chapt04 holes lecture animation[1]
TRANSCRIPT
Edited by Brenda HolmesMSN/Ed, RNAssociate Professor
1
South Arkansas Community College
Chapter 4Cellular Metabolism
2
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• Metabolic processes – all chemical reactions that occur in the body
There are two (2) types of metabolic reactions:
• Anabolism• Larger molecules are made from smaller ones• Requires energy
• Catabolism• Larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones• Releases energy
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• Consists of two processes:• Anabolism• Catabolism
5
• Anabolism provides the materials needed for cellular growth and repair
• Dehydration synthesis • Type of anabolic process• Used to make polysaccharides, triglycerides, and proteins• Produces water
CH2OH
H H
OH
O
H OH
Monosaccharide +
HHO
H
OH
H H
OH
O
H OH
Monosaccharide
HHO
H
OH
H H
OH
O
H OH
Disaccharide
H2O
Water+
HHO
H H H
OH
O
H OH
HO
H
OH
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CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
Amino acid
N
H
H
C C
H
R
Dipeptide molecule ++
Peptide bond
Amino acid
N
H
H
C C
HH
H
RH
O
N
H
H
C C
H
RH
O
N
H
C C OH
R
H
OO
N
H
H
C C
H
R
N
H
C C OH
R
H
OO
Water
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O O
H2O
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H C
H
Glycerol 3 fatty acid molecules+
OH HO
H C OH HO
H C
C
C
COH HO
H
O
O
C
C
C
O
O
O
H C
H
Fat molecule (triglyceride) +
H C
H C O
O
O
H
3 watermolecules
(CH2)14 CH3
(CH2)14 CH3
(CH2)14 CH3
(CH2)14 CH3
(CH2)14 CH3
(CH2)14 CH3
H2O
H2O
H2O
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O
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• Catabolism breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones
• Hydrolysis• A catabolic process• Used to decompose carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins• Water is used to split the substances• Reverse of dehydration synthesis
CH2OH
H H
OH
O
H OH
Monosaccharide +
HHO
H
OH
H H
OH
O
H OH
Monosaccharide
HHO
H
OH
H H
OH
O
H OH
Disaccharide
H2O
Water+
HHO
H H H
OH
O
H OH
HO
H
OH
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CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
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Amino acid
N
H
H
C C
H
R
Dipeptide molecule ++
Peptide bond
Amino acid
N
H
H
C C
HH
H
RH
O
N
H
H
C C
H
RH
O
N
H
C C OH
R
H
OO
N
H
H
C C
H
R
N
H
C C OH
R
H
OO
Water
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
O O
H2O
H C
H
Glycerol 3 fatty acid molecules+
OH HO
H C OH HO
H C
C
C
COH HO
H
O
O
C
C
C
O
O
O
H C
H
Fat molecule (triglyceride) +
H C
H C O
O
O
H
3 watermolecules
(CH2)14 CH3
(CH2)14 CH3
(CH2)14 CH3
(CH2)14 CH3
(CH2)14 CH3
(CH2)14 CH3
H2O
H2O
H2O
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O
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• Enzymes• Control rates of metabolic reactions• Lower activation energy needed to start reactions• Most are globular proteins with specific shapes• Not consumed in chemical reactions• Substrate specific• Shape of active site determines substrate
Product molecule
Active site
(a) (b) (c)
Substrate molecules
Unalteredenzymemolecule
Enzyme-substratecomplex
Enzymemolecule
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• Metabolic pathways• Series of enzyme-controlled reactions leading to formation of a product• Each new substrate is the product of the previous reaction
• Enzyme names commonly:• Reflect the substrate• Have the suffix – ase• Examples: sucrase, lactase, protease, lipase
Substrate1
Enzyme A Substrate2
Enzyme B Substrate3
Enzyme C Substrate4
Enzyme DProduct
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• Cofactors • Make some enzymes active• Non-protein component• Ions or coenzymes
• Coenzymes• Organic molecules that act as cofactors• Vitamins
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• Factors that alter enzymes:• Heat• Radiation• Electricity• Chemicals• Changes in pH
13
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• Limited number of regulatory enzymes
• Negative feedback
Inhibition
Substrate1
Substrate2
Enzyme B Substrate3
Enzyme C Substrate4
Enzyme DProduct
Rate-limitingEnzyme A
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15
