cerebral cortex 2

8/9/2019 Cerebral Cortex 2

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2.Forebrain2.Forebrain : subcortical: subcortical

TelencephalonTelencephalon1

NEUROLOGY

Dr.G.Bhanu Prakash


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OverviewOverview

Components, location and function of theComponents, location and function of the

basal forebrainbasal forebrain

Components, location and function of theComponents, location and function of thebasal gangliabasal ganglia

Components, location and function of theComponents, location and function of thelimbic systemlimbic system


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Haines 15-6

Group of ill-defined structures

deep to ???

APS:Identifiable by perforations ofbranches of ???

Bordered by ???

Basal forebrain structures:???: Olfactory tubercle

???In / near ventral striatum

Rostral to AC

Anterolateralto hypothalamus

e.g., Basal nucleus of Meynert,nucleus accumbens, septal

nuclei Basal (inferior) view

AC

Basal ForebrainStructuresBasal ForebrainStructures


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Haines 15-6

Group of ill-defined structures

deep to anterior perforatingsubstance (APS)

APS:Identifiable by perforations ofbranches of ACA & MCA

Bordered by LOS, MOS of OT

Basal forebrain structures:APS gray: Olfactory tubercle

Subcortical nuclei deep to APSIn / near ventral striatum

Rostral to AC

Anterolateralto hypothalamus

e.g., Basal nucleus of Meynert,nucleus accumbens, septal

nuclei Basal (inferior) view

AC

Basal ForebrainStructuresBasal ForebrainStructures


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5

Haines 15-16

Rostral to AC:

coronal section

coronal section

Basal Forebrain atBasal Forebrain at ??????

Coronal section at optic chiasmCoronal section at optic chiasm

?????? (VentralStriatum)(VentralStriatum)

Most ventralMost ventral

portion of theportion of the

striatum,striatum,where caudatewhere caudate

and putamenand putamen

are continuousare continuous(no longer(no longer

separated byseparated byanterior branchanterior branch

of int. capsuleof int. capsule

??????Haines 15-6

AC

Level of

section


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6

Haines 15-16

Rostral to AC:

coronal section

coronal section

Basal Forebrain at opticBasal Forebrain at optic

chiasmchiasmCoronal section at optic chiasmCoronal section at optic chiasm

NucleusAcumbensNucleusAcumbens (VentralStriatum)(VentralStriatum)

Most ventralMost ventral

portion of theportion of the

striatum,striatum,where caudatewhere caudate

and putamenand putamen

are continuousare continuous(no longer(no longer

separated byseparated byanterior branchanterior branch

of int. capsuleof int. capsule

Septal nucleiSeptal nucleiHaines 15-6

AC

Level of

section


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Level of

section

7

Haines 15-16

Basalnucleus

ofMeynert

Basalnucleus

ofMeynert

coronal sectioncoronal section

Basal Forebrain atBasal Forebrain at

????????

AC

Coronal section at level ofCoronal section at level of ??????

Located withinAPSLocated withinAPS

??????

AKAAKAsubstantiasubstantia

innominatainnominata ??????

MedialSeptalMedialSeptalNucleusNucleus

??????

N. diagonal band.N. diagonal band.

Med septalN.

Med septalN.


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Level of

section

8

Haines 15-16

Basalnucleus

ofMeynert

Basalnucleus

ofMeynert

coronal sectioncoronal section

Basal Forebrain atBasal Forebrain at

AnteriorCommissureAnteriorCommissure

AC

Coronal section at level ofCoronal section at level of anterioranteriorcommissure and column of fornixcommissure and column of fornix

Located withinAPSLocated withinAPS

BasalNucleusBasalNucleus

of Meynertof Meynert

AKAAKAsubstantiasubstantiainnominatainnominata

Nucleus ofNucleus of

Diagnal BandDiagnal Band

MedialSeptalMedialSeptalNucleusNucleus

Anterior toAnterior tocolumn ofcolumn of

fornixfornix

N. diagonal band.N. diagonal band.

Med septalN.

Med septalN.


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< 1% corticalmass

Size:

Function:

???(emotions)

???

