose and importance, 107communication, importance, 108continuous education, 108qualification for a specific job assignment,

requirements, 108training programs, goals, 108

training materials, 110–113CBT, 111process simulator, aid to emergency situations, 111reference materials and its uses, 113training modules for hazards, 112training modules, materials/subject matter,

110–113training methods, skill development, and trainee

observation, 108–110mentorship, importance in training program, 108performance evaluation of trainee’s progression,

108–109

positive/negative feedback to trainees, impact, 110On-the-job training programs, 107Operations, 2

equipment, 3–4

Lubrication, 124–125, See also Lubricantsprocess technician’s role (routine checks)

leak checks, 128lube oil level, 127–128oil changes, 128oil sampling, 128

oil temperature, 128

M

Maintenance, 116–136lubricants

disposal, 126handling lubricants, 126indoor/outdoor storage, 125–126removal from containers, 126–127

lubrication, importance, 124–125process technician’s role, 125, 127–128

removal of friction by lubricants, 125of mechanical integrity, effects, 117process technician’s role, 120–124

cost estimation, 123–124, 123tequipment status sheet, 121, 122f hazards encountered during equipment

maintenance, 124isolation of equipment from energy

source, 120, 120f P-101A pump PM, example, 120f, 121, 122f, 123tremoval of blinds after maintenance, procedure,

124, 125f

safe energy state of equipment, verification/execution, 120–121

routine maintenance, strategies, 118predictive maintenance, 118–119preventive maintenance, 119–120reactive maintenance, 119turnaround maintenance, 118

shut downs and start-ups, 133turnarounds and turnaround maintenance, 128–130

inspection, key activity, 130phases of a turnaround and personnel involved, 129

post-turnaround audits, focus, 130process technician’s role, 130–133Maintenance activity, 85Management of change (MOC), 56, 132–133, 153, 154,

155, 218, 222, 223Material release reporting, 56, 65, 66, 154, 223Material safety data sheets (MSDS), 203MCC, See Motor control center (MCC)Mechanical completion, 140, 141, 154Mechanical integrity, 55, 117, 131, 148, 155, 218Mentor, 109

mentoring situation, 109f

mentorship, importance in training programs, 109MOC, See Management of change (MOC)Monitoring, 199, See also Equipment monitoringMotor control center (MCC), 6, 35, 59, 61



Index 237

Pressure relief and flare system, 190–192flare and vent system, 190–191hazards and mitigation, 191–192pressure-relief systems, 190safety relief valve operation, 190

Pre-start-up safety review (PSSR), 8, 9, 133, 148, 152,

154, 155, 219Preventive maintenance, 119–120advantages/disadvantages, 120checklist, example, 121f role of process technician, 120

Procedure, 3owner, 12template, 14user, 15

Procedure writingeffective written communication, techniques

avoid subjective words, 17

be precise, 16employ visual techniques, 18, 19f–22f follow company procedures, 17group and label information, 17, 17f practice, 23use common names, 16

government organizations, management of hazardsISO, 12OSHA (PSM standard), 12

principles and techniques, 12–16effective/operating procedure template,

example, 13f

gathering information, 14organizing the information, 14–15presenting the information, 15–16

process technician, the procedure ownerinternal procedure creation, 12

Process and instrument drawings, See Piping andinstrumentation diagrams (P&IDs)

Process drawings, readingcommon functions, 29equipment standards, 49–50information

application block, 40legend, 37symbols, 41–48title block, 40

requirements to meet industrial standards, 29uses

BFD, 29–30, 30f electrical diagrams, 35isometric drawings (isoms), 37other drawings, 37PFD, 30–31P&IDS, 31–33

plot plans, 37schematics, 35symbology, 33UFD, 33–35

P&ID of flow orifice and control valve, 3f process technicians’ understanding of LOTO,

importance, 4training process for technicians based on

equipment-specific procedures, 3–4instrumentation, 5–6

key devices and information, 5–6process control, 5simple temperature indicator (TI), 5f

operations organizational structure/facilities, 6–7, 6f process technicians, 2

of the future, 9performance evaluation of, 2roles and responsibilities, 7–9in safety/efficacy of operations, role, 2

systems, 4–5key systems within a process facility, 4–5

Operations organizational structure/facilities, 6–7, 6f

facility management team, 6operations superintendent, 7process engineering, 7process supervisor, 7process technicians, 7

Operations procedures, 57OSHA PSM guidelines for unit start-up, 147–148

P

Panametric, 214Paraphrasing, 88

Performance testing, 142Personal protective equipment (PPE), 9, 14, 57, 59,

60, 60f, 66, 97, 124, 150, 155, 187, 188, 190, 201, 202–204, 211, 221, 223

PFDs, See Process flow diagrams (PFDs)PHA, See Process hazard analysis (PHA)P&IDs, See Piping and instrumentation diagrams

(P&IDs)Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), 3,

31–33information available on

equipment designations, 32–33equipment symbols, 32instrumentation, 33process piping, 33

