CHANGING PERSPECTIVES IN ECOLOGY

AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION:

Achieving Landscape And Regional

Sustainability

CHANGING PERSPECTIVES IN ECOLOGY

AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION:

Achieving Landscape And Regional

Sustainability

Jianguo (Jingle) WuSchool of Life Sciences & Global Institute of Sustainability

Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287

Jianguo (Jingle) WuSchool of Life Sciences & Global Institute of Sustainability

Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287

OUTLINE

1. Why Biodiversity Conservation?

2. Balance of Nature: Myth or Reality?

3. Theory of Island Biogeography: Useful at all?

4. SLOSS: Missing the Real Point?

5. MVP/PVA: Trustworthy and Efficient Enough?

6. Metapopulation Theory: Elegant, but Oversimplistic?

7. Integrative Perspectives and Planning Principles for

Biodiversity Conservation

8. Concluding Remarks

Why Is Biodiversity Important?

Goods and ecosystem servicesGoods: e.g., food, shelters, timber, fiber, and

pharmaceuticalsServices: e.g., water and air purification, climate control,

nutrient recycling, carbon sequestration, and control of pests and diseases

Maintaining ecosystem structure and function e.g., food webs, primary production, nutrient cycling,

decomposition

Intrinsic values

How many species are there, and Where Are They?

Conservative estimates: 3 to 30 million (as low as 2 million and as high as 100 million), with most of the species being arthropods

Classified and documented: about 1.4 to 1.5 million species of plants, animals and micros

Most biodiversity-rich ecosystems: o tropical rainforests: Tropical rainforests occupy about 7% of the

earth’s surface, but host more than 50% of species of all kinds, including an estimated 5 million species of plants and animals

o coral reefs

o wetlands

Rapid Biodiversity Loss Due To Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

World Living Planet Index 1970-1999

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Year

Living Planet Index

Living Planet Index

Upper confidence limit

Lower confidence limit

World Living Planet Index 1970-1999

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Year

Living Planet Index

Living Planet Index

Upper confidence limit

Lower confidence limit

Increasing Human Population and Resource Consumption Have Led to Biodiversity Loss and Ecosystem

Degradation

Questions That Must Be Addressed:

How can biodiversity be conserved with ever increasing human pressures on the natural environment?

How should humans and their activities be viewed and treated in planning and managing natural resources for conserving biodiversity?

Are there sound scientific theories and principles for biodiversity conservation? What are they? Are They Adequate?

Balance of Nature

Nature maintains a permanence of structure and function with a harmonious order if left alone, and that it can self-organize and return to its previous equilibrium after disturbances.

Profoundly influenced both the theory and practice

of ecology and conservation biology

Balance of Nature

Profoundly influenced both the theory and practice of ecology and conservation biology

– supraorganismic concept – cybernetic concept of ecosystems– equilibrium, steady-state, stability, and homeostasis– classical equilibrium paradigm– influences on the guiding principles and practice of

biodiversity conservation and environmental protection

Flux of Nature

• Spatial heterogeneity (patchiness + gradients) is ubiquitous across all scales and organization levels

• Nonlinearity and transient dynamics dominate ecosystems

• Shift of perspectives from equilibrium, homogeneity, determinism, and single-scale phenomena to nonequilibrium, heterogeneity, stochasticity, and multi-scale linkages of ecological systems. 

• B of N Is A Myth Rather Than A Scientific Concept• Nature is not in constant balance; rather, it is in eternal

flux.

Hierarchical Patch Dynamics Paradigm

• Ecological systems are spatially nested patch hierarchies, in which larger patches are made of smaller patches

• Dynamics of an ecological system can be studied as the composite dynamics of individual patches and their interactions at adjacent hierarchical levels

• Pattern and process are scale dependent, and interactive • Nonequilibrium and stochastic processes are not only

common, but also essential for the structure and functioning of ecological systems

• Ecological stability frequently takes the form of metastability that is achieved through structural and functional redundancy and incorporation in space and time.

(Wu and Levin, 1994; Wu and Loucks, 1995; Pickett et al., 1999; Wu, 1999)

Theory of Island Biogeography

The existence of an equilibrium species diversity for a given island as extinction and immigration rates become equal,

The effect of island-mainland distance on the species immigration rate, and the effect of island area on the extinction rate

Higher equilibrium species diversity on larger and less distant islands

Greater species turnover on smaller and less distant islands

Key design principles derived: “large”, “round”, “close”, “connected”Adopted as part of the “World Conservation Strategy” by IUCN in 1980

Theory of Island Biogeography

ProblemsEquilibrium assumption

Multi-faceted influences of landscape context

Internal habitat heterogeneity, disturbance regimes and patch dynamics

Edge effects Multiple species sources “No park is an island” (Jansen 1983)!

