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CGE 46

INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM

TECHNOLOGY

TENGKU AMRAN TENGKU MOHD

Department of Oil & Gas Engineering

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

UiTM Shah Alam

BY:

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Fundamental of Petroleum

Geology2

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The Nature of Oil & Gas

Identification of Rocks and Minerals

Fundamental of Rocks and Minerals

Geological Time

Deformation of Sedimentary Rocks

Sandstone Reservoir Rocks

Carbonate Reservoir Rocks

Sedimentary Rock Distribution

Outline

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After completing this chapter, you should beable to:

Describe the nature of oil and gas

Discuss the main difference between igneous,sedimentary and metamorphic rocks as wellas the circular process.

Describe the main distinguishing features and

occurrence of the major minerals. Describe the geological time scale as well as

sandstone and carbonate reservoir rocks.

Objectives

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Overview

GasOil

Water

Petroleum Accumulates in Structural Closure

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Overview

What is geology??? Geology is of major importance to the petroleum

industry for the following reasons:

- It is necessary to drill through the rock structure of the

earth in order to gain access to the hydrocarbon

reservoir.

Geology is the science that deals with the history and

structure of the earth and its life forms, especially

as recorded in the rock record.

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Overview

The physical characteristics of a reservoir, how

petroleum originated and in what type of rock, what types

of fluids exist in the reservoir, how hydrocarbons become

trapped, and basic well log analysis are some of the

concepts vital to the production and recovery efforts ofany exploration or energy service company.

Hydrocarbon is generated in the source rock. Hydrocarbon is stored within the rock structure of the

earth.

Hydrocarbons must be produced from the rocks of the

earth.

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The term of petroleum was derived from the ancient

Greek words:

Petra = rock

Oleum = oil The term originally used to differentiate rock-oil from

other oil in 19thCentury.

Oil and natural gas are made up of hydrocarbon (HC)

molecules. HC molecules occur only in living things (plants and

animals)

Methanemost common HC molecule

Nature of Oil and Gas

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Paraffins oralkane moleculesaturated chain HC(single bonds)

CnH2n+2

Naphthene orcycloparaffin moleculecyclic HC

compounds

CnH2n

1. Crude Oil

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Aromatic orbenzene moleculeclosed ring with some

unsaturated (double) bonds

CnH2n-6

Asphaltic molecule40 to more than 60 C atoms, solid to

semisolid under surface conditions.

Crude oilliquid at surface temperature and pressure. Soluble in organic solvent

Crude oil made up mainly of paraffin (paraffin-based crude oil)

Asphalt-based crude oilcontain little or no paraffin wax.

1. Crude Oil

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Mixture of HC (mainly HC gases) Methane (CH4)

Ethane (C2H6)

Propane (C3H8)

Butane (C4H10)

Cannot be condensed to liquids at surface temperature

and pressure

Dry gas: gas that is mainly methane

Wet gas: gas mixture with > 4-5% ethane

Mineral gas: natural occurrences of non-hydrocarbon gases, i.e.

CO2, He and H2S.

2. Natural Gas

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Natural gas liquidcondensate & liquefied petroleum

gas (LPG), the wet-gas compounds that can be liquefied

at surface temperature

Methane can also be liquefied under certain conditions(high pressure, low temperature ~ -160oC)LNG

2. Natural Gas

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Crystalline solids (water-ice) consisting of gas (usually

methane) molecules each surrounded by a cage of water

molecules

Formed at high pressure and low temperature in the

deep sea (>300m).

3. Gas Hydrates

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Heavy oilAPI < 16oAPI

Not flow on its own at typical reservoir temperatures

tar/asphalt.

In heavy-oil sands: oil coats the grains of the reservoir

rock.

More viscous

Close to the surface

4. Oil Sand/Bitumen/Heavy, Extra Heavy Oil

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Rocks and Minerals

WHAT ARE THE THREE (3)

TYPES OF ROCKS???

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Rocks and Minerals

The earth is made of three rock classes:

Igneous

Sedimentary

Metamorphic

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1. Igneous Rock

Igneous rock is rock formed from cool ing m agma, or

mol ten rock (from the mantle or asthenosphere ofthe earth).

Igneous rock at the earths surface usually implies

volcanic activity where magma has been extruded to

the surface in the form of lava. Upon exposure to the atmosphere, cooling and

solidifying occurs, resulting in the formation of

extrusive igneous rock (volcanic) .

The greatest presence of igneous rock in the crust of

the earth, however, is intrusive or pluton ic igneous

rock.

Igneous rocks rarely form drilling targets for

petroleum (except fractured granites and lavas)

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Two major groups;

Extrusive(Volcanic)occurred on the earth surface. In t rusive(Plutonic)occurred within the earth crust

Extrusive Intrusive

1. Igneous Rockmode of occurrences

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1. Igneous Rock

The most common intrusive igneous rock is granite.