• Energy is the capacity to change something; it is the ability to do work • Common forms of energy:
• Heat• Light• Sound• Electrical energy• Mechanical energy• Chemical energy
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• Each ATP molecule has three parts:• An adenine molecule• A ribose molecule• Three phosphate molecules in a chain
• Third phosphate attached by high-energy bond
• When the bond is broken, energy is transferred • When the bond is broken, ATP becomes ADP
• ADP becomes ATP through phosphorylation
• Phosphorylation requires energy release from cellular respiration
Energy transferredand utilized bymetabolicreactions whenphosphate bondis broken
Energy transferredfrom cellularrespiration usedto reattachphosphate
PP P
P
P P P
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• Chemical bonds are broken to release energy
• We burn glucose in a process called oxidation
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• Occurs in a series of reactions:1. Glycolysis2. Citric acid cycle (aka TCA or Kreb’s Cycle)3. Electron transport system
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• Produces:• Carbon dioxide• Water• ATP (chemical energy)• Heat
• Includes:• Anaerobic reactions (without O2) - produce little ATP• Aerobic reactions (requires O2) - produce most ATP
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• Series of ten reactions• Breaks down glucose into 2 pyruvic acid molecules• Occurs in cytosol• Anaerobic phase of cellular respiration• Yields two ATP molecules per glucose molecule
Summarized by three main phases or events:1. Phosphorylation2. Splitting3. Production of NADH and ATP
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Event 1 - Phosphorylation• Two phosphates added to glucose• Requires ATP
Event 2 – Splitting (cleavage)• 6-carbon glucose split into two 3-carbon molecules
Phase 1priming
Phase 2cleavage
Phase 3oxidation andformation ofATP and releaseof high energyelectrons
2 ADP
2 NADH + H+
2 NAD+
2 NADH + H+
2 NAD+
P
ATP
PP
P
Glyceraldehydephosphate
Glucose
Dihydroxyacetonephosphate
2
4 ADP
ATP4
Fructose-1,6-diphosphate
O2
2 Pyruvic acid
2 Lactic acidTo citric acid cycleand electron transportchain (aerobic pathway)
Carbon atom
PhosphateP
P
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O2
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Event 3 – Production of NADH and ATP
• Hydrogen atoms are released• Hydrogen atoms bind to NAD+ to produce NADH• NADH delivers hydrogen atoms to electron transport system if oxygen is available• ADP is phosphorylated to become ATP• Two molecules of pyruvic acid are produced• Two molecules of ATP are generated
Phase 1priming
Phase 2cleavage
Phase 3oxidation andformation ofATP and releaseof high energyelectrons
2 ADP
2 NADH + H+
2 NAD+
2 NADH + H+
2 NAD+
P
ATP
PP
P
Glyceraldehydephosphate
Glucose
Dihydroxyacetonephosphate
2
4 ADP
ATP4
Fructose-1,6-diphosphate
O2
2 Pyruvic acid
2 Lactic acidTo citric acid cycleand electron transportchain (aerobic pathway)
Carbon atom
PhosphateP
P
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O2
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• If oxygen is not available:• Electron transport system cannot accept new electrons from NADH• Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid• Glycolysis is inhibited• ATP production is less than in aerobic reactions
Phase 1priming
Phase 2cleavage
Phase 3oxidation andformation ofATP and releaseof high energyelectrons
2 ADP
2 NADH + H+
2 NAD+
2 NADH + H+
2 NAD+
P
ATP
PP
P
Glyceraldehydephosphate
Glucose
Dihydroxyacetonephosphate
2
4 ADP
ATP4
Fructose-1,6-diphosphate
O2
2 Pyruvic acid
2 Lactic acidTo citric acid cycleand electron transportchain (aerobic pathway)
Carbon atom
PhosphateP
P
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O2
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• If oxygen is available: • Pyruvic acid is used to produce acetyl CoA• Citric acid cycle begins• Electron transport system functions• Carbon dioxide and water are formed• 34 molecules of ATP are produced per each glucose molecule
ATP2
ATP2
Glucose
Pyruvic acid Pyruvic acid
Acetyl CoA
CO2
2 CO2
Citric acid
O2
H2O
2e– + 2H+