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So, the theory of island biogeography is heuristically useful, but practically flawed.

SLOSS

SLOSS = single large or several small reserves

Oversimplified the complexity of species diversity dynamics

Overlooked several issues critically important to conservation planning and implementation • MVP• minimum area to sustain MVP• minimum dynamic area• landscape connectivity• specific conservation goals

Both large and small habitat patches have advantages and disadvantages

MVP and PVA

MVP - “the smallest isolated population having a 99% chance of remaining extant for 1000 years despite the foreseeable effects of demographic, environmental, and genetic stochasticity, and natural catastrophes” (Shaffer, 1981)

PVA - “population viability analysis”

Problems:

o Single species and reductionistic methodology

o Great demand for detailed data

o Too time-consuming and costly – not efficient

o MVP is dynamic and context-dependent!

o Using PVA to determine MVP is a “wrong conservation focus” because of the uncertainties associated with the models and data used in PVA (Reed et al, 2002).

Metapopulation Theory

Levins (1970) “a population of populations which go extinct locally and recolonize”

Two key processes: extinction and colonization

A major finding: Order can come out of disorder.

Much of metapopulation research: math modeling

Species-specific focus and inadequate consideration of the heterogeneity of landscape matrix and socioeconomic processes

Needs to make the “B/W” assumption more “colorful”.

So, the metapopulation approach is useful, but certainly not adequate for achieving the overall goal of conserving all levels of biodiversity.

Integrative Perspectives and Planning Principles for Biodiversity Conservation

A more comprehensive conceptual framework is needed that integrates different levels of biodiversity / landscape patterns / ecological and socioeconomic processes.

Such conceptual framework has to be highly interdisciplinary, cutting across natural and social sciences.

Shift from the traditional species-based focus to a multi-level and multi-scale landscape perspective in both the theory and practice of biodiversity conservation.

Perspectives Of Landscape

Ecology And Sustainability

Science

What Is Landscape Ecology?

• The science and art of studying and influencing the spatial pattern of landscapes and its ecological consequences (Wu and Hobbs 2007).

• The “science” of landscape ecology provides the theoretical basis for understanding the formation, dynamics and ecological effects of spatial heterogeneity, and the relationship between landscape pattern and ecological and socioeconomic processes over different scales in space and time.

• The “art” of landscape ecology reflects the humanistic perspectives necessary for integrating biophysical and socioeconomic and cultural components within the landscape in general, and landscape design, planning, and management in particular.

Wu, J. 2006. Cross-disciplinarity, landscape ecology, and sustainability science. Landscape Ecology 21:1-4.

Interdiscipli

nary Pyramid

of Landscape

Ecology

1. Ecological flows in landscape mosaics2. Causes, processes, and consequences of land use

and land cover change3. Nonlinear dynamics and landscape complexity 4. Scaling5. Methodological development6. Relating landscape metrics to ecological

processes7. Integrating humans and their activities

into landscape ecology research

8. Optimization of landscape pattern9. Landscape conservation and

sustainability10.Data acquisition and accuracy

assessment

Key Topics in Landscape EcologyWu and Hobbs (2002, 2007)

Sustainability and Sustainability Science

Sustainability: the capacity of a society to meet present human needs while preserving the life support system for future generations

Sustainability Science: the study of the dynamic relationship between nature and society

Three PillarsEnvironmental, Economic, and Social

ScalesSpace: Local/Regional/GlobalTime: Decades to centuries

Landscape Ecology & Sustainability

ScienceWu, J. 2006. Cross-disciplinarity, landscape ecology, and sustainability science. Landscape Ecology 21:1-4.

Principles for Regional-Scale Biodiversity Conservation Planning

Poiani et al. (2000)

Principles for Regional-Scale Biodiversity Conservation Planning

The landscape approach (or the ecosystem approach) is often characterized by • Ongoing shift in conservation planning towards broader spatial

scales • Multiplicity in organizational levels and spatial scales• Explicit consideration of both biodiversity and ecosystem processes• Emphasis on the overall landscape and regional sustainability• Integrates both the “coarse-filter” and “fine-filter” strategies

The most comprehensive landscape approach takes into account all land cover types in a region, ranging from the remnant ecosystems to the heavily populated areas - “ a landscape continuum view”

