Ch. 8 Conflict in the Southern Kingdoms

1. The Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta2. Political organization and administration

3. The Agrarian system4. Religion

5. Art and Architecture

Chalukya empire

Rashtrakuta empire

Pallava empire

Pandya empire

South in History

• Fall of Guptas- no strong kingdom in the north• Important developments come from the South• Assimilation rather than closing• The Pallava period- emergence of a Tamil

personality- to contribute substantially to the development of Indian civilization.

• The kingdoms of Deccan still acted as bridge between North and South. This is not a passive role- protected itself as individual- seen in its language and art and architecture

• Dyanastic rivalries an battles centered around geographical regions- who own the most fertile land

• Krishna and Godawari- river basin- the most fertile land was often the bone of contention

• From 6th to 9 century C.E, the major dynasties in the South are Pallavas of Kanchipuram, Chalukyas of Badami, and Pandyas of Madurai.

Pallavas

• The origin of Pallavas is not clear• 1. Pallava- as descendants of Pahlava- from

Parthian in the Northwest who migrated South- • Tribe from Vengi- their early inscriptions and

temples are found here- from the Palnadu region• The name leads to a mythological origin story- a

young prince fell in love with a Naga princess and told her to send the son afloat with a twig ( pallava) so he can recognize him and raise him and give his kingdom- she did so and hence the name of the dynasty

• Earliest inscriptions are in Prakrit followed by Sanskrit and then Sanskrit and Tamil.

• Prakrit early stage- Sanskit and Tamil later stage• The kings- performed vedic sacrifices such as

Asvamedha sacrifice- may be suited to their purpose of conquest- it is doubtful how much original concept remained.

• Encouraged agriculture- distributed golden plows

Mahendravarma I (600-630 C.E)

• Contemporary of Harsha, of the north- Pushyabhughi dynasty

• Wrote a play- Mattavilasaprahasana• Rock cut temples of Mammallapuram-

Mahabalipuram • Jaina but converted to Saivism by Appar• Battles with Pulakesi II• Pulakesi II defeated Mahendravarma- infact

defeated Harsha also- Pulakesi’s northern expeditions are well known

Narasimhavarma I

• Led successful battle on the Chalukyas- with the support of Srilanka

• Took the title- vatapikonda- ‘the conqueror of Vatapi’

• They Pallavas also supported Srilankan king to get his kingdom back

• Chalukyas again- reach up to Kanchipuram- defeat Pallavas

• Nandivarma II was killed in battle with the Chalukyas in 731- no direct heir so Nandivarma II was elected

• Conflict with other dynasties also-• Pandyas in southern Tamilnadu- Cheras in the Malabar

coast• Malabar coast was a host to an influx of traders- Arab

merchants- called Mappillas or Malabar Muslims• Zoroshtrians harassed by Muslim as well moved to India

during this time- known as Parsis• The northern line of Chalukyas- Lata Chalukyas- trouble

with Muslim invasions.

Rashtrakutas

• Fuedatory of Chalukyas- but founded an independent empire

• Weakened the Chalukyas and slipped into oblivion

• Pallavas lasted upto 9 th century but still a weak kingdom

Rashtrakutas- Amoghavarsha

• Due to their location in the center they were constantly in conflict with north and south

• Amoghavarsha is one of the well known kings of the dynasty

• Jain king supported Jainism

• But Chalukyas again- overthown the Rashtrakutas

2. Political administration

• Fuedatory- is just political vassal- not territorial like in other areas

• Pallavas claimed descent from Brahma- a king was elcted also-

• Kings took high sounding titles: Maharajadhiraja

• Aggotom-vajapeya-assamedha- yaji : one who has performed agnistoma, vajapeya and asvamedha sacrifices

Provincial administration

• Governor- assisted by officers of districts- who worked with autonomous local assemblies.

• Local autonomous institutions

• Assemblies of villagers

• General assembly meetings were held once a year

• Committees from lot

Village assembly

• Basic assembly was Sabha– concerned with all the matters related to village.

• Including endowments, irrigation, land, crime, census, and other records.

• Sabha worked in close collaboration with Urar- informal gathering of the whole village

• Above this was a village council which worked with the nadu- or distict council.

• The autonomy declined-as one progresses north

Land and villages

• Land ownership rested with the king- land grants to his officers as well as priests.