Figure belowgraphically represents a microscopic viewof a granite sample.

The significance to the petroleum industry is that most

igneous rock has very little void space (open space

within the rock) so there is no potential storage ofhydrocarbons.

Although there are exceptions, in general, hydrocarbon

reservoirs will not be found in igneous rock.

Graphical Representation Microscopic

View of Sample of Granite

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1. Igneous Rock

Igneous rock beneath the surface rock of the

earths crust is referred to as basement rock.This basement rock is usuallygranite.

When drillers drill into basement rock, they willnormally cease drilling.

However, when granite is drilled into, it may notnecessarily be the basement rock.

Granite may result from an intrusion of magma

into overlying rocks during volcanic activity. Essentially vertical veins of igneous intrusions

arecalled dikes, and essentially horizontal veinsof igneous intrusions are calledsills.

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1. Igneous Rock

Figure 2.2: Examples of igneous rock

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2. Sedimentary Rock

Figure 2.3. Graphical Representation

Microscopic View of Sample sandstone

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of

particles, followed by burial, compaction andcementation of those particles.

Clast ic sedimentary rocks - formed by erosion of pre-

existing rocks, subsequent transport of the resulting

particles by water or air, and their eventual deposition(e.g. sandstones, mudstones)

Chemical sedimentary rocks - formed by direct

precipitation of minerals from water (e.g. limestones,

dolomites)

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Formation

Sedimentary rocks are formed from overburden

pressureas particles of sedimentare depositedout of

air, ice, or water flows carrying the particles in

suspension. As sediment deposition builds up, the

overburden (or 'lithostatic') pressure squeezes the

sediment into layered solids in a process known asli th i f icat ion('rock formation') and the original connate

fluidsare expelled.

(The term diagenesis is used to describe all the

chemical, physical, and biological changes, includingcementation, undergone by a sediment after its initial

deposition and during and after its lithification,

exclusive of surface weathering.)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_(geology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overburden_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overburden_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settlinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connate_fluidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connate_fluidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagenesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cementationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cementationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagenesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connate_fluidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connate_fluidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connate_fluidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settlinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overburden_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overburden_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overburden_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_(geology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Igammonite.jpg

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Formation

Sedimentary rocks contain important

information about the history of the Earth.They contain fossi ls (the preserved

remains of ancient plants and animals).

Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils

because, unlike most igneous and

metamorphic rocks, they form attemperatures and pressures that do not

destroy fossil remnants.

The composition of sediments provides

us with clues as to the original rock.

Differences between successive layers

indicate changes to the environment

which have occurred over time.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Igammonite.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Earth

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PAB 1023 Petroleum Geoscience 25

Sedimentary Processes1

2) & 3)

Sediments are

transported and

deposited

4

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Deposition-occurs whengeologic agent canno longer transportmaterial

The basic processes involved in the formation of a clasticsedimentary rocks are: weathering(erosion), transportation,

depositionand compaction(lithification)

Weathering-

mechanical orchemical break downof rock

Transportation-movement of sedimentby gravity, wind, water(geologic agents)

Compaction (lithification) - pressureof overlying sediments packs grains andsqueezes water from pores

Cementation- pore spaces fill with abinding agent, typically - calcite, quartz, ironoxide, precipitated from circulating water.

Crystallization- newminerals grow, or existingcrystals grow larger as timepasses - helps hold rocktogether.

Sedimentaryrocks

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks (Processes)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weatheringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_(geology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposition_(geology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposition_(geology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_(geology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathering

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Weathering and Erosion

Weathering and erosion are the processes by which

the sediments are broken down and transported.

There are two types of weathering:

i) Physicaloccurs when solid rock is fragmented

by physical processes that do not change therocks chemical composition.These processes

include wind (aeolian forces), water (freezing, flowing,

wave action, etc), heat, and even glacial movement.

Frost wedging is one example of physical weathering.

ii) Chemicaloccurs when minerals in a rock are

chemically altered or dissolved. The weathering of

potassium feldspar to form kaolinite, a clay, is an

example of chemical weathering.

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Weathering and Erosion

Weathering and erosion are closely interrelated

geological processes.As a rock weathers, it

becomes susceptible to erosion. Erosion is the

removal of weathered debris.

These and additional forces and processes have

resulted in the creation of subsurface geological

formations in which petroleum reservoirs are found.

Lithificationthe process which results in the

formation of solid rock from a loose sediment

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2. Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary rocks form the large majority ofpetroleum reservoirs and source rocks.

There is no particular order in the particle

arrangement. However, many sedimentary

rocks have void space.

