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UserName:PhamXuanMaiemailId:gw79241195pham5Book:AmericanPublicPolicy:AnIntroduction

2007CengageLearningInc.Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisworkmaybyreproducedorusedinanyformorbyanymeansgraphic,electronic,ormechanical,orinanyothermannerwithoutthewrittenpermissionofthecopyrightholder.

Chapter1:PublicPolicy:AnIntroduction(pp.118)PublicPolicy:AnIntroduction:ChapterOverview

JOHNGRESS/Reuters/Corbis

Publicpolicyaffectseachcitizeninhundredsofways,someofthemfamiliarandsomeunsuspected.Citizensdirectlyconfrontpublicpolicywhentheyarearrestedforspeeding,buttheyseldomrememberthattheadvertisingonthetelevisionshowsthattheywatchisregulatedbytheFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)andtheFederalTradeCommission(FTC).Manycitizenswhocomplainloudlyattaxtimeaboutgovernmentbureaucracyandoverregulationhaveforgottenaboutthefireandpoliceprotectionorthepavedstreetsthatthoserevenuesprovide.Indeed,publicpolicyinAmericaaffectsavastrangeofactivities,fromnuclearwarheadstobathroomplumbing,fromarrestinglawbreakerstoprovidingmedicalcarefortheelderly.Indeed,theexpandingreachofgovernmentandthethreateneddominanceofthepublicsectorovertheprivatesectorwithaccompanyingrecordbudgetdeficitsforthenationalgovernmentconstitutedamajorpoliticalissuetowardtheendofthefirstyearoftheObamaadministration.BythemiddleofPresidentObama'ssecondterm,America'sdebttotaledover$17trillion.ThisbookaimstoclarifykeydimensionsofthisubiquitousinfluenceonAmericanlifeandtointroducethedebatesswirlingarounditsmajorcontroversies.Ittakesanissueorientedapproachtothebeginningstudyofpublicpolicy.

StudyingPublicPolicy

WhatConstitutesPublicPolicy?

Eventhoughexamplesofpublicpolicycomereadilytomind,definingpublicpolicyinclearandunambiguoustermsisnoteasy.Politicalscientistshavedevotedconsiderableattentiontotheproblemwithoutreachingaconsensus.1Inthistext,thetermpublicpolicyreferstoasetofactionstakenbythegovernmentthatincludes,butisnotlimitedto,makinglawsandisdefinedintermsofacommongoalorpurpose.Forexample,apolicytostimulateeconomic

growthinatimeofeconomicstagnationmayincludetaxcutsforbusinesses,increasedspendingtoputmoneyinto

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theeconomy,oractionsbytheFederalReserveSystemtoincreasethemoneysupply.Apolicytosecurethecountryfrompossibleterroristattacksmayincludealaw,suchastheUSAPatriotAct,whichenablesthegovernmenttolistentothephoneconversationsofpotentialterroristsaninvasionofputativeterroriststrongholdsinIraqandAfghanistanencouragingdissidentsinIrantoeffectregimechangesearchingprospectivepassengersboardingairplanesorassassinatingknownterroristleaderswithdronestrikes.Makingpolicyrequireschoosingamonggoalsandalternatives,andchoicealwaysinvolvesintention.ThefederalgovernmentunderPresidentObama,forexample,chosetopursueawholesalerestructuringofoursystemofdeliveringhealthcare.Theintentionwastohaveeveryoneinsured,includingthe15percentorsowhowerenotalready,orchosenottobe,insured.Policyisnotasingleaction,butisasetofactionscoordinatedtoachieveagoal.Suchanactionmaybemanifestedinlaws,publicstatements,officialregulations,orwidelyacceptedandpubliclyvisiblepatternsofbehavior,suchasthevigorousimplementationofexistinglawstocontrolanddetercrime,orhavingtheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)issuebureaucraticregulations.Publicpolicy,however,isultimatelyrootedinlawandintheauthorityandcoercionassociatedwithlaw.(Thetermspublicpolicyandpolicywillbeusedinterchangeably.)

Threequalificationsarenecessary,however,forthisdefinitionofpublicpolicy.First,theideaofanintentionalcourseofactionalsoincludesdecisionsmadenottotakeacertainaction.In2013,forexample,someleadingmembersoftheRepublicanPartysoughtunsuccessfullytostopCongressfromfundingtheAffordableCareAct(ACA).Second,therequirementthatofficialactionsbesanctionedbylaworacceptedcustomisnecessarybecausepublicofficialsoftentakecoursesofactionthatstepoutsideofpublicpolicyforexample,theysometimestakebribesorexceedtheirlegalauthority.Suchdeedsshouldnotbeconsideredpublicpolicythatis,unlesstheyareopenlytoleratedinaparticularpoliticalsystem.Third,lawsorofficialregulationsshouldnotbemistakenforthewholerealmofpolicynordoespolicyalwaysmeetintendedgoals.Lawmakingisnotenoughtoestablishapolicytheimplementation,interpretation,enforcement,andimpactofpoliciesarealsopartofthepolicymakingprocess.Moreover,asweshallseelaterinthischapter,quiteoftenthereareunintendedimpactstopublicpolicies.Whatactuallyhappenswhenpolicyisputintoeffect(orimplemented)iscalledpolicyimpact.Althoughsomepoliticalscientistsarguethattheseunintendedimpactsarepartofthepolicy,webelievethatitisconceptuallyclearertoconsiderpolicyanditsimpactsseparately.Forexample,amajorissueeruptedinNovember2013whenmillionsofAmericanslostthehealthplansthattheycouldaffordandthatservedtheirneedsbecausetheObamaadministrationsoughttoimposehigherstandardsforwhatshouldbecoveredinhealthinsuranceplans.Thisissueraisedthequestionofwhetherthegovernmentwasoverreachingthelimitsofwhatcouldbeeffectivelyshapedthroughpublicpolicy.Next,weshallconsiderthestrategiesandfactorsthatmakeitmoreorlesslikelythattheimpactofapolicywillbewhatthepolicymakersintended.

WhyStudyPublicPolicy?

Studentsofpoliticalscienceandpublicadministrationhaveseveralreasonsforstudyingpublicpolicy.Thefirstistheoretical:Politicalscientistsseektounderstandandexplaintheworldofpoliticsthatis,theyattempttodevelopandtestexplanatorygeneralizationsaboutthepoliticalbehaviorofindividualsandinstitutions.Becausepublicpolicyisapartofpolitics,politicalscientistsareconcernedwithhowitisrelatedtosuchthingsaspoliticalpartystructure,interestgroups,interpartycompetition,electoralsystems,andexecutivelegislativerelations.Politicalscientistswhoseekexplanationcallforthedisciplinetodevelopandtestexplanatorytheory.2

Asecondreasonforstudyingpublicpolicyispractical.Politicalscientistsandstudentsofpolicyapplyknowledgetosolvepracticalproblems.Publicpolicyhasbecomeincreasinglypervasiveovertimeasmeasuredbysuchdataasthepercentofthegrossdomesticproduct(GDP),whichisthevalueofallthegoodsandservicesproducedintheUnitedStatesinayearandspentbythefederalgovernment.ThisfigurehasrisenfromaboutfivepercentattheturnofthecenturytoaboutaquarteroftheGDPin2010.WiththeheavyindebtednessandanexpensivehealthcarebillpassedattheendofthefirstyearoftheObamaadministration,thepercentofthegrossdomesticproductinthepublicsectorreached40percentby2012asgovernmentassumedtheresponsibilityandpowertotransformmuchoftheAmericanpoliticalandeconomicsystemhence,citizensarecontinuallyconfrontedwithimpactofpublicpolicyontheirlivesandwellbeing.