Electron transport chain
ATP32-34
Cytosol
Mitochondrion
High energyelectrons (e–) andhydrogen ions (H+)
High energyelectrons (e–) andhydrogen ions (h+)
Oxaloaceticacid
High energyelectrons (e–) and hydrogen ions (H+)
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• Begins when acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetic acid to produce citric acid• Citric acid is changed into oxaloacetic acid through a series of reactions• Cycle repeats as long as pyruvic acid and oxygen are available
• For each citric acid molecule: • One ATP is produced• Eight hydrogen atoms are transferred to NAD+ and FAD• Two CO2 produced
Citric acid cycle
ADP +ATP
Pyruvic acid from glycolysis
Citric acid
(start molecule)
Acetyl CoA
(replenish molecule)
Acetic acid
Oxaloacetic acid
(finish molecule)
Isocitric acid
CO2
CO2
CO2
Succinyl-CoASuccinic acidFAD
FADH2
Fumaric acid
Malic acid
Cytosol
Mitochondrion
NADH + H+
NAD+
NADH + H+
NAD+
NADH + H+
NAD+
CoA
CoA
CoA
CoA
P
NADH + H+
NAD+
P
CoA
Carbon atom
Phosphate
Coenzyme A
-Ketoglutaric acid
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ATPADP +ATP synthase
Electron transport chain
Energy
P
2H+ + 2e–
2e–
2H+
NADH + H+
NAD+
2H+ + 2e–
FADH2
FAD
O2
H2O
Energy
Energy
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• NADH and FADH2 carry electrons to the ETS• ETS is a series of electron carriers located in cristae of mitochondria• Energy from electrons transferred to ATP synthase• ATP synthase catalyzes the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP• Water is formed
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Glycolysis
Cyt
oso
lM
ito
cho
nd
rio
n
ATP2
Glucose
High-energy electrons (e–)
High-energy electrons (e–)
High-energy electrons (e–)
2e– and 2H+
ATP2
H2OO2
ATP32–34
CO2
Pyruvic acidPyruvic acid
2 CO2
Acetyl CoA
Citric acidOxaloacetic acid
1
3
4
2
Glycolysis
The 6-carbon sugar glucose is broken down in thecytosol into two 3-carbon pyruvic acid molecules witha net gain of 2 ATP and release of high-energyelectrons.
Citric Acid Cycle
The 3-carbon pyruvic acids generated by glycolysisenter the mitochondria. Each loses a carbon(generating CO2 and is combined with a coenzyme toform a 2-carbon acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA). Morehigh-energy electrons are released.
Each acetyl CoA combines with a 4-carbon oxaloaceticacid to form the 6-carbon citric acid, for which the cycleis named. For each citric acid, a series of reactions removes 2 carbons (generating 2 CO2’s), synthesizes1 ATP, and releases more high-energy electrons.The figure shows 2 ATP, resulting directly from 2turns of the cycle per glucose molecule that entersglycolysis.
Electron Transport Chain
The high-energy electrons still contain most of thechemical energy of the original glucose molecule.Special carrier molecules bring the high-energyelectrons to a series of enzymes that convert much ofthe remaining energy to more ATP molecules. Theother products are heat and water. The function ofoxygen as the final electron acceptor in this last step iswhy the overall process is called aerobic respiration.
Electrontransport
chain
Citric acidcycle
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• Carbohydrate molecules from foods can enter:• Catabolic pathways for energy production• Anabolic pathways for storage
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• Excess glucose stored as: • Glycogen (primarily by liver and muscle cells)• Fat• Converted to amino acids
Hydrolysis
Monosaccharides
Energy + CO2 + H2O Glycogen or Fat Amino acids
Carbohydratesfrom foods
Catabolicpathways
Anabolicpathways
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High energyelectrons carried
by NADH and FADH2
Breakdown of simplemolecules to acetylcoenzyme Aaccompanied byproduction of limitedATP and high energyelectrons
H2O
2e– and 2H+
Waste products
–NH2
CO2
CO2
Citricacidcycle
Electrontransport
chain
Amino acids
Acetyl coenzyme A
Simple sugars(glucose)
Glycerol Fatty acids
Proteins(egg white)
Carbohydrates(toast, hashbrowns)
Food
Fats(butter)
Pyruvic acid
ATP
ATP
Breakdown of largemacromoleculesto simple molecules
Glycolysis
1
2
3
ATP
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© Royalty Free/CORBIS.