Planning phase, 139PLC, See Programmable logic controllers (PLC)Plot plans, 37, 39f Post-commissioning, 142Potable water, 179PPE, See Personal protective equipment (PPE)Pre-commissioning, 141Predictive maintenance (PM), 118–119

advantages/disadvantages, 118Fitness-for-Service/Remaining Life (standard (579),

API), 118–119SPC principles, 118



238 Index

roles and responsibilities, 7–9understanding of LOTO, importance, 4

Process technician routine dutiesautomated systems, benefits, 197

DCS, 196–197control board technician

role, 196routine duties, 196–197documentation

information to be documented, 204unit logbook/eLog, 204

EHM, 200–201checking for leaks, 201readings recorded on technician’s route, 200vibration and temperature recording, tools,

200, 201f equipment monitoring, 199–200

considerations, 200

field techniciannormal routine duties, 197role, 196

normal operations, 196operating procedures, 204PPE, 202–204

OSHA’s general PPE standard, 203reference to MSDS, 203

rounds, 196routine duties, 196–198starting/stopping equipment, 201–202tools commonly used, 198–199, 198f–199f

Programmable logic controllers (PLC), 6PSM, See Process safety management (PSM)PSSR, See Pre-start-up safety review (PSSR)Public address system (PA system), 73, 74–75, 75f Punchlist, 142

R

Reactive maintenance, 119advantages/disadvantages, 119role of process technician, 119

Re-commissioning, 138, 142–143Refrigeration systems, 4, 183–185components, 183compressed ammonia, role, 183hazards and mitigations, 185process applications, 185vapor compression refrigeration, 184f

Relief valve, 5, 190, 192Resource Conservation Recovery Act

(RCRA), 60, 98Retention time, 214Rounds, 196

Route (technician), 200Routine duties, 197, See also Process technician

routine dutiesRoutine maintenance, 118

Process engineering, 7Process flow diagrams (PFDs), 3, 30–31, 31f

information available on a PFDcontrol instruments, 31equipment designation, 30equipment symbols, 30

heat exchangers, 31major process piping, 30pump capacities, 31variables/parameters, 31

Process hazard analysis (PHA), 8, 9, 57, 99, 133, 155, 220, 223

Process safety information, 57, 132, 133, 147, 154, 155, 218, 222, 223

Process safety management (PSM), 12, 55, 57, 85, 97,99, 108, 139, 141, 147, 155, 218, 223

Process simulator, 111, 111f Process technician, 2

of the future, 9knowledge on equipment-specific procedures

training process, 3–4performance evaluation of, 2role in equipment lubrication

leak checks, 128lube oil level, 127–128, 128oil changes, 128oil sampling, 128oil temperature, 128

role in equipment maintenance, 120–124cost estimation, 123–124, 123t

equipment status sheet, 121, 122f hazards encountered during equipment

maintenance, 124isolation of equipment from energy source,

120, 120f P-101A pump PM, example, 121, 121f,

122f, 123tremoval of blinds after maintenance, procedure,

124, 125f safe energy state of equipment, verification/exe-

cution, 120–121

role in handling abnormal operations, 96–97role in handling emergency operationsemergency operating procedures, 98–99HAZWOPER, 98process hazard analysis, 99

role in planning/execution of shut-downs, 221–223role in safety/efficacy of operations, 2role in turnarounds

change management/MOC, 132–133maintaining mechanical integrity, 131–132pre-turnaround duties, 130PSSR, 133

role in unit start-ups, 152–155coordination and control of variables, 153PSSR activities, 154SHE policies (through LAN), 154–155



Index 239

MOC, 56operations procedures, 57PHA, 57PPE, 57process safety information, 57PSM, 57

vehicle entry, 57potential hazards, 65–66improper equipment identification, prevention

policies, 65–66process technician’s role, 57–61

importance of housekeeping, 58–61process industry risk management, skills

required, 57regulatory agencies

CEQ, 55EPA, 55OSHA, 55

routine maintenance and inspection, 66safety equipment, 61–64

deluge or sprinkler systems, 62fire extinguishers, 61inspections, importance/criteria, 62–63insulation on piping, 62safety showers and eyewash stations, 62SCBAs, 62, 62f

Shift change/relief establishing good relationships, 90items/information to be communicated at shift

change, 84

making a timely relief, 88–89methods used to make relief, 85–88

eLogs, 86, 86f logbooks, 86–87, 87f shift pass-down sheets, 88, 89f verbal communication, 85, 88

participants in the shift changegroup communication method, 88paraphrasing, tool for communication, 88technician-to-technician communication

method, 88

unit status (reports), 85Shift pass-down sheets, 88, 89f Shut-down, 218, See also Unit shut-downSingle-line diagram, See One-line diagramSoft skills, 109SOP, See Standard operating procedure (SOP)Sound-powered phones, 75–76, 76f Sour fuel gas, See Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)SPC, See Statistical process control (SPC)Specifications (product), 208Spill, 100Standard operating procedure (SOP), 14

