Ch. 9 South in the Ascent (900-1300 C.E)

1. Chalukya, Chola empires2. Political administration

3. Religion4. Temples and architecture

Political history

• South was divided into numerous smaller kingdoms – Cholas emerged as the strong political power

• This period can be seen as the classical period in the history of south India- similar patterns as seen in the Gupta history can be seen now

• Religion- systematized, trade with Southeast Asia and Arabs, art and architecture- Chola bronzes popular throughout India.

The Cholas

• Paranthaka I (907C.E) first important ruler of Chola empire

• Defeated Pandyas and expanded upto Madurai. This brought him into contact with Srilanka and years of conflict followed.

• Rajaraja I (985-1014) - Tried to break alliance between, Kerala, Srilanka and Pandyas- in order to dominate the western sea trade.

• Attacked Maldives• Attacked Srilanka destroying the capital

Anuradhapura

• Rajendra (1014-1042)ruled with his father, the last two years and then succeeded him-

• Continued the policy of conquest• North campaign- upto Ganga.• Oveseas campaign: Conquered, Srilanka• Srivijaya- Malay peninsula and Sumatra• Internal conflicts within the south- Vengi Chalukya-

lightning raids• Kulottunga I (1070-1180)• Sent embassy of 72 merchants to China in 1077.• Disintegrated into smaller empires-again after 12 c. C.E.

Political administration

• King and his confident raja-guru (high priest) at the head of affairs

• Administration carried out by officials• Divided into provinces- Mandalam (8

provinces in Chola empire)• Each Mandalam is divided into districts or

Valanadus. These were again divided into groups of villages known as, Kurram, nadu or kottam for administration.

Chola local administration

• Remarkable feature of Chola administration is the independent local administration.

• Village autonomy is seen for the first time in Ancient world

• Chola officials participated in the village administration as advisors and observers

• Helped village development without much interference.

Village assembly

• A village assembly was formed from among the villagers for the governance

• Complex village administration

• Each village divided into wards-

• The representatives can be members of wards- and professional groups-

• General assembly included most of the local residents:

The general assembly

• There are three kinds of village general assemblies: Ur, Sabha and Nagaram.

• In some villages Ur and Sabha are found together.

• In some villages there may be more than one Ur. • Ur: All male members of the village are

members- elders formed council for day to day governance

• Sabha is restricted to the Brahmans of the village and is governed in a similar way.

• Nagaram is found in trade centers-

Committees

• Committees will be appointed from among the members of the assemblies- garden committee, tank committee, temple committee etc.

• Any accountant will write the accounts• Generally, the assembly met in the temple

compound.• State taxes were also collected by the village

assembly- assessed jointly on the village- not on individuals

Trade

• Overseas trade: export- ivory, spices, sandal wood, metal artifacts

• Imports: exclusively horses

• Guilds took care of trade- finance, registration, payment of taxes etc.

Temples

• Huge architectural monuments- all across the kingdom- Rajaraja temple- Tanjore

• Temples acted as the institutions and meeting places

• Educational centers• Temples owned tax exempt lands• Owned women donated in their childhood• Called Devadasi (servant of god) but

exploited by other sections of society

Caste system

• Became stratified, but not as strict as in the North India- still fluid.

• Caste educational guilds

• Educational centers: Ennayiram, Tribhuvani, Tiruvaduturai, Tiroyyur.- Sanskrit as medium of education

• But local language flourished in the Tamil and Saiva hymns written during this time.

Religion

• Sanskrit texts translated into local language• Kamba- Ramayana- Tamil• Pampa- Ramayana- Kannada• Mahabharata- Telugu- NannayaNew religious movement with local features:

Bhakti- Vaisnavism- personal god- alvars- composed hymns

Three Saiva sects: Kapalika, Kalamukha and PashupataLingayata or Virasaiva school developed later from the

Saiva schools- Bhakti at the center of the religionOpposed caste system

Vaishnavism• Shankara- Visistadvaita- qualified monism- only one principle-

knowledge is the only way to reach it.• Ramanuja-Dvaita- dualism- nature is dual-so is the highest

principle- knowledge is not the only way to reach it.• Bhakti is another legetimate way to reach it.• He pleaded that the temples should be opened to Shudras- without

much success- but new rituals that allowed other religions to participate entered the temples.

• Ramanuja- selective salvation- forgiveness- • Two school north- that one should try for forgiveness and salvation-

south- god select people arbitrarily for slavation.

• Madhva further modifications in Vaisnava theology

• Only pure souls are selected for salvation

A development in theology- Brahmanical and popular elements mixed in practice.

Architecture

• Avoided hills and caves- to construct free standing structures

• Rajaraja temple- Tanjore• Madura meenakshi temple• A number of temples in Tamilanadu• Compound with parivara devata shrines• Central temple with high Shikhara• Doorways on all four sides with gopuras• Dwarasamudram- sun temple- chariot model-

model for later sun temple in Konark.