Challenges of Multiculturalism

in Europe

Jagellonian University

9 May 2005

Laura Laubeova

laubeova@fsv.cuni.cz

Structure of the lecture

• Definitions: multiculturalism, race ethnicity, minority,

• Concepts & theories of MC• State policies vs. Minority requirements• Politics of redistribution / recognition• Ethnocultural justice• Concept of Racisms, discrimination• From assimilation to inclusion• Antidiscrimination in EU, institutional racism in UK

Background

• Amsterdam Treaty (Article 13) • two Directives (2000/43/EC, 2000/78/EC)• European Framework Convention for

protection of national minorities (FCNM)CERD, CRC, CEDAW, ICCPR, ICESCR, etc.

i.e. framework for public policies

promoting positive interethnic relations, elimination of

discrimination and racism.

• Retreat of MC after 9/11

After 9/11

Failure of MCP?

Baubock (2005): 3 elements of MC

• Constitutionally entrenched rights

HR as trumps over majority preferences (Dworkin)

• Accommodationist policies

bilingual edu for immig. General integration not a minority right

• Shared public identity

equal membersip in polity, citizenship

Multiculturalism

• Descriptive

• Normative- see bellow

• Government policy

(Canada, Australia)

• Institutional policies

(UK – racial equality, CERES)

Definitions related to ethnicity

From ethnic category to concepts of ethnic community.

“Ethnie“ isa named human population with myths of common ancestry, shared

historical memories, one or more elements of common culture, a link with a homeland, a sense of solidarity among at least some members. - covers both majority and minority population.

vs multiple identities,

situational (transcending) ethnicities, hybridity

Ethnicity2 basic + 3 complementary approaches:

1. Primordialists focus on primordial ties ( but static naturalist, ethnic id.

overlapping with other types of id.)Sociobiologists - mechanisms of nepotism and inclusive

fitness based on genetic reproductive capacity (reductionism)

2. InstrumentalistsSymbols for political goals, rational choices. Socially

constructed nature of ethnicity. But neglect wider cultural environment, affective and

collective dimensions. Interests only in material terms.

Approaches to ethnicity – cont.

3. Transactionalists Frederick Barth – social boundaries, ascribed ethnicity

4. Social psychological Horowitz, Tajfel

5. Ethno-symbolistsMyths & symbols. nostalgia… AD Smith, Armstrong

(Hutchinson, Smith: Introduction)

See also Cornell, Hartmann:

Circumstantialists vs Primordialists

Race• Biology & natural sciences – no longer since late

70´s (see researches in genetics bellow)• Race remains a legitimate concept for

sociological analysis because social actors treat is as real and organise their lives and practices by reference to it (van den Berghe)

• Robert Miles: race is only an ideological construct that is used by social scientists for legitimising the status quo

• D. Mason : “Clearly there are no such things as races. Yet it is equally clear that large numbers of people behave as if there are”

Race – cont.Mason: „race is a social relationship in which

structural positions and social actions are ordered, justified, and explained by reference to systems of symbols and beliefs which emphasise the social and cultural relevance of biologically rooted characteristics“.

• In other words, the social relationship race presumes the existence of racism and institutional racism.

Rose, Steven, Lewontin, Richard, Kamin, Leon (1990) Not In Our Genes. Biology, ideology and human nature, London: Penguin Books

Stephen Gould (1996) The Mismeasure of Man Ellis Cashmore (1996) Dictionary of race and thnic relations

Preamble of the EU Race Directive

“The European Union rejects theories which attempt to determine the existence of separate human races. The use of the term "racial origin" in this Directive does not imply an acceptance of such theories”.

Race is a social construct, i.e. a category without any biological underpinning

Race vs ethnicity

• Race is often treated as ideology – ethnicity as a real phenomenon.

• Racial refers mainly to physical terms,

– ethnic rather to cultural terms.

• Race refers to them, – ethnicity to us.

• Both concepts always imply social relationship.

Minority

”group of people distinguished by physical or cultural characteristics

subject do different and unequal treatment by the society in which they live

and who regard themselves as victims of collective discrimination“

1945 Louis Wirth

Minority - cont.• must be a 'non dominant' group; • its members must 'possess ethnic, religious or

linguistic characteristics differing from those of the rest of the population‚

• must also 'show, if only implicitly, a sense of solidarity, directed towards preserving their culture, traditions, religion or language'

(Capotorti as quoted from MRG)• Also non dominant groups that may be a

numerical majority in a state, • those who are not necessarily nationals or

citizens of the state where they reside.MRG

Multiculturalism

• Conservative (diversity as a deficit, communit.)

• Left essentialist (Afrocentrism, also communit.)

• Liberal (natural equality, lack of opportunities, decontextualisation, depolitisation)but procedural liberalism vs communitarian liber. – Kis, Taylor, Kymlicka (see also politics of recognition)

• Pluralist - salad bowl (exoticism, affirmation) vs melting pot

Multiculturalism – cont.

• Critical MC (Frankfurt School, power, emancipation, soc. justice, self reflection)

• Antiracist (life chances - CERES)

• Reflexive (Ali Ratansi – Derrida + Giddens)

• Cosmopolitan

• Ethnicity as habitus (Bourdieu)

• Hybridity (H. Bhabha, Paul Gilroy, St. Hall) rooting vs shifting

(see S. May, P. McLaren, etc)

Multiculturalism – cont.