(rational

thought)??? regulateits

excitability

BF structures

Basal Forebrain Structure provideBasal Forebrain Structure provide

??? inputs??? inputs to cortexto cortex

Martin 3-17

neocortex

allocortex

Alzheimers Disease: degeneration of BF cholinergic inputs to cortexAlzheimers Disease: degeneration of BF cholinergic inputs to cortex


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< 1% corticalmass

Size:

Function:

Limbic(emotions)

HCF(rationalthought)

Diffusecortical

projectionsregulate itsexcitability

BF structures

Basal Forebrain Structure provideBasal Forebrain Structure provide

Cholinergic inputsCholinergic inputs to cortexto cortex

Martin 3-17

neocortex

allocortex

Alzheimers Disease: degeneration of BF cholinergic inputs to cortexAlzheimers Disease: degeneration of BF cholinergic inputs to cortex


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Basal GangliaBasal GangliaNot a ganglia (NucleiNot a ganglia (Nuclei

central)central)

Dorsal componentDorsal component

?? + ????? + ???

Ventral componentVentral component ??????

parts of adjacent ???parts of adjacent ???

??????

InterconnectedInterconnectedstructuresstructures

??????

??????

PutamenPutamen

Globus Pallidus externalGlobus Pallidus external

Globus Pallidus internalGlobus Pallidus internal

Insula

ClaustrumClaustrum


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Basal GangliaBasal GangliaNot a ganglia (NucleiNot a ganglia (Nuclei

central)central)Dorsal componentDorsal component Caudet + lentiformCaudet + lentiform

nucleinuclei

Ventral componentVentral component NucleusAccumbensNucleusAccumbens

parts of adjacentparts of adjacentolfactory tuberalolfactory tuberal

S

ubstantiainnominataS

ubstantiainnominataInterconnectedInterconnected

structuresstructures Subthalamic nucleusSubthalamic nucleus

SubstantianigraS

ubstantianigra

PutamenPutamen

Globus Pallidus externalGlobus Pallidus external

Globus Pallidus internalGlobus Pallidus internal

Insula

ClaustrumClaustrum


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Basal Ganglia:Basal MotorNucleiBasal Ganglia:Basal MotorNucleiFunctionalFunctional components (basalcomponents (basal--motor nuclei) include caudate,motor nuclei) include caudate, putamenputamen,, globuspalliglobuspallisubthalamussubthalamus,, substantianigrasubstantianigra..

((TelencephalicTelencephalic BG:BG: caudate,caudate, putamen,GPputamen,GP))((DiencephalicDiencephalic:: subthalamussubthalamus))(Midbrain:(Midbrain: substantianigrasubstantianigra))

TerminologyTerminology Caudate +Caudate + PutamenPutamen =Striatum (or=Striatum (or neoneostriatumstriatum))

Corpus striatum = caudate/Corpus striatum = caudate/putamenputamen ++ globuspallidusglobuspallidus PaleostriatumPaleostriatum == globuspallidusglobuspallidus

PutamenPutamen ++ globuspallidusglobuspallidus == lentiformlentiform nucleinuclei

GlobuspallidusGlobuspallidus contains ancontains an externalexternal((GpeGpe) and an internal () and an internal (GpiGpi) part) part


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Multiple cortical areas send corticoMultiple cortical areas send cortico--striate fibers tostriate fibers to ??????

Striatum interconnected withStriatum interconnected with ??????

Two majorTwo major ?????? to motor thalamusto motor thalamus (??,??)(??,??) ?????? is major output ofis major output of lentiform nucleilentiform nuclei to theto the ??????

???? projections to thalamusprojections to thalamus

SubthalamuSubthalamus reciprocally interconnected withs reciprocally interconnected with ??????

??????inhibitinhibit

tonic lev

el of activ

ity in motor thalamus, and thus controltonic lev

el of activ

ity in motor thalamus, and thus control??????

Circuit loop of motor cortical areas withCircuit loop of motor cortical areas withbasalbasal--motor nuclei and thalamusmotor nuclei and thalamus

Nolte 13-6


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Multiple cortical areas send corticoMultiple cortical areas send cortico--striate fibers tostriate fibers to striatumstriatum

Striatum interconnected withStriatum interconnected with substantianigrasubstantianigra

Two majorTwo major inputsinputs to motor thalamusto motor thalamus (VA, VL)(VA, VL) GpiGpi is major output ofis major output of lentiform nucleilentiform nuclei to theto the motor thalamusmotor thalamus

NigralNigral projections to thalamusprojections to thalamus

SubthalamuSubthalamus reciprocally interconnected withs reciprocally interconnected with globuspallidusglobuspallidus

BasalBasal--motor nucleimotor nuclei inhibitinhibittonic level of activity in motor thalamus,tonic level of activity in motor thalamus,and thus controland thus control corticospinal outputcorticospinal output

Circuit loop of motor cortical areas withCircuit loop of motor cortical areas withbasalbasal--motor nuclei and thalamusmotor nuclei and thalamus

Nolte 13-6


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Nolte 13-6

I

E

Forebrain: Basal Motor Nuclei

Motor loop: ???