Athirdreasonforstudyingpublicpolicy,relatedtothesecond,ispolitical.Debateandcontroversyoverpublic

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policyinAmericaarenotnew,buttodaytherangeofissuesoverwhichseriousdisagreementoccursisfargreaterthaninthepast.Thisisdueinlargeparttothespreadofeducation,whichisstronglyrelatedtopoliticalinvolvementandtothemobilizationofthepopulationthroughthemassmedia.Participationin,andawarenessof,governmentanditspoliciesaregreaterthananytimeinourhistory.TheTeaPartymovementof2010exemplifiestheextenttowhichmorepeopleareinvolvedwithpoliticsandpolicythaneverbefore.Itmakessensetochannelthisnewmobilizationofthepopulationintopathsguidedbyunderstandingandinformation.

Theemphasisofthisbookisonthesecondandthirdreasonsforstudyingpolicythepracticalandpoliticalbutitdrawsonthefirstaswell,forintelligentpolicyselectiondependsontheanalysisandunderstandingdevelopedbythetheoreticalfindingsofpoliticalscience.

ReasonsfortheGrowingPervasivenessofPublicPolicy

Thegrowingpervasivenessofpublicpolicyisprimarilyaconsequenceofmodernization.Modernizationentailsthedevelopmentoftechnologyandknowledgeandtheconsequentrolespecializationanddivisionoflabor.Thismakesusallinterdependent.Thepioneercoulderectalogcabinwithoutoutsideassistance,

buttheerectionofamoderndwellingrequirestheexpertiseofacementcontractor,acarpenter,anelectrician,aplumber,abricklayer,aroofer,etc.Wecanrelyonthecompetenceandperformanceofthesetradespeople,whoseworkwearenotqualifiedtojudge,becausetheyaregiventheircredentialsbyanagencyofthestate.Weareusuallyevenmoreunqualifiedtoindependentlyjudgetheworkofprofessionalssuchasphysiciansorattorneys.Whenevernewtechnologyisdeveloped,weneedanewagencytoregulateit.

Modernizationrequirestheconcentrationofaworkforcethatwasnotneededinanagrariansociety.Thismeansanurbanizationofmodernsociety,withitsconcomitantissuesoftraffic,publichealthandsanitation,sewageandgarbagedisposal,crime,andthemyriadwaysinwhichthechoicesthatpeoplemakeaffectothersinpatternsofcloseinteraction.

Thisexpansionoftheroleofpublicpolicyisfrustratingtomanybecauseeachnewregulationemanatingfromagovernmentagencycircumscribesourfreedomtosomeextent.Theneedsanddesiresofeachpersonmustbebalancedagainsttheneedsanddesiresofotherswithwhomoneinteracts.Hence,governmenttreatspeopleaccordingtoimpersonalprinciplesandrulesthatmayoffendone'ssenseofjusticeforoneparticularcase.

Becauseofthisfrustrationwithanexpandingpublicsector,manypeoplefeelthatgovernmenthasbecometoobigandtoointrusive.TheTeaPartymovementmobilizinglargenumbersofordinarypeopleindemonstrationsagainstbiggovernment(whichtheysawasallegedlyoutoftouchwithordinaryfolk)exemplifiesthisfrustration.Somepeopleyearnforareturntotheseeminglysimplertimesofthegoodolddays.Yet,inmanywaysthegoodolddayswerenotsogood.Lifetendedtobeshorterandlesscomfortableandconvenient.Opportunitiesfortravelandcommunicationweresignificantlyfewer.Toreturntoaneraofamuchsmallerpublicsector,wewouldhavetouninventmuchofthetechnologythathasmadelifelongerandmoreenjoyable.

PolicyImpact:TheFrequentFailureofPublicPoliciestoAchieveTheirGoals

Americansarebyandlargeanoptimisticpeoplewhotendtobelievethatforeveryidentifiedproblemtheremustbeasolutionifwesimplyhavethewilltofindit.Yetdespitethegrowingpervasivenessandexpansionofgovernment,theactualimpactofpoliciesisalltoofrequentlynotwhatthosewhoformulatedthepolicyintended.Thisfrequentfailureofpoliciestoachievetheirintendedimpactisduetothefollowingfactors.

First,thereisdisagreementabouttheissuesofsocietyandwhatconstitutesasocialorpoliticalproblemthatmustbeaddressedbypolicymakers.OneofthecoreissuesdividingthesocialandpoliticalLeftfromtheRightregardstheimperativesofsocialjustice.InDecember2013,PresidentObamaproclaimedthatincomeinequalitywasthedefiningissueofourtime.Doesthefactthatsomepeoplehaveagreatdealmorethanothers,eitherthroughinheritance,

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hardwork,creativity,orjustluck,constituteaproblemthatmustberectified?Whatareone'sentitlementsinone'ssociety?Thesubprimelendingcrisisof20092010wasaresultofelevatinghomeownershiptoanentitlement.Doessocialjusticerequirethatwespreadthewealtharound?

Second,forsomeissuesthereisnoplausiblescenarioonwhichthecontendingpartiesconceivablyagree.Forexample,theattemptstoengineeratwostatesolutiontothetensionsintheMiddleEastbetweentheIsraelisandthePalestinianArabshaveresultedinfailuredespitecontinuedeffortsforoversixtyyears.TheconflictisnotaboutbordersorwhatlandswillbesetasideforPalestinianstatehood.TheArableaderswereformallyofferedsuchastateonfiveseparateoccasions(seeChapter12fordetails)andtheyeschewedtheoffereachtime.Clearly,theirultimategoalisnotjuststatehood.ManyArableadershavereiteratedoverandoverthattheywillneveraccepttheexistenceofIsraelasaJewishstate.Obviously,one'sexterminationisnotascenariotowhichonewilleveragreeasaresultofnegotiation.Hence,noplausibleresolutiontotheconflictexiststowhichbothpartiesmightpossiblyagree.Similarly,theoddsseemstronglyagainsttheachievementofanagreementwithIraninthe20132014globaldiscussionsregardingthenation'snuclearambitions.CriticssuggestthatonewouldhavetostretchbeyondthelimitsofcredulitytobelievethatIranwouldsettleforlessthanadeliverablenuclearwarhead,anoutcomethattheSaudisandIsraeliswouldneveraccept.