½ O2
High energyelectrons carried
by NADH and FADH2
Complete oxidationof acetyl coenzyme Ato H2O and CO2 produceshigh energy electrons(carried by NADH andFADH2), which yield muchATP via the electrontransport chain
Breakdown of simplemolecules to acetylcoenzyme Aaccompanied byproduction of limitedATP and high energyelectrons
H2O
2e– and 2H+
Waste products
–NH2
CO2
CO2
Citricacidcycle
Electrontransport
chain
Amino acids
Acetyl coenzyme A
Simple sugars(glucose)
Glycerol Fatty acids
Proteins(egg white)
Carbohydrates(toast, hashbrowns)
Food
Fats(butter)
Pyruvic acid
ATP
ATP
Breakdown of largemacromoleculesto simple molecules
Glycolysis
1
2
3
ATP
© Royalty Free/CORBIS.
½ O2
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• Instruction of cells to synthesize proteins comes from a nucleic acid, DNA
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• Gene – segment of DNA that codes for one protein
• Genetic information – instructs cells how to construct proteins; stored in DNA
• Genome – complete set of genes
• Genetic Code – method used to translate a sequence of nucleotides of DNA into a sequence of amino acids
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DNA Profiling Frees A Prisoner
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• Two polynucleotide chains• Hydrogen bonds hold nitrogenous bases together• Bases pair specifically (A-T and C-G)• Forms a helix• DNA wrapped about histones forms chromosomes
G C
G
G
A
T
C
C
A
P
G C P
TP
P
C G
P
GP
C P
AP P
P
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Nucleotide strand
Globularhistoneproteins
Metaphasechromosome
Segmentof DNAmolecule
Chromatin
(a) Hydrogen bonds
(b)
(c)
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• Hydrogen bonds break between bases• Double strands unwind and pull apart• New nucleotides pair with exposed bases• Controlled by DNA polymerase
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C
C
A T
C
C G
G
C
C
GCG
A
A
T
T
C G
C
A T
Newly formedDNA molecules
Region ofreplication
Original DNAmolecule
G
G
G
G
G
G
GG
G
C C
C
C
C G
A
A
AT
T
A
A
T
T
T
T
T A
A
A
T A
AT
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Nucleic Acid Amplification
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• Specification of the correct sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain• Each amino acid is represented by a triplet code
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• Transfer RNA (tRNA):• Carries amino acids to mRNA• Carries anticodon to mRNA• Translates a codon of mRNA into an amino acid
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):• Provides structure and enzyme activity for ribosomes
• Messenger RNA (mRNA):• Making of mRNA (copying of DNA) is transcription
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• Messenger RNA (mRNA):• Delivers genetic information from nucleus to the cytoplasm
• Single polynucleotide chain
• Formed beside a strand of DNA
• RNA nucleotides are complementary to DNA nucleotides (exception – no thymine in RNA; replaced with uracil)
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DNA RNA
SG
SC
S
S
S
S
C
G
T
A
S
S
S
S
G
C
A
U
Dire
ctio
n o
f “r
ead
ing
” co
de
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
42
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43
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MessengerRNA
1 DNAinformationis copied, ortranscribed,into mRNAfollowingcomplementarybase pairing
2 mRNA leavesthe nucleusand attachesto a ribosome
3 Translation begins as tRNA anticodonsrecognize complementary mRNA codons,thus bringing the correct amino acids intoposition on the growing polypeptide chain
4 As the ribosomemoves along themRNA, more aminoacids are added
5 At the end of the mRNA,the ribosome releasesthe new protein
6
Amino acidsattached to tRNA
Polypeptidechain
CytoplasmDNAdoublehelix
DNAstrandspulledapart
Transcription(in nucleus)
Translation(in cytoplasm)
Nucleus
C
Codon 1
Codon 2
Codon 3
Codon 4
Codon 5
Codon 6
Codon 7
GG
GG
G
AA
A
U
UC
CC
C
C
C
GGG
AMethionine
Glycine
Amino acidsrepresented
Serine
Alanine
Threonine
Alanine
Glycine
DNAstrand
MessengerRNA
AT
A
A
T
T
T
A TA T
A T
A T
A T
U A
U A
U A
G C
C
G CG C
G C
G CG C
G C
G
G
C
C
G C
C GU AC GC
G
G
GG
G
G
GG
G
G
C
CC
C
C
C
C
CC
C
A
A
A
A
A
T
T A
A T
A T
A T
A T
C G
G C
G C
G C
T A
T A
T A
C G
A TG C
T AC G
T AC G
C G
G C
A T
T AC G