Substantia nigra interconnected with striatum (e.g., nigrostriatal proj.)

Subthalamus reciprocally interconnected with GP

Gpi: major lentiform output (???) to motor thalamus

Basal-motor nuclei (-) tonic (spont.) activity of motor thalamus, and thus modulate CST outputs: BMN

modulate ???movement

M. cort. areasstriatumGpithalamus (VA/VL)M. cort areas

CST

contra

loop

Motor cortical areas Motor cortical areas

loop

IE

++

+

-

+

--

-

-DIRECTPATHWAY

INDIRECTPATHWAY


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Nolte 13-6

I

E

Forebrain: Basal Motor Nuclei

Motor loop: ipsilateral

Substantia nigra interconnected with striatum (e.g., nigrostriatal proj.)

Subthalamus reciprocally interconnected with GP

Gpi: major lentiform output (-) to motor thalamus

Basal-motor nuclei (-) tonic (spont.) activity of motor thalamus, and thus modulate CST outputs: BMN

modulate contra movement

M. cort. areasstriatumGpithalamus (VA/VL)M. cort areas

CST

contra

loop

Motor cortical areas Motor cortical areas

loop

IE

++

+

-

+

--

-

-DIRECTPATHWAY

INDIRECTPATHWAY


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Relative Location of Deep Structures

Basal

ganglia

Hypothalamus

Internal capsule

Thalamus

Coronal section at level of Posterior hypothalamus/anterior thalamus


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Relative Location of Deep Structures

Basal

ganglia

Hypothalamus

Internal capsule

Thalamus

Coronal section at level of Posterior hypothalamus/anterior thalamus


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Lesions and Deficits of Basal MotorNucleiLesions and Deficits of Basal MotorNuclei


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Lesions and Deficits of Basal MotorNucleiLesions and Deficits of Basal MotorNuclei


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Limbic LobeLimbic Lobe

Limbic lobeLimbic lobe

ParolfactoryParolfactory areaarea

SubcollosalSubcollosal gyrusgyrus

Cingulate gyrusCingulate gyrus

ParahippocampalParahippocampalgyrusgyrus

UncusUncus

Internal StructuresInternal Structures

Hipp, hyp, amyg,Hipp, hyp, amyg,septal n.septal n.


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Limbic LobeLimbic Lobe

Limbic lobeLimbic lobe

ParolfactoryParolfactory areaarea

SubcollosalSubcollosal gyrusgyrus

Cingulate gyrusCingulate gyrus

ParahippocampalParahippocampalgyrusgyrus

UncusUncus

Internal StructuresInternal Structures

Hipp, hyp, amyg,Hipp, hyp, amyg,septal n.septal n.


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Classifying limbic structuresClassifying limbic structures

Accepted limbic structure MostlyAccepted

Cingulate Gyrus* Thalamic nuclei interconnected w/limbicstructures

Parahippocampalgrus* Neocortexinterconnected w/limbic structures

Hippocampal formation* i.e. Frontal cortex, orbital cortex

Amygdala*

Septal Area*

Nucleus Accumbens

SubstantiainnominataHypothalamus

Mamilliary bodies

Anterior thalamic nuclei

Midbrainreticularformation (parts)


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Dysfunction of limbic structures underlies virtually all psychiatric disorders

Papez circuit

hypothalamus

thalamus

Limbic lobe

PapezPapez CircuitCircuit


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Dysfunction of limbic structures underlies virtually all psychiatric disorders

Papez circuit

hypothalamus

thalamus

Limbic lobe

PapezPapez CircuitCircuit


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AmygdaloidAmygdaloid ComplexComplexAlmond shaped structure in theAlmond shaped structure in the ??????,,deep to thedeep to the ??????