Third,asolutionthatissociallyacceptablemaysimplynotexistforaproblem.Assume,forexample,thatsocietyagreesthatgreatersocioeconomicequalitymustbeengineered.Oneshouldthenaddressthecausesofsuchinequality.Thestrongestpredictorofone'sultimatesocioeconomicwellbeingisacademicachievement.Eachstepuptheacademicladderbringssignificantlygreaterlifetimeearnings,regardlessofone'sacademicspecialty.Oneshouldthereforeengineergreaterequalityofacademicachievement,aswithPresidentGeorgeW.Bush'spolicyofnochildleftbehind.Thispolicyassumesthateveryoneiseducable.PresidentObama'sRacetotheTopinitiativeoffersincentivestostateswillingtospursystemicreformtoimproveteachingandlearninginAmerica'sschools.Animportantmassivestudyofthecausesofeducationalachievement,theColemanReport,foundthatthebestsinglepredictorofeducationalachievementistheacademicachievementlevelofone'sparents.3Thus,tobestengineerequalityofeducationalachievement,thestatewouldhavetospecifythatonlyeducatedpeoplewouldbeallowedtoreproduce.Obviously,noreasonablyfreesocietyisgoingtospecifywhocanorcannothavechildren.Hence,thesolutiontoourhypotheticalproblemmaytheoreticallyexist,butwouldbesociallyunacceptable.

Fourth,fall2013broughtanotherlessononthelimitsofgovernment'sabilitytoeffectivelyregulateandcontrollargesegmentsofacomplexmodernsocietywiththeattempttoimplementPresidentObama'ssignaturehealthcaresystem,theACA.(SeeChapter8foramoredetaileddiscussion.)WhileatthetimeofthiswritingthefinaloutcomeoftheActhasyettobeobserved,someseriousproblemsintheprojectedstructureandoperationofthesystem

havealreadyappeared.Despitetheindividualmandatebackedbyafine,thereisashortfallinthenumberofyoungandhealthypeoplejoiningandpayingintothesystem,whichisneededinordertomeetthegreaterhealthcareneedsoftheoldergeneration.Becauseoftheextensiverequirementsforcoverage,manyexistinghealthcarepoliciesweredeemedunacceptabletotheACA,causingmillionsofexistingpoliciesthatservedtheneedsoftheirbeneficiariestobecanceled,whichforcedthesepeopletotrytopurchasemoreextensivepoliciesthattheycouldnotafford.Third,therewasafailuretoclearlycalculatetheamountofthesubsidiestobepaidtoinsurancecompaniesforinsuringlowincomecitizenstryingtobecomeinsured.Thislefttheinsurancecompanieswiththetaskofdeterminingtheirowncompensation.Thesestructuralproblems,combinedwithfailuresinsettingupfunctioningwebsites,havecausedgreatconcernandhesitationamongcitizensandofficialsalike.TheauthorsoftheACAdidnottakeintoaccountthediminishingsupplyofhealthcareprovidersinthefaceofincreasingdemandsforhealthcare.TheproblemsfacingtheACAdemonstratethelimitedcapacityofthegovernment.Itisunabletotakeaccountof,andtopredict,themyriadoffactors,aswellastheinteractionamongthosefactors,thatmakeupthecomplexAmericanhealthcaresystem.Inanattempttoregulatesuchalargeandcomplexsegmentofoureconomy,itmustbeassumedthatalargenumberoffactorswilloperateaccordingtoplan.Thefailureofanyoneofthesefactorswillpreventtherealizationofthedesiredoutcome.ThestruggletoimplementtheACA

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epitomizestheprinciplethatunnecessarycomplexityintheimplementationofpolicyincreasesthelikelihoodofthefailureofthepolicy.

Fifth,policiesareusuallyambiguousenoughtopermitvariousinterpretationsofthem.Themoreactorsinvolvedintheprocessofimplementation,themorethattheoriginalintendedmeaningofthelaworpolicywillbedistorted.Inthistechnologicallyadvancedsociety,lawmakersarefrequentlygeneralists.Asanexample,considerthelawyersorbusinesspeoplewholackthetechnicalexpertisetodeterminehowmuchofwhichemissionscouldbeallowedtoprotectairquality.TheysetuptheEPAtomakethoserules.Appointedbureaucrats,selectedaccordingtothestandardofspecializationanddivisionoflabor,aremorelikelytohavesuchexpertise.Accordingly,thepoliticallyaccountablepartsofthegovernmentCongressandthepresidencypassgeneralauthorizationstosomeagenciestoactuallymakethespecificdecisionsaboutwhogetshowmuchofwhat,where,andwhy.

Theattributesoftheadministrativesectorthatmakeiteffectiveinimplementingpolicyareundesirableattributesforpolicymaking.Theattributesofthecivilserviceorpublicbureaucracyareahierarchicalstructurespecializationandthedivisionoflaboranelaboratesetofimpersonalrules,whichenhancepredictabilitybutstiflecreativityandadaptabilityandtenureofoffice,whichinsulatesthebureaucratsfromthepublic.Moreover,thediscretionthatbureaucratsinevitablyhaveininterpretingthelawmeansthattheintentoftheoriginalpolicymakerswilllikelybechangedintheimplementationprocess.

PolicyDilemmas:TheOngoingIssueoftheRoleofGovernment

ThroughoutthesecondtermoftheObamapresidency,theapprovalratingsforboththepresidentandCongressplummetedtoalmosthistoriclows,indicatingagrowingimpatiencewiththeseinstitutionsonthepartofthecitizenry.ThisimpatiencegrowsfromaperceptionoffailuretoresolvemajorissuesthathavebeenplaguingtheUnitedStatesforyearsissuesthatincludelongdrawnoutwars,apersistingstagnanteconomy,amassivenationaldebt,soaringcostsforhealthcareandinsurancedespiteanewhealthcarebill,andtheperceptionofgovernmentcoverupsofseriousmalfeasance.Thepublicdoesnotappreciatethecomplexityofthesekindsofissuesandthearrayoffactorsthatmustbetakenintoaccountinaddressingthem.

Thedifficultyinconstructingsolutionstotheseissuesiscompoundedbythefactthatweliveinafreesocietyinwhichmanyofthefactorsaffectingtheseissuesarebeyondthereachofgovernment.Thisbookwilladdressthiscomplexityandtheextenttowhichgovernmentshouldbeheldresponsibleforfindingsolutionstotheseissues.

1. Whatcangovernmentdotoincreasethechancesforapolicytoreachitsobjectives?2. Whatprinciplescanhelpgovernmenttodecidewhatissuesoughttobeaddressedatwhatlevelinthe

publicsectorandwhatissuesshouldbestbelefttotheprivatesector?

DefiningMajorConcepts

Peopleacquireinterestsoutoftherolesthattheyplayinthesocialandeconomicsystem.Theseinterestsoftencomeintoconflict.Forexample,whatisgoodforthebluecollarworkingclassmaynotbegoodfortheentrepreneurswhoemploythem.Theinterestsofpeoplewholiveinonegeographicalsettingmayconflictwiththeinterestsofpeopleinanothersetting.Thepointisthatthedistinctionbetweenthespecialinterestsandthegoodofthepeopleisafalseone.Allinterestsarespecialbecausenoonecanrisecompletelyabovehisorhersocioeconomicroletopromotethegeneralinterests.

Becauseinterestsconflict,policiesthatbenefitsomewillharmorimpedeothers.Thisideathatbecausetheresourcesofsocietyarefinite,thatonecannotallocatevaluestosomegroupswithouttakingthemfromothers,isknownasazerosumsociety.Hence,itseemslaudabletoplacemembersofunderrepresentedgroupsindesiredrolesthattheyotherwisewouldnothaveattained,suchasadmissiontomedicalschooloraplaceincorporatemanagement.Foreachindividualsoplaced,however,anotherindividualwhootherwisewouldhaveattainedthecovetedroleisexcluded.Thus,inazerosumsociety,theallocationofvaluestomembersofoneunderrepresented

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grouprequiresthatmembersofothergroupswillhavetopaythecosts.Thisofcourseincreasestheintensityofpartisanship.