These open spaces provide for potential

storage of hydrocarbons, which may be

found in sedimentary rocks.

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2. Sedimentary Rock

Examples of sedimentary rock

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2. Sedimentary Rock

The two main groups of sedimentary rocks are classified

on the basis of their origin:

1)Clast ic Sedim entary Rocks - formed as a result of

the weathering or fragmentationofpre-existing rocks

and minerals and classified on the basis of their

textures, primarily the sizes of the grains.

SEDIMENTARYROCKS

Coarse-grained

Medium-grained

Fine-grained

conglomerates

sandstones

Siltstones,mudstones

& shales

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Detrital sedimentary rocks - classified by grain size

differences

Conglomerate

Breccia

Sandstone

Shale

All these rocks have clast ictexturesthe rocks are composed of

particles (fragments) that are cemented together

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2. Sedimentary Rock

The two main groups of sedimentary rocks are classified

on the basis of their origin:

2)Chem ical or B iochemical Sedimentary Rocks -

formed as a result of chemical processes.

Primary carbonate deposition results from the

precipitation and deposits formed by plants and

animals that utilize carbonates in their life processes.

Calcite -The most abundant mineral chemically orbiochemically precipitated in the oceans the main

constituent of limestone.

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Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks

Limestonescomposed of calcite

Travertine Coquina

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There are three

Types of rocks

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Metamorphic rock is rock formed from previously existing

rocks by extremes of pressure, temperature, time, andchemical action.

When conditions leading to lithificationare carried to the

extreme, metamorphism occurs. As an example, sand

originally deposited as desert sand may undergolithification to form sandstone in geologic time.

Metamorphic rocks are formed by the heating - often

accompanied by deformation- of pre-existing rocks

(igneous or sedimentary) at depth within the earths crust(e.g. schist, marble, gneiss).

Ultimately metamorphic rocks will be melted and re-cycled

as igneous rocks. Metamorphic rocks are rarely drilling

targets for hydrocarbons.

3) Metamorphic Rocks

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How Metamorphic Rocks are Formed?

The underlying principle to understanding all things

geological is: Minerals and rocks are stable only under the

condi t ion s at wh ich they form . Change the

condi t ion s and the rocks wi l l change to adapt to the

new condi t ions. Metamorphismoccurs when any previously

existing rock, the parent rock, is buried in the earthunder layers of other rock. The deeper the rock is

buried the hotter it gets, and the higher thepressure becomes. Eventually, rock must adjust tothe new conditions, whether it is baked, orsqueezed, or both, and in the process becomes a

metamorphic rock.

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What causes metamorph ism?Heat (temperature)

Pressure

React ion with f lu id s

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Examples of metamorphic rock

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Examples of metamorphic rock

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It is not expected that hydrocarbon will be foundinmetamorphic rock.


Graphical Representation ofMicroscopic View of Sample of Gneiss

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Formation of Rocks

Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks are related bythe rock cycle, the circular processby which each is formedfrom the others.

Rock cycle

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Summary

Igneous rockssolidify from magma (or molten rock)

Sedimentary rocksform from materials that are eroded

from other rocks

Metamorphic rocksare rocks that have changed due to

being heated and/or compressed.

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Minerals

Rocks are composed of minerals (Figure)constructedfrom the main elements present within the Earths crust .

The difference between a rock and a mineral is:

A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals (e.g.

granite, marble or sandstone) or a body of

undifferentiated mineral matter (e.g. obsidian) or organic

matter (e.g. coal)

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Minerals

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Minerals

A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic element orcompoundhaving an orderly internal structure and

characteristic chemical composition, crystal form and

physical properties.

The number of different minerals is vast and only those

most commonly occurring in the sedimentary rocks,

considered most relevant to the petroleum engineer, are

considered at this time.

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Rocks areaggregates of

minerals

Minerals

are the

basic

building

blocksof the

solid

earth

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Geologists have classified the earths stratigraphicrecord (the geological record) in terms of the key

periods of geological time (Figure).

The Periodsare grouped within major Era and are

further subdivided into Epochs and Ages. The details of the stratigraphy(spatial and temporal

distribution of rock units) at the reservoir scale are

usually defined by l i thostrat igraphic(rock type)

and/or biostrat igraphic(fossil type) correlations.