Rostral to anterior end ofRostral to anterior end oftemporal horn of lateral ventricaltemporal horn of lateral ventrical

Composed of multiple nuclei thatComposed of multiple nuclei thatare grouped into:are grouped into:

?????? interconnected with corticalinterconnected with corticalareasareas

?????? closely related to olfactionclosely related to olfaction


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AmygdaloidAmygdaloid ComplexComplexAlmond shaped structure in theAlmond shaped structure in theRostromedial temporal lobeRostromedial temporal lobe, deep, deepto theto the uncusuncus

Rostral to anterior end ofRostral to anterior end of

temporal horn of lateral ventricaltemporal horn of lateral ventrical

Composed of multiple nuclei thatComposed of multiple nuclei thatare grouped into:are grouped into:

Basolateral amygdalaBasolateral amygdala interconnected with cortical areasinterconnected with cortical areas

Corticomedial (AKA extendedCorticomedial (AKA extendedamygdala)amygdala) closely related toclosely related toolfactionolfaction


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AmygdaloidAmygdaloid Complex:Complex:AfferentsAfferents

aso a era uc e :aso a era uc e :

Prefrontal cortexPrefrontal cortex cingulate/prahippocampalgyricingulate/prahippocampalgyri, temporal lobe andinsular cortex, temporal lobe andinsular cortex

Dorsal thalamusDorsal thalamus

SubiculumSubiculum

CorticomedialCorticomedialNucleiNuclei

Olfactory fibers fromOlfactory fibers fromhypothalamushypothalamus

Thalamus (Thalamus (dorsomedialdorsomedialand median nuclei)and median nuclei)

Brainstem nucleiBrainstem nucleiassociated with visceralassociated with visceralfunctions (functions (ieie. NTS and. NTS andperiaquiductalperiaquiductal grey)grey)


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Septalnuclei

Stria terminalis

AmygdalaHypothalamus

ACAC

Pre-commissuralPre-commissural

Post-commissuralPost-commissural

Amygdaloid Complex:Amygdaloid Complex: EfferentsEfferents --??????


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Septalnuclei

Stria terminalis

AmygdalaHypothalamus

ACAC

Pre-commissuralPre-commissural

Post-commissuralPost-commissural

AmygdaloidAmygdaloid Complex:Complex: EfferentsEfferents --StriaterminalisStriaterminalis


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Lesions/deficits ofLesions/deficits ofAmygdaloidAmygdaloid ComplexComplex


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Hippocampal formationHippocampal formationLocated in theLocated in the ??????Superior/lateralSuperior/lateral aspectsaspectsare the floor of the inferiorare the floor of the inferiorhorn of the lateralhorn of the lateralventricleventricle

Inferior/medialInferior/medial border isborder isentorhinal cortexentorhinal cortex

RostralRostralborder isAmygdalaborder isAmygdala

CaudallyCaudally becomesbecomes

continuous with the fornixcontinuous with the fornixbelow the splenium of thebelow the splenium of thecorpus callosum.corpus callosum.


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Hippocampal formationHippocampal formationLocated in theLocated in the medialmedialtemporal lobetemporal lobe

Superior/lateralSuperior/lateral aspectsaspectsare the floor of the inferiorare the floor of the inferiorhorn of the lateralhorn of the lateralventricleventricle

Inferior/medialInferior/medial border isborder isentorhinal cortexentorhinal cortex


CaudallyCaudally becomesbecomescontinuous with the fornixcontinuous with the fornixbelow the splenium of thebelow the splenium of thecorpus callosum.corpus callosum.


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Hippocampal formationHippocampal formationLocated in the medialLocated in the medialtemporal lobetemporal lobe

Superior/lateralSuperior/lateral aspectsaspectsare the floor of the inferiorare the floor of the inferiorhorn of the lateralhorn of the lateralventricleventricle

Inferior/medialInferior/medial border isborder isentorhinalentorhinal cortexcortex


CaudallyCaudally becomesbecomescontinuous with the fornixcontinuous with the fornixbelow thebelow the spleniumsplenium of theof thecorpuscorpus callosumcallosum..


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HippocampalHippocampal

formation cont.formation cont.

Allocortex of BrodmannAllocortex of Brodmann

??????

Narrow band along medialNarrow band along medialaspect of hippaspect of hipp

Receives most cortical inputsReceives most cortical inputs

?????? Between DG and subiculumBetween DG and subiculum

AKA hippocampus proper,AKA hippocampus proper,Ammons hornAmmons horn

????????

Laterally continuous with cortexLaterally continuous with cortexof parahippocampal gyrusof parahippocampal gyrus

Loci of most efferent cell ofLoci of most efferent cell ofhippocampal formationhippocampal formation

Hippocampus

Subiculum

DentateGyrus


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formation cont.formation cont.