Somevalues,suchasclean,unpollutedair,areatfirstglancegoodforeveryone.Theseareknownaspublicgoods.Thesearevaluesthataresharedby

everyoneconcerned.Theycannotbeallocatedaccordingtosomecriterionofmeritorjustice.Butthecostsofsuchvaluesarenotequallyshared.Theownerofafactorywhocleansupthefactory'semissionsataconsiderablecosthaspaidadisproportionateshareofthecostsofthecleanair.Heorshedoesnot,however,getadisproportionateamountofthatairtobreathe.Itwouldthereforeberationalforthatfactoryownertonotcleanuptheemissions.

Privaterationality,whenpursuedbyallthemembersofacollectivity,canleadtodisasterforthatcollectivity.California,forexample,requiresthateachmotorvehiclehaveacatalyticconverterattachedtotheexhaustsystem.Whenmostpeoplebegantoobeythatrequirement,theairqualityoverthestate'scitiesgreatlyimproved.Theconverterlowerstheperformanceofthevehicle,however,andincreasesitsfuelconsumption.Itwouldthereforeberationalforanyonemotoristtohavethedeviceremoved.Ifeveryonedidthat,however,thecitieswouldagainbeenvelopedinsmog.Thisisacasewhenprivaterationalityconflictswithpublicnecessity.Insuchcases,governmentmaystepintocoercepeopletoviolateprivaterationalityforthepublicgood.

Privategoodsaretheopposite.Thesearegoodsthatcanbedividedandgiventosomepersons,butnotothers.Mostdistributionandredistributionpoliciesfallintothisclassification.Somepersonsqualifyforfoodstampswhileothersdonot.Somestudentsqualifyforadmissiontoaselectivestateuniversitywhileothersmaybeadmittedtosecondtiercollegesortojuniorcolleges.Liberals,conservatives,andotherideologicalgroupsstronglydisagreeabouttherangeofprivategoodsthatisappropriateforgovernmenttodistribute.

ModelsofthePolicyProcess

Makingpublicpolicyisextraordinarilycomplex.Itinvolvespublicopinion,mediaattitudes,expertideas,activecitizens,businessandlaborleaders,electedrepresentatives,presidentsandgovernors,judges,andbureaucrats.Policymakingcallsonpoliticalresources,economicconditions,popularculturalattitudes,andinternationalconditions.Whenpoliticalscientistsdoresearchinanattempttounderstandpublicpolicy,theytrytoreducethecomplexityofthepolicymakingprocesstoamanageabledegreebycreatingmodelsofpolicymakingthatsummarizetheprimaryforcesatwork.Noneofthesemodelsiscompleteandnonecapturesalloftherelationshipsthatareimportant.Itisindeedthepurposeofsuchmodelstosimplifyaspectsoftherealitytheyrepresent.Noonemodelbestdescribesthefeaturesofpolicymakingineveryarea.Althoughthechaptersthatfollowdonotadherestrictlytoanyofthesemodels,theydrawupontheprimaryqualitiesofsomepoliticalsciencemodels.

FeaturesoftheinstitutionalmodelappearinthedescriptionoftheinstitutionalcontextofpublicpolicyinChapter2.ThismodelstressestheopportunitiesandconstraintsonpolicythatarepartoftheverystructureoftheAmericanconstitutionalorder:judiciary,bureaucracy,executives,legislatures,separationofpowers,federalism,andsoforth.Avariantoftheinstitutionalmodelishistoricalinstitutionalism,whichcombinestheinstitutionalfocuswiththeeffectoflongtermpatternsofdevelopment.Herethereisrecognition

thatearlypolicydecisionscarrylargeeffectsthroughtime,sothatpoliciesbecomepathdependent.Thecostofchangingpolicydirectionincreasesovertime.Once,forexample,astatelegislaturetakesagettoughapproachtocrimebybuildingmoreprisons,theseveryprisonsbecomeinstitutionalforcesthatpreventdifferentapproachesinthefuture.Whatwouldthestatedowithemptyprisonsifitdecidedonadifferentapproach?4

Theelitemodelfocusesontheinfluenceoverpolicyexercisedbypowerfulindividualsorgroupstomaximizetheirowninterestsattheexpenseofcompetinggroups.ScholarswhoclaimthismodeldescribesAmericansociety

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paintascenarioinwhichthecountryiscontrolledbyasinglecoherentelitesharingadistinctsetofvalues.5Membersofthiselitepossesssimilarattributes(white,male,andmostlyProtestant),comefromthesamebackground(prestigiousprepschool,IvyLeagueuniversity),andmovefromoneleadershiproletoanother(fromcorporateboardsofdirectors,toacademiaatourmostprestigiousuniversities,tothehighestranksinthemilitary).

Thismodelcontrastswiththepluralistmodel,whichstressesthatmanyeliteswithcompetinginterestsbargainwithoneanothertoaffectpolicy.Generallynoonegroupgetsallofwhatitwants.Hence,policyisanimpersonaloutcomeofthebargainingprocess.Eachofthesegroup'sinterestsandideasmustbetakenintoaccount.Bothofthesemodelspicturetheseindividualsandgroupsbeingactiveandinfluentialacrossmanypolicyareas.Thegrouporsubgovernmentmodelrecognizesthatdifferentpolicyareas,suchascrime,mustbetreateddifferentlythansocialoreconomicpolicy.Legislators,bureaucrats,experts,andinterestgroupsthatareactiveinoneareaareoftenquitedifferentfromthoseactiveinadifferentpolicyarena.Thesegroupsformadvocacycoalitionsthatareactiveinparticularpolicyareas,butnotinothers.Undertheseconditions,policynetworksdevelopwebsoflobbyists,committeestaffmembers,andpolicyadministratorsalldeeplyinvolvedinaparticularpolicydomain,butnotactiveinotherpolicyareas.

Somepoliticalscientistsmodelpolicyasarationalprocess.Policymakersintherationalcomprehensivemodeltakeaccountofallinformationaboutthepolicyproblemsandofallpolicyoptions,thenselecttheoptionsthatbestfulfillthepolicymaker'sgoals.Thismodelassumesrationalityandperfectinformationaboutchoicesavailableandtheirimpact.Thepublicchoicemodelthinksofthoseactiveinpolicymakingasactorsattemptingtochooseoptionsthatmaximizetheirselfinterest.Theyselectpolicyoptionsthathelpthemrealizetheirinterests.Gamemodelsareavariationofthisidea,focusedonsituationsofpolicychoicewithoptionsthatcannotbecompromised.6

PolicyAnalysis

Policyanalysisisprincipallyconcernedwithdescribingandinvestigatinghowandwhyparticularpoliciesareproposed,adopted,andimplemented.Thisisthetheoreticalsideofpolicystudies.Apolicyoptionmustbeevaluatedinlightofwhatpolicyanalysisrevealsaboutitschancesofbeingadopted,theprobableeffectivenessorimpactoftheoption,andthedifficultiesofimplementation.