• Crown land was rented to tenants• Private land owners existed- • The status of the village varied- administratively-

according to the land grants-• Brahmadeya village- entire village was donated to

brahmans • Agrahara- entire village was donated to the settlement of

the brahmans• Devadana- villages donated to the temples- of god

The village

• The village as a rural unit included: homes of the villagers, gardens, irrigation works, cattle enclosers, waste lands, the village common, forests surrounding the village, streams, the temple and temple lands, cremation grounds, wet and dry lands (cultivated land) called as such due to the availability of water-

• Wet lands are close to water sources- dry far from water sources- dependent on rain

• Eripatti- tank land- land donated by the villagers for the maintanance of water tank or pond.

• Rain water is stored so it can be used for irrigation later

• Irrigation was an important aspect of agriculture at this time.

• Maintenance and distribution of water was done by a village committee.

• Two categories of taxes levied in the village

• Land tax 1/6 to 1/10 of the produce.• Collected by the village and paid to the

collector• Second tax was collected by the village

itself to utilize for local work- repair and irrigation

• Tax is also collected on professions etc

• Most of the revenue was spent to maintain the army

• Army consisted of food soldiers, cavalry and elephants

• Chariots were out of fashion- not used • Pallavas developed a navy• There was a clear distinction between military

and civil officials and administration- one did not double as the other.

• Pallava navy- • Ports at Nagapatnam and Mahabalipuram• Colonized southeast Asia• Kambuja (Cambodia), Champa (Burma),

Srivijaya (Malay peninsula and Sumatra),• Philippines • Trade between these regions was common.• With southeast Asia the cultural contacts are

significant- Tamil script was used

3. Religion

• Brahmanical Hinduism becomes common religion- devotional religion

• The king converts to Saivism- a sect of Hinduism• Educational institution similar to the North

develop- Kanchi• Jain educational institution at Madurai and

Kanchi• For Buddism monasteries continue to be centers

of activity

• Buddhist cave temples and Viharas and Chaityas are found extensively in Krishna-Godavari delta.

• Royal patronage gave advantage to Hinduism- numerous temples

• Ghatikas (Hindu colleges) were generally affiliated to temples

• Apart from Kanchi- which was seen as a great institution as Nalanda- there were numerous smaller colleges

• Matha is another institution that became common after 8th century.

• Rest house, feedign center, and an education center – affiliated to one religious sect.

4. Literature

• Sanskrit was the medium of education in the colleges- so naturally literary activity and scientific study was in Sanskrit

• Bharavi- Kiratarjuniya (Kirata vs. Arjuna)• Dandi- Dashakumaracarita (tale of ten princes)• Tamil, Kannada and Telugu developed further at

this time- local literature• Kural- tamil religious text• Nalayiram- another religious text• Both commonly recited

• Shilappadigaram

• Manimekhalai

• Both show familiarity with Sanskrit literary style

• Devotional Hinduism develops in South India.

• Shankaracharya- organized Hinduism• Propagator of Vedantha (advaita)• Comes form Kerala• Shankara maintained that the world we see

around us is maya- for the reality that lies beyond cannot be percieved through senses

• He traced his teachings to upanishadic thought.• Opposed ritual• Opposed discrimination based on caste

Birth place of Shakara- Kaladi

Shankara

Shankara’s statue

• Established four mathas across India- to continue the traditions he established

• Badrinath- in Himalayas• Puri- In Orissa• Dvaraka- on the West coast• Shringeri in the South• These institutions were richly endowed and soon

became popular• He encouraged ascetic order-• Resembles Buddhism

• Shankara travelled extensively

• Converting others to the cause of the Vedanta

• Shankara’s codification spurned some opposition as well.

Saivism

• Hinduism is enriched by the elements- that entered Saivism from its popular culture

• Vishnu- Vaisnavism• Siva- Saivism• More stronger than Vedic religion• This finally culminated into the Bhakti

movement• Buddhism and Jainism gave way to this

popular Hinduism

Siva with sages

• Nayanars- Siva- Nalayira Prabandham

• Alvars- Visnu- Tiruvachakam- Tirumurai

• Saiva saints: Appar, Sambandar, Manikkavasagar, and Sundara

• Vaisnava saints also- 9 saints- includes a woman- Alval