Allocortex of BrodmannAllocortex of Brodmann

Dentate gyrusDentate gyrus

Narrow band along medialNarrow band along medialaspect of hippaspect of hipp

Receives most cortical inputsReceives most cortical inputs

HippocampusHippocampus Between DG and subiculumBetween DG and subiculum

AKA hippocampus proper,AKA hippocampus proper,Ammons hornAmmons horn

SubiculumSubiculum

Laterally continuous with cortexLaterally continuous with cortexof parahippocampal gyrusof parahippocampal gyrus

Loci of most efferent cell ofLoci of most efferent cell ofhippocampal formationhippocampal formation

Hippocampus

Subiculum

DentateGyrus


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HippocampalHippocampalAfferentsAfferents

??????

Information from all associationInformation from all associationareas of neocortexareas of neocortex

Entorhinal cortex consideredEntorhinal cortex consideredgateway to the hippocampusgateway to the hippocampus

??????

Hypothalamus,SeptumHypothalamus,Septum (ACh),(ACh),and contralateral hippocampusand contralateral hippocampus

??????

Midbrain reticular formationMidbrain reticular formation Raphe nucleiRaphe nuclei (serotonergic)(serotonergic)

Locus Ceruleus (norepinephrine)Locus Ceruleus (norepinephrine)


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HippocampalHippocampalAfferentsAfferents

Entorhinal cortex (PerforantEntorhinal cortex (PerforantPathway)Pathway)

Information from all associationInformation from all associationareas of neocortexareas of neocortex

Entorhinal cortex consideredEntorhinal cortex consideredgateway to the hippocampusgateway to the hippocampus

FornixFornix

Hypothalamus,SeptumHypothalamus,Septum (ACh),(ACh),and contralateral hippocampusand contralateral hippocampus

Diffuse midbrain afferentsDiffuse midbrain afferents

Midbrain reticular formationMidbrain reticular formation Raphe nucleiRaphe nuclei (serotonergic)(serotonergic)

Locus Ceruleus (norepinephrine)Locus Ceruleus (norepinephrine)


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Formation EfferentsFormation Efferents

Efferent cells (Efferent cells (??????))

??????, pyramidal cell of hippocampus, pyramidal cell of hippocampus(lesser)(lesser)

?????? ??????????????????

Fornix projectionsFornix projections ?????? (to contralateral hippocampus)(to contralateral hippocampus)

Anterior commissure divides:Anterior commissure divides:

?????? (terminations)(terminations)

Mammillary nucleus (majority)Mammillary nucleus (majority)

Thalamus (anterior dorsal)Thalamus (anterior dorsal)

Hypothalamus (ventromedial)Hypothalamus (ventromedial)

?????? (trerminations)(trerminations)

Septal nuclei, medial frontal cortex,Septal nuclei, medial frontal cortex,hypothalamus, nucleus accumbenshypothalamus, nucleus accumbens

From the hippocampus pyramidal cellsFrom the hippocampus pyramidal cells


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Formation EfferentsFormation Efferents

Efferent cells (Efferent cells (GlutamatergicGlutamatergic))

SubiculumSubiculum, pyramidal cell of, pyramidal cell ofhippocampus (lesser)hippocampus (lesser)

AxonsAxons alveusalveusFimbriaFimbriaFonixFonix

Fornix projectionsFornix projections Hippocampal decussationHippocampal decussation (to(to

contralateral hippocampus)contralateral hippocampus)

Anterior commissure divides:Anterior commissure divides:

Postcommissural fornixPostcommissural fornix (terminations)(terminations)

Mammillary nucleus (majority)Mammillary nucleus (majority)

Thalamus (anterior dorsal)Thalamus (anterior dorsal)

Hypothalamus (ventromedial)Hypothalamus (ventromedial)

Precommissural fornixPrecommissural fornix (trerminations)(trerminations)

Septal nuclei, medial frontal cortex,Septal nuclei, medial frontal cortex,hypothalamus, nucleus accumbenshypothalamus, nucleus accumbens

From the hippocampus pyramidal cellsFrom the hippocampus pyramidal cells


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Acetyl CholineAcetyl Choline

Limbic control of MemoryLimbic control of MemoryAssociation

Cortex


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Lesions/deficits of Hippocampal Form.Lesions/deficits of Hippocampal Form.


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Lesions/deficits of Hippocampal Form.Lesions/deficits of Hippocampal Form.


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Limbic System Structures/Limbic System Structures/FunctFunct..