Aproposalforincreasedspendingforhighschooleducation,forexample,wouldneedtobetestedagainstdatafromtheColemanReport,whichconcludedthatincreasedspendinghadnosignificantimpactonstudentachievementlevels.

Policyanalysisisnot,however,valueneutral.Policyanalystswanttodiscoverwhichpolicyproposalsbestfulfillimportantpublicvalues.7Thus,policyanalysisinvokessuchprinciplesasfreedom,equality,justice,decency,andpeace.Indeed,politicsoftenconcernsdebatesabouttheverymeaningoftheseterms.Thosewhowouldsharplyseparatepolicyanalysisfromfundamentalsocialvaluesmakeagravemistake.Policyanalysiswithoutawarenessofethicalperspectivesisincomplete.Thisisparticularlytruewhenevaluatingtheimpactofpolicy.Ethicalprinciplesmustbebroughttobearonthediscoveryofthegoodandbadeffectsofpolicy.Suchprinciplesnotonlymeasuresuccessandfailure.Theyalsoprovideinsightintoconsequencesthatotherwisewouldnotberevealed.

Policyanalysiscarriedoutbypoliticalscientistscanbedistinguishedfrompolicyadvocacybypoliticians,partisans,orinterestgroups.Advocacydiffersfromanalysis,becauseadvocacybeginswithacommitmenttoeconomicinterestsortoprinciplesasinterpretedbyspecificideologicalsystems,suchasliberalism,conservatism,andenvironmentalism.Analysisshouldbetterequippolicymakerstomakepolicychoiceswhileadvocacyattemptstoimposesuchchoicesonothers.Nevertheless,bothadvocacyandanalysisdrawuponsimilarprinciplesandgoals,andthetwointertwineintherealworldofpolitics.Althoughideologicalcommitmentscanbringimportantoverlookedvaluestopolicyanalysis,policyadvocatesaremoreconcernedtoadvancetheirideologythantounderstandthepolicyprocess,whichisthegoalofpolicyanalysis.Thefollowingchapterswilldiscussdifferentideologicalperspectivesonpolicyatsomelengthbecausethepolicydebatesareoftenframedbyideology.

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StagesofPolicyDevelopment

Politicalscientistsoftenuseamodelofthepolicymakingprocessthatfocusesonthestagesthroughwhichideasandproposalsmovebeforebecomingpublicpolicy.Somepoliticalscientistscriticizethesemodelsasoverlyrigid.Theyarguethatpoliticsdoesnotfollowtheclearlinesanddivisionsofthestagesmodel.Windowsofopportunityforpolicycreativityopenmanytimesinunexpectedways,sothatpolicyentrepreneurshavetobereadyatanytimetojumportomovethroughstagesoftheprocessrapidly.Multiplestreamsofpolicyproposalsandpoliticalforcescanconvergeandoverwhelmcarefulpolicydeliberation.8Moreover,thesemodelshavenotgeneratedimportanttheoreticalinsightsintopolicymaking.9Despitetheimportanceofsuchcriticisms,thestagesmodelisasuggestivetool.Itisolatesvariousaspectsofpublicpolicyandhelpstofocusattentiononthem.Someoftheseaspectsarewidelyrecognizedandneedtobepartofanyintroductiontopublicpolicy.10Differentscholarslabelthestagesdifferentlyandplacedifferentemphasisonthem,butthetermsinFigure1.1arecommon.

FIGURE1.1StagesofthePolicyProcessAmericanPublicPolicy:AnIntroduction9eCengageLearning2009.

Thedevelopmentofapublicpolicybeginswithapublicbeliefthataproblemexists.Thethreeprepolicystagesare(1)problemdefinitionorissuesformation,(2)policydemands,and(3)agendaformation.Beforeapolicyissueisdefinedoradopted,aproblemofpublicconcernmustbeperceived.Forexample,inthehealthcaredebatethatdominatedpoliticsinthefallof2013,oneofthepointsatissuewaswhetheritwasaviolationofsocialjusticethat15percentofourpopulationofsome300milliondidnothavehealthinsurance.Theeconomiccrisisof2008wasbroughtaboutinpartbyelevatinghomeownershiptoanentitlementundertheimperativesofsocialjustice.Reasonablepeopledisagreedonthesequestions.Thus,ethicalandideologicalperspectivesplayanimportantroleduringthisproblemperceptionstagebecausedifferentperspectiveswillseeanddefineproblemsdifferently.Duetothecontrastingopinionsofdifferentgroups,differentformulationsoftheissuewillresult.Similarly,peoplewithdifferentvaluesdisagreeastowhethersocioeconomicinequalityviolatestheconceptofsocialjusticeandisthereforeaproblemthatmustberectified.

Thus,theissuesformationstageleadstothenextstage:policydemands.Opposingdemandsarenowmadeforgovernmentaction.Gradually,asocialgiveandtakemaycoalesceintoaperceptionthatpolicymakersmustdealwithagivenproblem,anditcompeteswithotherproblemsfortheattentionofpolicymakers.Someproblemsfailtosustainattentioninthiscompetitionwhileothersrisetoprominence.Variousdemandsandperspectivescreateanagendaofalternativeproposalsfordealingwithanissue.Someproposalsanddemandsnevermakeittotheagenda,whileothersareputontheagendainalteredform.

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Agendasettingisalwaysapoliticalprocessgroupsstruggleforpowertocontroltheagenda.Becausealllegislativeandexecutivebodiesarelimitedintheissuesthattheycanaddressatanygiventime,thepowertohaveattentionpaidtoyourissueontheagendaisinvaluable.Therefore,ideologicalandinterestgroupscompetetobroadentheagendatoincludetheirissuesorto

narrowitbyexcludingissuesthattheydonotwantconsidered.Suchgroupsmaybeelectedofficials,bureaucratsresponsibleforpolicyadministration,publicinterestgroups,orgroupsdirectlyaffectedbyparticularpolicies.Thefollowingchapterscallattentiontogroupsactiveintheproblemdefinition,policydemand,andagendaformationstages.

Followingtheprepolicystages,thenextmajorstageinthedevelopmentofapublicpolicyisdeliberationandpolicyadoption.Fromthepolicyagenda,decisionmakers,withtheinputofinterestgroups,policyexperts,andconstituents,debateandbargainoveralternativepolicyformulations,settlingonanalternativeoracombinationofalternativestorespondtotheproblem.Decisionsaremade,policiesareformulated,andpolicystatementsareissued,takingsuchformsasorders,regulations,orlaws.Clearly,thesamekindsofconsiderationsofpowerasinthepolicyagendastagearerelevanthere.Alsoimportantistheconstitutionalandstatutorystructureoftheinstitutionthatmakesthepolicydecision.Structureoftendetermineswhichoutcomeshaveagreaterchanceofsuccessinthepoliticalstruggle.