The Nature Conservancy (TNC) Regional Conservation Planning Framework

(Poiani et al., 1998, 2000; Groves et al., 2002)

incorporates the idea of multi-level and multi-scale biodiversity, systematic conservation planning approaches, and many principles from landscape ecology and sustainability science

integrates both the “coarse-filter” and “fine-filter” strategies

TNC’s Seven-Step Regional Conservation Planning Framework

Step 1: Identify conservation targets – 3 typesAbiotic or landscape (e.g., elevation, soil, landscape patterns)

Communities and ecosystemsSpecies (e.g., imperiled or endangered, endemic, focal, keystone)

Step 2: Collect information and identify information gapsUse a variety of data sourcesUse a variety of methods, e.g.:

rapid ecological assessments (TNC) / rapid assessment

programs (Conservation International) biological inventories / expert workshops

TNC’s Seven-Step Regional Conservation Planning Framework

Step 3: Establish conservation goalsQuantify the representation and quality of the conservation targetsThe targets should be distributed across environmental gradients Set realistic goals

Step 4: Assess existing conservation areasDetermine what biodiversity features are already adequately protectedWhat more need to be done

Step 5: Evaluate ability of conservation targets to persist3 criteria – size, condition, and landscape context PVA for speciesEstimate minimum dynamic area for communities and ecosystems Assess habitat connectivity and landscape integrity using LE methods

TNC’s Seven-Step Regional Conservation Planning Framework

Step 6. Assemble a portfolio of conservation areasIdentify a set of potential conservation areas in the region, facilitated by

GIS and computerized selection algorithmsSelect the appropriate conservation areas and design the network configuration based on principles of biogeographic theory and landscape ecology

Step 7. Identify priority conservation areas. TNC uses 5 criteria to set priorities:

degree of existing protection (extent and quality) conservation value (the number, diversity and persistence of conservation targets) threat (by various disturbances) feasibility (likelihood of land acquisition and logistic issues) leverage (broader impacts)

UNEP-CBD’s Ecosystem Approach Principles

1) The objectives of management of land, water and living resources are a matter of societal choices.

2) Management should be decentralized to the lowest appropriate level.

3) … consider the effects … on adjacent and other ecosystems.

4) Recognizing potential gains from management, … need to understand and manage the ecosystem in an economic context.

5) Conservation of ecosystem structure and functioning, in order to maintain ecosystem services.

6) Ecosystem must be managed within the limits of their functioning.

UNEP-CBD’s Ecosystem Approach Principles

7) The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at the appropriate spatial and temporal scales.

8) Recognizing the varying temporal scales and lag-effects …, objectives … should be set for the long term.

9) Management must recognize the change is inevitable.

10) … seek the appropriate balance between, and integration of, conservation and use of biological diversity.

11) … consider all forms of relevant information, including scientific and indigenous and local knowledge, innovations and practices.

12) … involve all relevant sectors of society and scientific disciplines.

Principles for Regional-Scale

Biodiversity Conservation Planning

The principles for conservation planning used in these two

examples clearly

o go far beyond the traditional specie-based strategies,

o incorporate most of the new ideas in biodiversity

research

o fit well with the perspectives of landscape ecology and

sustainability science

o The TNC framework has been tested and revised in

implementing more than 45 regional conservation

plans in the United States, Latin America, the

Caribbean, Micronesia, and China

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Nature is not in balance; rather it is in constant flux. The world is highly dynamic and fragmented

ecologically, economically, and politically. To survive and persist, biological organisms as well

as humans must be able to cope with heterogeneity. Effective conservation strategies must explicitly

recognize that biodiversity manifests itself at multiple organizational levels and

spatial scales, that landscapes in which biodiversity resides are ever-changing in a

hardly predictable way, and that biodiversity is but one essential component of a sustainable

landscape or a sustainable world.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The ultimate success of biodiversity conservation in any region is more than likely to be tied with the economic and social sustainability of that region.

Therefore, future research and practice of biodiversity conservation need to be further integrated with landscape ecology and sustainability science.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

1. Beyond “balance of nature” & “nature knows best”

2. Beyond “species” and “populations”

3. Beyond “habitat patches” & “protected areas”

4. Beyond “biodiversity”

5. Beyond “tomorrow”

6. Beyond “conservation”

7. Beyond “nature”

8. Beyond “ecology”

9. Beyond “science”

Thank You!

CONCLUDING REMARKS

1. Beyond “balance of nature” & “nature knows best”

2. Beyond “species” and “populations”

3. Beyond “habitat patches” & “protected areas”

4. Beyond “biodiversity”

5. Beyond “tomorrow”

6. Beyond “conservation”

7. Beyond “nature”

8. Beyond “ecology”

9. Beyond “science”