Geological Time Scale

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The Geological Time Scale

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PAB 1023 Petroleum Geoscience 56Formation of planet (4600)

Cyanobacteria & stromatolites (3500)

Oxygenated atmosphere (2400)

First algae (1800)

First land plants (470)

First reptiles (310)

First mammals (210)

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Ano ther lookat geolog ic

t ime

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Relat ive and Abso lute dat ing

Relat ive dating: Events and rocks units areput in sequence relative to one another

Absolute dat ing: The age of rock units isdetermined precisely in years using the rate

of decay of naturally occurring radioactive

elements

Principles of relative dating

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Principles of relative dating

1)Orig inal Horizonta l i ty & 2) Superposi t ion

Strata aredeposited

horizontally,

with oldest

strata beneath

younger strata

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Relativedating

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3) Cross cut t ing

Igneous

intrusions,

such asdikes, sills

and

plutons,

and faults,are

younger

than the

features

they cutacross

Relative dating

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g4) Inc lus ions

Xenoliths in intrusive rock are

older than the intrusive rock

Igneous clasts in conglomerate

are older than the conglomerate

Inclusions are older than the

rocks that contain them.

How to correlate strata over large distances?

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1)Key beds,2)Fossi ls & faunal succession

Each stratum represents a particular environment, with characteristic

plants and/or animals which can be preserved as fossi ls . Over time,

some living things become extinct and others become common.

Key bedsare deposited during short events, like volcanic ash

eruptions or landslides, and are easily identified

Look at stra

tigraphy

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Permian: 251-300million years ago

Cambrian: 510-543 million yearsago

Precambrian:older than 543million years ago

Look at stratigraphy

(rock sequence) of

the Grand Canyon

I d f i l

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Ind ex fos si lsthe characteristic fossils found in strata of agiven age

Ammonitesindex fossils for the

Cretaceous Period

Trilobitesindex fossils for theCambrian Period

Radiom etr ic dat ingan absolute dating technique based on radioactive

d f t ll i i t i k

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decay of naturally occurring isotopes in rocks

Certain kinds of atoms (parentisotopes) are unstable.

Common isotopes are 40-K,238-U, 87-Rb, 14-C

Parent atoms decay intoother atoms called daughters,

on a one-to-one basis

During radioactive decay sub-atomic particles and energyare emitted (danger!)

Each isotope has its ownknown decay constant, whichcan be expressed as a half-life

Betaemission

Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes used for radiometric

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dating

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Stratigraphic principles

Uniformitarianism

More or less, this is the idea that processes

which are happening today happened similarly

in the past. So if we observe something going ontoday, we might expect it to have been similar

100 million years ago.

The present is the key to the past.

Superposition principles

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Superpositionprinciples

Basically, in any undisturbed stratigraphic column,

the oldest layer of rock is located at the bottom. Thisis pretty obvious - you can't put layer B on top oflayer A if layer A isn't there yet, and it's awfully hardto slip layer A into a stratigraphic column withoutdisturbing the column.

Crosscutting principles

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Crosscuttingprinciples

If geologic unit A cuts through geologic unit B, then A is

younger than B. For example, if a fault breaks a rocklayer, the fault must be younger than the rock layer.

The usage of stratigraphic

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The usage of stratigraphic

principle You can use these principles to determine

the order in which layers were deposited,cut and folded.

1

2 3

4

Sandstone Reservoir

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Sedimentary rock composed of

individual mineral grains of rock

fragments and cemented together

by silica, calcite and iron oxide.

It is commonly porous and

permeable and likely type of rock in

which to find a petroleum reservoir.

Sandstone Reservoir

Sandsto ne reservoir

Sandstone Reservoir

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Sandstone reservoirs are generally created by:Accumulation of large amounts of clastic

sedimentswhich is characteristic of depositional

environments such as river channels, deltas,

beaches, lakes and submarine fans.

Sandstone reservoirs have a depositional porosity

and permeability controlled by grain size, sorting, and

packing of the particular sediments.

Sandstone Reservoir

Carbonate Reservoir

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Sedimentary rock composedprimarily of calcium carbonate

(limestone) or calcium magnesium

carbonate (dolomite).

Sometimes makes up petroleum

reservoir.

Carbonate reservoirs are created

in marine sedimentary

environments with little or no

clastic material input.

Carbonate Reservoir

Carbonate reservoir

Carbonate Reservoir

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Porosity types of carbonate reservoirs includevuggy

(pores larger than grains), intergranular (between

grains), intragranular or cellular (within grains), and

fracture.

Diagenetic changes such as dolomitization, fracturing,

dissolution, and recrystalization (rare) are extremely

important because they have the ability to create very

effective secondary porosity.

Cementation, another type of diagenesis, generally

reduces porosity and permeability.

Carbonate Reservoir

Carbonate Reservoir

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Vuggy porosity

Form of secondary porosity resulting from the dissolution

of the more soluble portions of rock or solution

enlargement of pores or fractures.

Carbonate Reservoir

Vuggy porosity in

carbonates

Carbonate Reservoir

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Vuggy porosity

Carbonate Reservoir

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