Policystatementsandlawmakingarenotthewholeofpolicymaking.Policydecisionsmustbeimplementedaconceptdefinedearlierinthechapterasputtingthepolicyintoeffect.Policyimplementationmeansmoneyspent,lawsenforced,employeeshired,andplansofactionformulated.Alawagainsttheftwouldhardlybeapolicyifnopublicresourcesweredevotedtopreventingtheftsandapprehendingthieves.Inimplementation,theintentofthepolicymakersisoftendistorted.Evenprogramsinvolvinglittleconflictcanbedifficulttoimplementiftherearenumerousparticipantswithdifferingperspectivesandifmanyparticulardecisionshavetobemadebeforethepolicyisfullyimplemented.11Asnotedpreviously,themorecomplextheimplementationprocess,themorelikelythattheintentofthepolicywillbecomedistortedorlost.Withincreasedcomplexitytherearemoreactorswhomaynotnecessarilysharetheoriginalgoals.Successfulachievementofpolicygoalsdependsuponthetractabilityoftheproblembeingaddressedbythepolicythatis,howpossibleitreallyistomakeachange.Implementationalsodependsontheclarityofthelaw,thetalentsandfinancialresourcesavailabletothoseadministeringit,andavarietyofpoliticalfactors,suchaspublicsupport,mediaattention,socioeconomicconditions,andtheattitudesandresourcesofgroupsaffectedbythepolicy.12

Policyimplementationproducesimpact.Policyimpact,itwillberecalled,referstowhatactuallyhappenswhenthepolicyisimplemented.Theimpactofapolicymaybeunforeseen,asinthecaseofbusingforraciallybalancedschools.Whiteswereusuallyabletoavoidhavingtheirchildrenbeingbusedwithblacksbymovingtothesuburbs,whichoftenmeantadifferentschooldistrict.Thiswhiteflightleftthecitiesandtheirschoolsmoreraciallyunbalancedthanbeforebusing.

Policyimpactisamajorcomponentoftheevaluationofpublicpolicy,whichisanimportantfocusofthistext.Policyevaluationfocusesprincipallyontheimpactofpolicy,becauseitislargelyfromtheperformanceandconsequencesofpolicythatweassessitssuccessorfailure.Thisisthequestionofimpact.Evaluationattemptstoassesstheoutcomesofpolicies(theeffectson

society)inordertocomparetheoutcomeswiththepoliciesintendedgoalswhilebalancingtheactualbenefitsofapolicywithitscost.Itaskswhetherthegoalshaveorhavenotbeenmet,withwhatcosts,andwithwhatunintendedconsequences.Forexample,policyevaluationaskswhetherthewelfarereformslegislatedin1996didinfactreducepoverty,increasework,orimprovethelivesoflowincomepersons.WithregardtothewarinIraq,itwasnotenoughtoshowthatwewouldbebetteroffwithaproWesterngovernmentinthatcountry.Thequestionwaswhetherthatbenefitwasworththecostoflifeandmoneythatitwouldrequiretoachieveit.Apolicycanbe

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evaluatedonlyafterthosebenefitsandcostsareknown.Moreover,evaluationleadsbacktoissueformationandpolicydeliberationina(nearly)endlessloop.EvaluationsofpolicyinevitablyproduceadvocatesforchangeandotheradvocatesformaintainingthepolicyashasclearlybeenthecaseofimplementingtheACAin2013.Thesocialproblemsthatstimulatepolicyresponsescanseldombecompletelyfixed.PolicyismorelikeanendlessgameofMonopolythanabicyclerepair.13

AspectsofPolicyEvaluation

Policyevaluationinvolvescollectingandanalyzinginformationabouttheefficiencyandeffectivenessofpolicies.Thepurposeistodeterminewhethergoalsofpolicyhavebeenachievedandtoimprovepolicyperformance.Evaluatingpolicyhasbothnormativeandempiricaldimensions.Thenormativedimensionreferstovalues,beliefs,andattitudesofsocietyasawhole,ofparticulargroupsandindividualsinsociety,andofthepolicyevaluatorsthemselves.Personsofdifferentvaluesandideologiesusedifferentnormativeconceptstoevaluatepolicy.Forexample,ifonecanassumethattherighttoproduceandpublishmaterialwithstrongsexualcontentleadstogreatersexualpromiscuity,thenthatwouldbeacostforsocialconservatives.Itmaybelessofaproblem,however,forsocialliberals.Evaluation,therefore,isalwayspolitical.Progressives,conservatives,socialists,feminists,andanarchistsdifferfundamentallyintheirunderstandingofsuchconceptsandintheirrankingofthem.Conservatives,forexample,believethatfreecompetitionandprotectionofprivatepropertyarefundamentalvaluestobepursuedbyeconomicpolicy.Socialists,however,seejustdistributionofthesocialproductastheprincipalvalue.Differentpolicyevaluatorsanddifferentpoliticalgroupswillevaluatepublicpolicydifferently.Normativeperspectivescomeintoplay,notonlyinassessingthegoalsofpolicybutalsoinanalyzinghowwellpolicyaccomplishesthedesiredgoals.

Normativeevaluation,however,isnotenough.Theempiricaldimensionthatis,understandingthefactsmustprecedejudgment.BeforepraisingordamningtheSupremeCourt'sfreedomofthepressdecisions,onemustexaminetheactualdecisionsandattempttoassesswhatdifference,ifany,theyhavemadeorarelikelytomakeinthedaytodayoperationsofthepress.Andbeforecriticizingwelfarefraud,oneshouldobtainthemostaccuratestatisticsavailableonmoneylostthroughfraudulentclaims.Policyevaluationwithoutempiricalanalysisofpolicycontent,output,andimpactislikevotingfora

baseballallstarteamwithoutinformationonplayersbatting,earnedrun,orfieldingaverages.

Specifically,policyevaluationisusedto:

1. determinewhichgoalsarebeingmetandtowhatdegree(includingunintendedconsequences).2. identifyreasonsforsuccessandfailure.3. allocate(orreallocate)resources.4. makechangestoimprovepoliciesordecidetoendpoliciesthatarenotworking.

Throughtheseefforts,policymakerscanmakesurethatpoliciesaccomplishwhattheyareintendedtoandareresponsivetothepublicandelectedleaders.Table1.1suggeststhemultiplefactorsinvolvedinapublicpolicy.Complexsocialproblems,suchascrime,theeconomy,healthcare,andforeignpolicy,havemultipledimensionsrequiringmultipleapproaches.Thevariousdimensionsandthemanypolicyinitiativesrequiredtoaddressthemmeanthatmajorpublicproblemswillneverhavesinglepolicysolutions.Thereisnoonepolicyfitsallforrespondingtoterrorism,forexample.Bordersecurity,electronicandhumanintelligence,militaryaction,disasterpreparedness,andmanyotherinitiativesarerequired.Thisalsomeansthatanymajorpolicyissuerequireschoicesandtradeoffs.Therearelimitedresourcesoftime,money,andattention.Spendingmoreonbordersecuritymayleavelessmoneyforintelligencegathering,nottomentionlessforeducationorcrimepolicy.Profilingmorelikelyperpetratorsofterroristactivitiesmaymoreefficientlyallocateantiterroristresources,atthecostofoffendinginnocentmembersoftheprofiledgroup.Assuggestedbytheconceptofthezerosumsocietydiscussedabove,scarceresourcesdemand,inturn,carefulpolicyevaluationtomakesurethatassetsarebeingusedmosteffectively.