Start-up, 141–142, See also Initial start-upprocedures

Start-up execution plan, 148Statistical process control (SPC), 118

S

Safety, health, and environmental (SHE) policies,14, 53–68, 70, 77, 97, 113, 151, 152, 153, 154, 219, 221, 222, See also SHE policies,complying with

Sample containers, 210Sample loop, 210Sample point, 209Sampling, 208

contamination, consistency, and reliability, 213importance, 208–209

analyzer verification, 209customer quality assurance, 209protection of personnel, 209

proper labeling and quantity, 213–214proper sampling procedure, using, 209sample analysis, factors

BS&W, 214color, 214gas chromatography (GC), 214gas tubes, 214KFW method, 214lead acetate test, 214multigas LEL meter, 215panametric, 214pH, 214

sample points/loops/containers, 209–210wearing proper PPE, 211–213

flame-resistant/retardant clothing, 211

hazards associated with material samples, 212PPEs for respiratory protection, 211–212

Sanitary sewer system, 180–181, 180f aeration section, 181aeration-type package, 181hazards, 181–182lift stations, 181settling section, 181–182

Scaffold plan, 223Schematics, 35Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), 57, 58f,

60, 193, 209, 211, 212SHE policies, See Safety, health, and environmental

(SHE) policiesSHE policies, complying with

environmental hazards, 64–65isolation scenario, 66list of policies, 55–57

blinding, 55COW, 56CSE, 55employee health monitoring, 55equipment inspection and monitoring, 55

hot work, 55housekeeping, 55LOTO, 55material release reporting, 56



240 Index

Two-way radios, 73, 76–77All Call, 77FCC license, 77inspection, 77safety check, considerations/indications, 77trunked vs. conventional radio systems, 76–77

U

Uninterruptable power supply (UPS), 6Unit commissioning

construction, 140–141mechanical completion documentation, 140process technician’s duties, 140

key criteria, 138–139planning, 139

commissioning team, 139considerations during planning

phase, 139post-commissioning, 142punchlist, example, 142, 143f

pre-commissioning, 141re-commissioning, 142start-up, 141–142

initial start-up procedures, 142nameplate capacity, 142on-test production and acceptance documenta-

tion, 142performance testing, 142

Unit shut-down

activities during a shut-down (OSHA PSMstandard), 218–219

emergency shut-downs, 220administrative controls, examples, 220evacuation plan, 220HAZOP studies, 220

entire unit shut-down for turnaround, 221normal/routine shut-downs, 219potential hazards, 223–225process technician’s role in planning/execution of

shut-downs, 221–223SHE policies used, 222–223

shut-down for equipment maintenance, 220–221site staffing, requirement, 219stream-to-stream, 218

Unit start-upactivities during, OSHA PSM standard/guidelines,

147–148equipment start-up after maintenance activities,

150–151hazards associated with minor equipment

repairs, 150OSHA 1910 PSM standard, policies, 151

major unit start-upsoperations/personnel in, 151normal/routine start-up, 148–149

AVO method, process unit monitoring, 149

Steam, 171clouds, 174de-superheating, 174generation and distribution, 171–175

boilers, 171–172de-superheating, 174

hazards, 174–175heat exchangers, 174letdown stations, 172power generation, 174steam, definition, 171steam turbines, 172surface condenser, 172turbine-supplied steam letdown, 172

generators, 176 jets, 175tracing, 175, 175f turbines, 172

Stream-to-stream, 218Strippers, 3Subject matter expert (SME), 14Surface condenser, 172Switch gear, 166Symbols, 41–49

actuator symbols, 43, 43f boiler symbols, 45common P&ID symbols, 41f compressor symbols, 43, 44f cooling tower symbols, 45, 45f electrical equipment and motor symbols, 46f, 47

furnace symbols, 45heat exchanger symbols, 44, 44f instrumentation symbols, 47, 47f, 48f piping symbols, 41pump symbols, 43, 43f reactor and distillation column symbols, 45turbine symbols, 45, 45f valve symbols, 42–43vessel symbols, 44f, 45

Systems, 4

TTag-out, 160Tag-out device, 164Tags, 164Thermal expansion, 64, 133, 134f , 155Tightness test, 152, 155Title block, 40, 40f Train, 94Training modules for hazards, 112Transmitter, 6, 7, 153, 197Trunked radio system, 76, 77

Turnaround (TAR), 55, 79, 88, 118, 128, 129, 130, 131,133, 147, 148, 151, 153, 174, 178, 183, 187, 192, 221, 224, 225

maintenance, 118, 128–130



Index 241

process applications, 185vapor compression refrigeration, 184f

sanitary sewer system, 180–182, 180f aeration section, 180–181aeration-type package, 181hazards, 181–182

lift stations, 181settling section, 181

communication with adjacent/connected processunits, need, 148

feed forward flow, 149order of safety systems to be used, 148–149start-up execution plan, instructions, 148

potential hazards, 155–156

preparation of equipment for service, testsperformed, 152

center for the advancement of process technology

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