Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach Seventh Edition in SI Units

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. BolesMcGraw-Hill, 2011

Ch t 4Chapter 4ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CLOSED

SYSTEMS

M h K lMehmet KanogluUniversity of Gaziantep

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Objectives• Examine the moving boundary work or P dV work commonly

encountered in reciprocating devices such as automotive engines and compressorsand compressors.

• Identify the first law of thermodynamics as simply a statement of the conservation of energy principle for closed (fixed mass) systems.

• Develop the general energy balance applied to closed systems.

• Define the specific heat at constant volume and the specific heat at constant pressure.

• Relate the specific heats to the calculation of the changes in• Relate the specific heats to the calculation of the changes in internal energy and enthalpy of ideal gases.

• Describe incompressible substances and determine the changes in p gtheir internal energy and enthalpy.

• Solve energy balance problems for closed (fixed mass) systems that involve heat and work interactions for general pure

2

that involve heat and work interactions for general pure substances, ideal gases, and incompressible substances.

MOVING BOUNDARY WORKMoving boundary work (P dV work): The expansion and compression work in a piston-cylinder device.

Quasi-equilibrium process: A process during which the system remains nearly in equilibrium at allin a piston cylinder device. remains nearly in equilibrium at all times.

Wb is positive → for expansionW is negative → for compressionWb is negative → for compression

The work associated with a moving

boundary is called yboundary work.

A gas does a differential amount of work δWb as it

3

amount of work δWb as it forces the piston to move by a differential amount ds.

The boundary work done

d iduring a process depends on the

path followed as ell as the endwell as the end

states.

The area under the process curve on a P-Vdiagram is equal, in magnitude, to the work

4

g q , g ,done during a quasi-equilibrium expansion or compression process of a closed system.

Polytropic, Isothermal, and Isobaric processesPolytropic process: C, n (polytropic exponent) constantsPolytropic process: C, n (polytropic exponent) constants

Polytropic process

Polytropic and for ideal gas

When n = 1 (isothermal process)

Constant pressure process

What is the boundary work for a constant-volume process?

Schematic and P-V diagram for

5

ga polytropic

process.

Example 4Example 4--22Boundary work forBoundary work for

a constant-pressure process

Example 4Example 4--33Isothemal compression of

an ideal gas6

an ideal gas

ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS

Energy balance for any system undergoing any process

Energy balance in the rate formin the rate form

The total quantities are related to the quantities per unit time is

Energy balance per unit mass basis

Energy balance in differential formdifferential form

Energy balance for a cycle

7

Energy balance when sign convention is used: (i.e., heat input and work output are positive; heat output and work input are negative).work output are positive; heat output and work input are negative).

Various forms of the first-law relation f l d t h ifor closed systems when sign convention is used.

Th fi t l t b th ti ll b t i t i k

8

The first law cannot be proven mathematically, but no process in nature is known to have violated the first law, and this should be taken as sufficient proof.

Energy balance for a constant-pressure expansion or compression processexpansion or compression process

For a constant-pressure expansion or compression process:

General analysis for a closed system undergoing a quasi-equilibrium

HWU b Δ=+Δor compression process:undergoing a quasi equilibrium

constant-pressure process. Q is to the system and W is from the system.

An example of constant-pressure process

9

10

Example 4Example 4 55Example 4Example 4--55Electric heating of g

a gas at constant pressure

Example 4Example 4--66Unrestrained expansion ofUnrestrained expansion of

water

11

Energy balance for closed systems

HWUWQ ΔΔ HWUWQ bother Δ=+Δ=−

)( 12 hhmWQ other −=− <moving boundary>)( 12Q other

)( 12 uumWQ other −=− <fixed boundary>

12

SPECIFIC HEATSSpecific heat at constant volume, cv: The

energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degreethe unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant.

Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise the temperature ofenergy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained constant.

Constant-volume andvolume and

constant-pressure specific

heats c and c

13

heats cv and cp(values are for

helium gas).

True or False?True or False?cp is always greater than cv

• The equations in the figure are valid forThe equations in the figure are valid for any substance undergoing any process.

• cv and cp are properties.i l t d t th h i i t l• cv is related to the changes in internal

energy and cp to the changes in enthalpy.

14

• A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg·°C or kJ/kg·K. Are these units identical? Formal definitions of cv and cp.

INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY,AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GASESAND SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GASES

Joule showed using this experimental

For ideal gases, u, h, cv, and cp

Internal energy and enthalpy change of

an ideal gas

15

apparatus that u=u(T)

v pvary with temperature only.

an ideal gas

• At low pressures, all real gases approach ideal-gas behavior, and therefore their

• u and h data for a number of gases have been tabulated.

specific heats depend on temperature only. • The specific heats of real gases at low

pressures are called ideal-gas specific

• These tables are obtained by choosing an arbitrary reference point and performing the

heats, or zero-pressure specific heats, and are often denoted cp0 and cv0.

integrations by treating state 1 as the reference state.

Ideal-gas constant-pressurepressure specific heats for some gases (see Table A–

In the preparation of ideal-gas tables, 0 K is chosen as the

16

(see Table A–2c for cpequations).

reference temperature.

Internal energy and enthalpy change when specific heat is taken constant at anspecific heat is taken constant at an average value

(kJ/kg)

17

Three ways of calculating Δu and Δh1. By using the tabulated u and h data.

This is the easiest and most accurate way when tables are readily y yavailable.

2. By using the cv or cp relations (Table A 2c) as a function of temperatureA-2c) as a function of temperature and performing the integrations. This is very inconvenient for hand calculations but quite desirable for computerized calculations. The results obtained are very accurate.

3. By using average specific heats. This is very simple and certainly very convenient when property tables are Three ways of calculating Δu.convenient when property tables are not available. The results obtained are reasonably accurate if the t t i t l i t l

Three ways of calculating Δu.

18

temperature interval is not very large.

Specific Heat Relations of Ideal GasesThe relationship between cp, cv and R

On a molar basisdh = cpdT and du = cvdT

Specific heat ratioheat ratio

• The specific ratio varies with temperature but this variation istemperature, but this variation is very mild.

• For monatomic gases (helium, argon etc ) its value is essentially

The c of an ideal gas can be determined

argon, etc.), its value is essentially constant at 1.667.

• Many diatomic gases, including air, have a specific heat ratio of about

19

The cp of an ideal gas can be determined from a knowledge of cv and R.

have a specific heat ratio of about 1.4 at room temperature.

Example 4Example 4 99Example 4Example 4--99Heating of a gas by g g ya resistance heater

Example 4Example 4--1010Heating of a gas atHeating of a gas atConstant pressure

20

INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, ANDSPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDSSPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDSIncompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume (or d i ) i S lid d li id i ibl bdensity) is constant. Solids and liquids are incompressible substances.

21

Internal Energy Changes

Enthalpy Changes

The enthalpy of a

22

compressed liquid

Usually a more accurate relation than

Example 4Example 4 1212Example 4Example 4--1212Cooling of an iron block byg y

Water

Example 4Example 4--1313Heating of aluminum rods inHeating of aluminum rods in

a furnace

23

Summary• Moving boundary work

Wb for an isothermal processWb for a constant-pressure processWb for a polytropic process

• Energy balance for closed systems• Energy balance for closed systemsEnergy balance for a constant-pressure expansion or compression process

• Specific heatsConstant-pressure specific heat, cp

C t t l ifi h tConstant-volume specific heat, cv

• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of ideal gasesg

Specific heat relations of ideal gases

• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of i ibl b t ( lid d li id )

24

incompressible substances (solids and liquids)