Policyevaluationmayberequiredbythelegislationcreatingthepolicyorbymoregenerallegislation,suchassunsetlaws.Thesearestatutesthatrequireeachprogramtobeterminatedatsomespecifictime(fiveortenyears,

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forexample),unlessanevaluationleadstoadecisiontocontinueit.Administrativerulesorexecutiveordersalsomayrequireevaluation.Mostgrantinaidprogramsalsoincludearequirementthattheprogrambeingfundedbeevaluated.Theevaluationdetermineswhethertheprogramshouldcontinueorwhatimprovementsshouldbemadeinit.Publicadministratorsareresponsibleforperformancemanagement,theongoingreviewofaccomplishmentsandproblems.Evaluationgoesbeyondperformancemanagementreviewsandinvolvesasystematicprocessofdatacollectionandanalysisofaprogram'sgoalachievementoveraparticularperiodoftime.Thistextcannotaccomplishthedetailedprogramevaluationdescribedhereforthepoliciesitdiscusses.Itsevaluationisatahigherlevelofgenerality.Thesameconsiderationsandconcepts,however,applytothisevaluationofgeneralpolicies(suchasMedicareorcriminaljusticepolicy)astospecificprograms.

Evaluationsmaybeprocess(oftencalledformative)oroutcome(oftencalledsummative)evaluations.Processevaluationassessestheactivitiesandstructures

TABLE1.1ConceptsinPolicyAnalysisConcept Definition Illustration

CengageLearning

Implementation Stepstakentoputapolicyintopractice HiringpolicebuildingprisonsOutputs Measurableresultsofpolicyadoptionand

implementationNumbersofpoliceconvictionrates

Impacts(outcomes)

Actualeffectsthatpolicyoutputshaveonsociety Crimeratesfeelingsofsafetyandsecurity

Direct Apolicy'simpactonitsintendedpopulation ImpactoncriminalsorpotentialcriminalsIndirect(externalities)

Policy'simpactonindividualsandgroupsotherthanintendedpopulation

Impactonfamiliesofpersonsinprison

Intended Consequencesanticipatedbyapolicyorprogram HigherarrestandconvictionratesUnintended Consequencesnotanticipatedbyapolicyor

programGreaterpublicassistanceusagebyprisonersfamilies

Shortterm Outcomesevaluatedshortlyafterpolicyisimplemented

Changesincrimerateduringtheyearafterapolicychange

Longterm Outcomesevaluatedafterpolicyhasbeeninplaceforalongertime

Changesincrimerateover10years

Policyevaluation

Processofassessingimpactsofapolicy Assessmentofeffectivenessofaprogramintendedtoreducecrimerate

Empiricaldimension

Evaluationbypolicy'smeasurableoutputsandoutcomes

Crimestatisticsprisonstatisticsconvictionrates

Normativedimension

Evaluationbypolicy'seffectonvalues,beliefs,andattitudes

Effectofpolicyonfreedom,justice,security,andfamilystability

Costbenefitanalysis

Comparesbenefitsofaprogramwithcostsofimplementingit

Moneyspentcrimeratereduction

Direct Costsandbenefitsfromallocationofresourcesandimpactonotherthanintendedpopulation

Prisoncostsrecidivismrateofpersonsreleasedfromprison

Indirect(externalities)

Costsandbenefitsfromallocationofresourcesandimpactonotherthanintendedpopulation

Economicprosperityincommunitieshousingnewprisonspublicassistancecosts

TABLE1.1ConceptsinPolicyAnalysisCengageLearning

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ofthepolicyimplementation.Theprocessesmayinclude,forexample,whetheracommunitypolicingprogramfollowsprocedure,howmanypoliceareassignedtotheprogram,orwhatkindofpatrolispracticed.Outcomeevaluationsfocusontheimpactofthepolicyorprogram.Thus,outcomeevaluationofacommunitypolicingpolicywouldexaminewhethertherewasanimpactoncrimeintheneighborhood,suchasreductioninburglariesormuggings.Bothformsofevaluationarenecessaryforacompleteassessmentofthepolicy.14Itwouldnotmakemuchsense,forexample,toknowthatcommunitypolicingwasnotworking,butnotknowwhy.Thus,itwouldbeimportanttoknowthatitisnotworking(outcome)andwhatprocessesledtothefailuresothattheprocessescanbecorrected.

Inordertoconductanevaluation,itisnecessarytoplanahead.Asinwritingaresearchpaper,itgoesmuchsmootherifaplanisdevelopedinadvance.Itisthereforenecessarytodecidewhatpurposetheevaluationserves.Isittofocusonprocessoroutcome?Whatisthegoalofthepolicyorprogram?Whatdoestheevaluationneedtodetermine?Whatassumptionsarebeingused?Howmuchmoney,time,andpeopleresourcesareavailablefortheevaluation?Whatindicatorsormeasuresaregoingtobeused?Howwilltheinformationbecollected?Howwillunexpectedcircumstancesbehandled?Whatisthescheduleforcompletion?Whatusewillbemadeoftheresults?Theseessentialquestionsneedtobethoughtthroughbeforebeginningtheevaluation.Oncetheyhavebeenaddressed,theevaluatorneedstodecideontheevaluationmethodortooltouse.

Costbenefitanalysiscomparesthebenefitsoroutcomesoftheprogramwiththecostsofimplementingit.Thebenefitsandcostsmaybestatedindollarterms,allowingfordetermininghowmuchtheoutcomescost.Whileonthesurface,itmayseemeasytodeterminecostsandbenefits,itismuchmorecomplicated.Directcostsandbenefitsmaybeeasytodetermine.Indirectcostsandbenefits,however,areanothermatter.

Directcostsandbenefitsrelatetothespecificallocationofresourcesandtheimpactontheintendedpopulation.Aplantodevelopalightrailsysteminanurbanareapresumablywouldbedesignedtoimprovecommuting.Itmightalsohavethegoalsofreducingpollutionanddecreasingtheneedforroadsandhighways.Theamountofmoneyspentonthesystemandthedisruptioncausedtoresidentsandbusinessesalongtheroutearedirectcosts.Indirectcostsmightincludethelossofbusinesstoareasnotservedbythelightraillineandtheincreaseintimeneededfordeliveryofgoodstobusinessesalongthelinesbecauseofmorelimitedaccess.Theincreaseinthevalueofpropertyalongtheroutemaybeanindirectbenefittoownersofthepropertybutanegative,indirectimpactonthosewhorenttheproperty.Theseindirectcostsandbenefitsarealsocalledexternalities,orspillovereffects.So,inevaluatingaprogramorpolicy,itisnecessarytoconsiderallthecostsandbenefits,notjusttheobviousdirectcostsandbenefits.

Policiesalsohavelongtermeffectsandshorttermimpacts.Bothneedtobeconsideredinevaluation.Similarly,somepolicieshavesymbolicimportance.Thedecisiontobuildanewfootballstadiumforaprofessionalteammayhavegreat

symbolicimportancetotheresidentsofacity.Thestadiumprojectmayhavebeenjustifiedinpartonthebasisofmakingaworldclasscityandwouldbeanintendedsymbolicbenefit.UnintendedandlongtermcostscanbeillustratedbytheIraqWar.WithoneoutofsixsoldierswhoservedinIraqsufferingsomedegreeofposttraumaticstressdisorderormajorhealthproblem,likelylongtermincreasesinhealthcarecosts,drugabuse,familyviolence,suicide,mentalillness,andcrimemustbeconsideredlongtermcosts.