??????: Involved in signaling the cortex of motivationally significant stimuli: Involved in signaling the cortex of motivationally significant stimuli

such as those related to reward and fear in addition to social functions suchsuch as those related to reward and fear in addition to social functions such

as mating.as mating.

??????: Required for the formation of long: Required for the formation of long--term memoriesterm memories

??????: Plays a role in the formation of spatial memory and is part of the: Plays a role in the formation of spatial memory and is part of thehippocampushippocampus

??????: Autonomic functions regulating heart rate, blood pressure and: Autonomic functions regulating heart rate, blood pressure and

cognitive and attentional processingcognitive and attentional processing

??????: Major white matter tract, carries signals from the hippocampus to the: Major white matter tract, carries signals from the hippocampus to the

mammillary bodies and septal nucleimammillary bodies and septal nuclei involved in memory formation.involved in memory formation.

??????: Regulates the autonomic nervous system via hormone production and: Regulates the autonomic nervous system via hormone production and

release. Affects and regulates blood pressure, heart rate, hunger, thirst,release. Affects and regulates blood pressure, heart rate, hunger, thirst,

sexual arousal, and the sleep/wake cyclesexual arousal, and the sleep/wake cycle

??????: The "relay station" to the cerebral cortex: The "relay station" to the cerebral cortex


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AmygdalaAmygdala: Involved in signaling the cortex of motivationally significant: Involved in signaling the cortex of motivationally significant

stimuli such as those related to reward and fear in addition to socialstimuli such as those related to reward and fear in addition to social

functions such as mating.functions such as mating.

HippocampusHippocampus: Required for the formation of long: Required for the formation of long--term memoriesterm memories

Parahippocampal gyrusParahippocampal gyrus: Plays a role in the formation of spatial memory and: Plays a role in the formation of spatial memory andis part of the hippocampusis part of the hippocampus

Cingulate gyrusCingulate gyrus: Autonomic functions regulating heart rate, blood pressure: Autonomic functions regulating heart rate, blood pressure

and cognitive and attentional processingand cognitive and attentional processing

FornixFornix: Major white matter tract, carries signals from the hippocampus to the: Major white matter tract, carries signals from the hippocampus to the

mammillary bodies and septal nucleimammillary bodies and septal nuclei involved in memory formation.involved in memory formation.

HypothalamusHypothalamus: Regulates the autonomic nervous system via hormone: Regulates the autonomic nervous system via hormone

production and release. Affects and regulates blood pressure, heart rate,production and release. Affects and regulates blood pressure, heart rate,

hunger, thirst, sexual arousal, and the sleep/wake cyclehunger, thirst, sexual arousal, and the sleep/wake cycle

ThalamusThalamus: The "relay station" to the cerebral cortex: The "relay station" to the cerebral cortex


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??????: Important for the formation of memory: Important for the formation of memory

??????: secretes hormones regulating homeostasis: secretes hormones regulating homeostasis

??????: thought to contribute to new memories and to regulate: thought to contribute to new memories and to regulate

happiness.happiness.

??? cortex and ?????? cortex and ???: Receive smell input in the olfactory system.: Receive smell input in the olfactory system.

??????: Region encompassing the cingulate, hippocampus, and: Region encompassing the cingulate, hippocampus, andparahippocampal gyrusparahippocampal gyrus

??????:Olfactory sensory input

:Olfactory sensory input

??????: Involved in reward, pleasure, and addiction: Involved in reward, pleasure, and addiction

??????: Required for decision making: Required for decision making


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Mammillary bodyMammillary body: Important for the formation of memory: Important for the formation of memory

Pituitary glandPituitary gland: secretes hormones regulating homeostasis: secretes hormones regulating homeostasis

Dentate gyrusDentate gyrus: thought to contribute to new memories and to: thought to contribute to new memories and to

regulate happiness.regulate happiness.

Entorhinal cortex and piriform cortexEntorhinal cortex and piriform cortex: Receive smell input in the: Receive smell input in theolfactory system.olfactory system.

Fornicate gyrusFornicate gyrus: Region encompassing the cingulate,: Region encompassing the cingulate,hippocampus, and parahippocampal gyrushippocampus, and parahippocampal gyrus

Olfactory bulbOlfactory bulb: Olfactory sensory input: Olfactory sensory input

Nucleus accumbensNucleus accumbens: Involved in reward, pleasure, and addiction: Involved in reward, pleasure, and addiction

Orbitofrontal cortexOrbitofrontal cortex: Required for decision making: Required for decision making

cerebral cortex 2

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