G C
T
T
G
C G
C G
C G
C G
C GC G
C G
C G
Nuclearpore
tRNA moleculescan pick up anothermolecule of thesame amino acidand be reused
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G C
C G
A
G
G
C
U
C
T
C
C
G
A
G
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Next amino acid
Anticodon
Codons
Growingpolypeptidechain
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
CU G G
Ribosome
1
1
2
2
3
37
4
4
5
5
6 7
CCC G U
CU G C G U
Next amino acid
Anticodon
Codons
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
Peptide bond
CU G C G U
C CG C GU
6
MessengerRNA
TransferRNA
Nextamino acid
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6 7
6 7
UCG GA AA A A AG G G G G G G GC C C C C C CU U
UCG GA AA A A AG G G G G G G GC C C C C C CU U
UCG GA AA A A AG G G G G G G GC C C C C C CU U
UCG GA AA A A AG G G G G G G GC C C C C C CU U
The transfer RNA moleculefor the last amino acid addedholds the growing polypeptidechain and is attached to itscomplementary codon on mRNA.
A second tRNA bindscomplementarily to thenext codon, and in doingso brings the next aminoacid into position on the ribosome.A peptide bond forms, linkingthe new amino acid to thegrowing polypeptide chain.
The tRNA molecule thatbrought the last amino acidto the ribosome is releasedto the cytoplasm, and will beused again. The ribosomemoves to a new position atthe next codon on mRNA.
A
A new tRNA complementary tothe next codon on mRNA bringsthe next amino acid to be addedto the growing polypeptide chain.
2
1
3
4
MessengerRNA
TransferRNA
Nextamino acid
TransferRNA
MessengerRNA
TransferRNA
Growingpolypeptidechain
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47
MicroRNAs and RNA Interference
48
• Only about 1/10th of one percent of the human genome differs from person to person
49
• Mutations – change in genetic information
• Result when:• Extra bases are added or deleted• Bases are changed
• May or may not change the protein
Code forglutamicacid
Mutation
Dir
ec
tio
n o
f “r
ea
din
g”
cod
e
Code forvaline
(a) (b)
S
S
S
C
T
A
P
P
P
S
S
S
C
T
T
P
P
P
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50
• Repair enzymes correct the mutations
51
• Occurs from inheriting a mutation that then alters an enzyme• This creates a block in an otherwise normal biochemical pathway
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The Human Metabolome
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Important Points in Chapter 4:Outcomes to be Assessed
4.1: Introduction
Define metabolism.
Explain why protein synthesis is important.
4.2: Metabolic Processes
Compare and contrast anabolism and catabolism.
Define dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis.
4.3: Control of Metabolic Reactions
Describe how enzymes control metabolic reactions.
List the basic steps of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
Define active site.
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Important Points in Chapter 4:Outcomes to be Assessed
Define a rate-limiting enzyme and indicate why it is important in a metabolic pathway.
4.4: Energy for Metabolic Reactions
Explain how ATP stores chemical energy and makes it available to a cell.
State the importance of the oxidation of glucose.
4.5: Cellular Respiration
Describe how the reactions and pathways of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain capture the energy in nutrient molecules.
Discuss how glucose is stored, rather than broken down.
55
Important Points in Chapter 4:Outcomes to be Assessed
4.6: Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis
Define gene and genome.
Describe the structure of DNA, including the role of complementary base pairing.
Describe how DNA molecules replicate.
Define genetic code.
Compare DNA and RNA.
Explain how nucleic acid molecules (DNA and RNA) carry genetic information.
Define transcription and translation.
Describe the steps of protein synthesis.
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Important Points in Chapter 4:Outcomes to be Assessed
4.7: Changes in Genetic Information
Compare and contrast mutations and SNPs.
Explain how a mutation can cause a disease.
Explain two ways that mutations originate.
List three types of genetic changes.
Discuss two ways that DNA is protected against mutation.
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Quiz 4
Complete Quiz 4 now!
Read Chapter 5.