Costsandbenefitsofsomeprogramsaredifficulttomeasure.Howdowemeasurethebenefitofpublicgoods,suchascleanair?Businessesmaywanttomeasureitinoneway:thecosttothem.Thiswouldincludesuchthingsasthecostofcleanburningfuel,suchasnaturalgasinsteadofcoal.Cleanairadvocates,however,maywanttomeasureitintermsoftheincidenceofmedicalproblemsinthecommunitiesaffectedbythequalityoftheairnearamanufacturingplant.Stillothersmayfocusontheaestheticsofthecommunityandthepresenceorabsenceofabrowncloudoverthearea.TheObamaadministrationhasbeenstronglyinfluencedbypublicsectorunions.ThepowerfulenvironmentallobbyhasbeeninfluentialinkeepingPresidentObamafromauthorizingtheconstructionoftheKeystoneoilpipelinefromCanadatoGulfrefineriesdespitethelikelycreationofthousandsofprivatesectorjobs.Similarly,debatesoverwhethertofacilitateembryonicstemcellresearchortomakeamorningafterbirthcontrolpillavailableoverthecounterillustratetheinterweavingofpoliticalreasonswithscientificdatain

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theadoptionandevaluationofpolicies.

Programevaluationisconductedbyvariousagenciesorofficials.Atthenationallevel,theGovernmentAccountabilityOffice(GAO)conductsevaluationoffederalgovernmentprograms,usuallyattherequestofmembersofCongress,asitisanagencyofCongress.GAOmayinitiateevaluationsonitsown,andmanyoftheevaluationsrequiredinthelegislationsettingupprogramsareitsresponsibility.TheCongressionalBudgetOffice(CBO)andCongressionalResearchOffice(CRO)alsoconductmanyevaluations.Moststateshaveanauditingagencyresponsibleforevaluation,orhavelegislativecommitteeswithsuchresponsibilities.Localgovernmentsuseavarietyofsimilaragencies.Governmentsoftenalsocontractwithindependentcontractorstoconductevaluations.Theresultofallofthemistheevaluationreport.Itthenistheresponsibilityofmanagersandpolicymakerstomakeeffectiveuseoftheevaluations.Politicsaffectshowtheydoso.

Policiesdonotgoonforever(thoughsomeappearto).Policieschangeovertime.Forexample,welfarepolicychangedfundamentallyinthe1990s.Policiessometimesareterminated.Theirreasonforbeingpasses,andlegislaturesendthem,althoughitisfareasiertocreateoradoptpoliciesthantoendthem.Moreinterestsclearlybenefitfromapolicythanaredirectlyharmedbyit,asthecostsofapolicyareusuallyspreadoveranumberofsegmentsofsociety.Itiseasiertograntbenefitsthantoremovethemhence,theinexorablegrowthinthesizeandscopeofgovernmentcontinues.Theprocessesinvolvedinchangingandterminatingpoliciesarethesameasthoseinvolvedinpolicymaking.

PublicPolicy:AnIntroduction:Summary

Publicpolicyreferstoaspecificintentionalactofgovernmenttodosomethingandincludesthedecisiontonotdosomething.Scholarsstudypublicpolicytounderstandhowitiscreatedandimplementedaswellastounderstandwhateffectpolicyhas.Todoso,scholarshavedevelopedvariousmodelsofthepolicyprocess.Thesemodelsemphasizedifferentaspectsofpolicy,butmostincludesomeformofstagesorstepsinthepolicyprocess.Evaluationofpolicyisusedtodeterminewhetherornotitisworkingandtohelpindecidinghowtoimproveorendthepolicy.

PublicPolicy:AnIntroduction:Resources

AssociationforPublicPolicyAnalysisandManagement:www.appam.org

CongressionalBudgetOffice:www.cbo.gov

FedStats(GovernmentStatistics):www.fedstats.gov/index.html

ProjectVoteSmart:www.votesmart.org

PublicAgenda:www.publicagenda.org

StatisticalAbstractoftheUnitedStates:www.census.gov/compendia/statab/

U.S.GovernmentAccountabilityOffice(GAO):www.gao.gov

Footnotes

1.JamesE.Anderson,PublicPolicymaking:AnIntroduction,7thed.(Boston:Cengage,2011).2.Forexample,KimQuailleHill,InSearchofPolicyTheory,PolicyCurrents,7(April1997):19.3.JamesColeman,EqualityofEducationalOpportunity(EEOC)1966.AnnArbor,MI.InterUniversityConsortiumforPoliticalandSocialResearch.4.SeeJacobS.Hacker,TheDividedWelfareState:TheBattleoverPublicandPrivateSocialBenefitsinthe

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UnitedStates(NewYork:CambridgeUnivesityPress,2002),Chapter1forasummaryofthemodelanditsapplicationtosocialpolicy.5.C.WrightMills,ThePowerElite(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1956).6.Foraconvenientsummaryofmodelsandtheirdevelopment,seeJosephStewart,Jr.,DavidM.Hedge,andJamesP.Lester,PublicPolicy:AnEvolutionaryApproach,3rded.(Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,2008),Chapters49.7.SeeRobertA.Heinemanetal.,TheWorldofthePolicyAnalyst:Rationality,Values,andPolitics,3rded.(Chatham,NJ:ChathamHouse,2001)DeborahStone,PolicyParadox:TheArtofPoliticalDecisionMaking,3rded.(NewYork:Norton,2011)andHenryJ.Aaronetal.,eds.,ValuesandPublicPolicy(Washington,DC:BrookingsInstitution,1994).8.SeetheinfluentialworkofJohnW.Kingdon,Agendas,Alternatives,andPublicPolicies,2nded.(NewYork:Longman,2010).9.SeeDeborahStone,PolicyParadox:TheArtofPoliticalDecisionMaking,3rded.(NewYork:Norton,2011)PaulA.Sabatier,TowardBetterTheoriesofthePolicyProcess,PS:PoliticalScience&Politics,24(June1991):147156andPaulA.Sabatier,ed.,TheoriesofthePolicyProcess,3rded.(Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,2014).10.MoredetaileddiscussionofthesestagescanbefoundinAnderson,PublicPolicymaking.SeealsoCharlesL.CochranandEloiseF.Malone,PublicPolicy:PerspectivesandChoices,4thed.(Boulder,CO:LynneRiennerPublishers,2009).11.SeethepioneeringstudybyJeffreyL.PressmanandAaronWildavsky,Implementation,3rded.(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1984).12.PaulA.SabatierandDanielMazmanian,TheImplementationofPublicPolicy:AFrameworkforAnalysis,inStellaZ.TheodoulouandMatthewA.Cahn,eds.,PublicPolicy:TheEssentialReadings(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1995),153173.13.Stone,PolicyParadox,261.14.JodyFitzpatrick,JamesSanders,andBlaineWorthen,ProgramEvaluation:AlternativeApproachesandPracticalGuidelines(NewYork:Pearson,2011).

2007CengageLearningInc.Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisworkmaybyreproducedorusedinanyformorbyanymeansgraphic,electronic,ormechanical,orinanyothermannerwithoutthewrittenpermissionofthecopyrightholder.