V. Parrillo: three models of minority integration:

• Assimilation (majority- comformity)• Amalgamation (melting pot)• Accommodation (pluralism) (multiculturalism)

Multiculturalism = diversity + cooperation

Parillo, 1997

State policies incl. MCP

Eva Sobotka: policies twds the Roma in CEE:

• Exclusion• Assimilation• Co-existence• Multiculturalism

Sobotka 2003

MCP target groups (minorities)/claims and expectations

1. Indigenous (Nunavat, Sami)National minorities (Can., Eur.) Autonomy

2. Legal immigrants, gastarbeiters,refugees Fair terms of integrationIrregular & illegal immigrants (denizens/metics)

3. AfroAmericans Inclusion4. Roma Positive action5. Ch. Jews, Amish, etc Difficult case

Kymlicka – stages: communitarian, liberal, nation building

Liberal position

• Dworkin: substantial and procedural rights

• Rawls: individual autonomy supplemented by non-discrimination provisions should always carry more importance than collective rights

Arguments against ethnocultural neutrality of the state

• Education• Legal system• Diffusion of language• Relation to different ethnical/ethical questions:

slavery, polygamy, polyandry, incest, euthanasia, suicide, capital punishment, abortion, coerced marriages, divorce on demand, gay and lesbian marriages, etc.

Ethnocultural justice (Kymlicka)

Two main ideas:

• Minorities are also entitled to various degrees of nation-building

• Minority rights are a supplement not a substitute for human rights

Multiculturalism – cont.

Integration, inclusion, inclusive education

Intercultural vs multiculrural

Politics of redistribution,

of recognition (Frazer) –• politics of equal dignity (Autonomy)• politics of difference (Authenticity) (Taylor)

Racism & isms

……… sexism, disableism, ageism, homophobiaNeil Thompson

Racism can be defined as an attitude (ideology) or action (behaviour) that disadvantages individuals or groups on the basis of their “racial” inferiority[1], mainly by means of limiting their access to scarce resources.1] Racial difference or racial inferiority is often perceived or constructed in terms of different culture, ethnicity, religion, language, etc.

Explanations of racism:

1. Psychological ”Some people are like that” 2. Lack of knowledge, ignorance

„To know is to love“3. Intergroup relations ”Birds of a feather”4. Individuals are racists because the structures,

practices, and values of our society are racist. ”Its the system”

Discrimination/isms:Personal – Cultural - Structural

Neil Thompson

P

C

S

Racisms – cont.

• from violent attacks or scapegoating • to paternalistic crypto-racist assistance to m.• tendency to deny racism (unacceptable)

two main meanings: 1) ideology (beliefs) about racial superiority2) “the whole complex of factors which produce

racial discrimination” and sometimes also “those which produce racial disadvantage”

Cashmore

Racism as ideology1. the so called “scientific racism of the 19th century”,

manifested for example in the publication by Herrnstein, Murray, 1995

2. “popular” racism or “common sense” racism that is based on ethnocentrism, a tendency to believe that one´s own cultural paradigm is universal, neutral and superior to any other culture

In other words…

Racism

1. denies all difference in the name of universality of the human nature, but unconsciously it takes back this universality to the dominant model;

2. uses the obvious differences to turn them into instruments of domination, exploitation, condemnation, exclusion, or extermination.

Racisms- cont.

PrejudicePrejudice DiscriminationDiscrimination InequalityInequality

„„RRacism, in short,acism, in short, involves involves (a)(a)stereotypes about difference and inferiority stereotypes about difference and inferiority (b)(b)use of power to exclude, discriminate, subjugateuse of power to exclude, discriminate, subjugate““

The Parekh Report, 2000The Parekh Report, 2000

AttitudesAttitudesBehaviourBehaviourStructuresStructures

Racisms – cont.

     

   

ExclusionExclusionDiscriminationDiscrimination

PrejudicePrejudice

Assimilation and Racism (Bauböck)

 

 assimilation is possible

yes no

assimilation is required

yes compulsory assimilation

racist double-bind

no pluralism segregation

 

assimilationist policies

inclusiveness

Assimilationist model

DIFFERENCE DEFICIT

ASSIMILATION   

COMPENSATORY PROGRAMMESDoes the individual fit

into the System or ‘Institution’?  

ASSIMILATIONASSIMILATION

Curriculum (Multiculturalism) model

Cultural Effects

 CULTURES

LIFESTYLES ATTITUDES

PLURALIST

TOLERANCE AND HARMONY Does the organisation of this ‘institution’

recognise Diversity ?   

PLURALISTPLURALIST

Equity/Rights Model

Social and Political Effects

 EQUITY PARTICIPATION

ANTIDISCRIMINATORY

LIFE CHANCESAre people enabled in this ‘institution’?

Do the structures allow for

achievement, growth and opportunities?

ANTIDISCRIMINATORYANTIDISCRIMINATORY

Enlarged Europe – May 2004

Green paper on Equality and non-discrimination in an enlarged European Union:

http://www.stop-discrimination.info

http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/fundamental_rights/greenpaper_en.htm

http://www.enar-eu.org/en/info/fact18.shtml

Institutional racism

1999 – The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry: Report of an Inquiry by Sir William Macpherson of Cluny, also at

www.official-documents.co.uk/document/cm42/4262/4262.htm; mainly chapter 6, pp. 26-28

„Institutional Racism defined as: The collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin. It can be seen or detected in processes, attitudes and behaviour which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness and racist stereotyping which disadvantages minority ethnic people.“