chapter 0. preface

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Product Manager:

Maureen Aller

Project Editor:

Susan Fox

Packaging design:

Jonathan Pennell

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress.

These files shall remain the sole and exclusive property of CRC Press LLC, 2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W., Boca Raton, FL 33431.The contents are protected by copyright law and international treaty. No part of the

Environmental Engineers’ Handbook CRCnetBASE1999

CD-ROM product may be duplicated in hard copy or machine-readable form without prior written authorization from CRCPress LLC, except that the licensee is granted a limited, non-exclusive license to reproduce limited portions of the context for thelicensee’s internal use provided that a suitable notice of copyright is included on all copies. This CD-ROM incorporates materialsfrom other sources reproduced with the kind permission of the copyright holder. Credit to the original sources and copyright noticesare given with the figure or table. No materials in this CD-ROM credited to these copyright holders may be reproduced withouttheir written permission.

WARRANTYThe information in this product was obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Every reasonable effort has been

made to give reliable data and information, but the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or theconsequences of their uses.

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government worksInternational Standard Book Number 0-8493-2157-3International Standard Series Number 1523-3197

©1999 CRC Press LLC

On behalf of my late husband, David Liu, I would like toconvey his sincere gratitude and respect for all the coau-thors who helped, directly or indirectly, currently or in thepast, in this product’s development. With your help, he ac-complished his goal: a comprehensive, authoritative, andcurrent reference. The valuable expertise, strong support,and dedication of all the coauthors will make the Environ-mental Engineers’ Handbook an unqualified success.

Special appreciation is extended to Béla Lipták and PaulBouis, who did the final technical review of manuscript,art and page proofs, sharing their valuable time and ad-vice to complete David’s work.

Irene Liu Princeton, New Jersey

Acknowledgments


Contents

CONTRIBUTORS PREFACE

The Condition of the Environment The Condition of the Waters The Condition of the Air The Condition of the Land Energy Population

FOREWORD

1 Environmental Laws and Regulations 1.1 Administrative Laws 1.2 Information Laws 1.3 Natural Resource Laws 1.4 Pollution Control Laws

2 Environmental Impact Assessment 2.1 Background Conceptual and Administration Information 2.2 EIA Methods: The Broad Perspective 2.3 Interaction Matrix and Simple Checklist Methods 2.4 Techniques for Impact Prediction 2.5 Decision-Focused Checklists 2.6 Preparation of Written Documentation 2.7 Environmental Monitoring 2.8 Emerging Issues in the EIA Process 2.9 International Activities in Environmental Impact Assessment

3 Pollution Prevention in Chemical Manufacturing 3.1 Regulations and Definitions 3.2 Pollution Prevention Methodology 3.3 Pollution Prevention Techniques 3.4 Life Cycle Assessment 3.5 Sustainable Manufacturing 3.6 R & D for Cleaner Processes


3.7 Reaction Engineering 3.8 Separation and Recycling Systems 3.9 Engineering Review 3.10 Process Modifications 3.11 Process Integration 3.12 Process Analysis 3.13 Process Control 3.14 Public Sector Activities

4 Standards

Air Quality Standards 4.1 Setting Standards 4.2 Technology Standards 4.3 Other Air Standards

Noise Standards 4.4 Noise Standards

Water Standards 4.5 Water Quality Standards 4.6 Drinking Water Standards 4.7 Groundwater Standards

International Standards 4.8 ISO 14000 Environmental Standards

5 Air Pollution

Pollutants: Sources, Effects, and Dispersion Modeling 5.1 Sources, Effects, and Fate of Pollutants 5.2 VOCs and HAPs Emission from Chemical Plants5.3 HAPs from Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturing Industries 5.4 Atmospheric Chemistry 5.5 Macro Air Pollution Effects 5.6 Meteorology 5.7 Meteorologic Applications in Air Pollution Control 5.8 Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling

Air Quality 5.9 Emission Measurements 5.10 Air Quality Monitoring 5.11 Stack Sampling 5.12 Continuous Emission Monitoring 5.13 Remote Sensing Techniques

Pollutants: Minimization and Control 5.14 Pollution Reduction 5.15 Particulate Controls 5.16 Dry Collectors 5.17 Electrostatic Precipitators 5.18 Wet Collectors 5.19 Gaseous Emission Control 5.20 Physical and Chemical Separation


5.21 Thermal Destruction 5.22 Biofiltration

Fugitive Emissions: Sources and Controls 5.23 Fugitive Industrial Particulate Emissions 5.24 Fugitive Industrial Chemical Emissions 5.25 Fugitive Dust

Odor Control 5.26 Perception, Effect, and Characterization5.27 Odor Control Strategy

Indoor Air Pollution 5.28 Radon and Other Pollutants 5.29 Air Quality in the Workplace

6 Noise Pollution 6.1 The Physics of Sound and Hearing 6.2 Noise Sources 6.3 The Effects of Noise 6.4 Noise Measurements6.5 Noise Assessment and Evaluation6.6 Noise Control at the Source 6.7 Noise Control in the Transmission Path 6.8 Protecting the Receiver

7 Wastewater Treatment

Sources and Characteristics 7.1 Nature of Wastewater 7.2 Sources and Effects of Contaminants 7.3 Characterization of Industrial Wastewater 7.4 Wastewater Minimization 7.5 Developing a Treatment Strategy

Monitoring and Analysis 7.6 Flow and Level Monitoring 7.7 pH, Oxidation-Reduction Probes and Ion-Selective Sensors 7.8 Oxygen Analyzers 7.9 Sludge, Colloidal Suspension, and Oil Monitors

Sewers and Pumping Stations 7.10 Industrial Sewer Design 7.11 Manholes, Catch Basins, and Drain Hubs 7.12 Pumps and Pumping Stations

Equalization and Primary Treatment 7.13 Equalization Basins 7.14 Screens and Comminutors 7.15 Grit Removal 7.16 Grease Removal and Skimming7.17 Sedimentation 7.18 Flotation and Foaming 7.19 Sludge Pumping and Transportation


Conventional Biological Treatment 7.20 Septic and Imhoff Tanks 7.21 Conventional Sewage Treatment Plants

Secondary Treatment 7.22 Wastewater Microbiology7.23 Trickling Filters 7.24 Rotating Biological Contactors7.25 Activated-Sludge Processes 7.26 Extended Aeration 7.27 Ponds and Lagoons 7.28 Anaerobic Treatment 7.29 Secondary Clarification 7.30 Disinfection

Advanced or Tertiary Treatment 7.31 Treatment Plant Advances 7.32 Chemical Precipitation 7.33 Filtration 7.34 Coagulation and Emulsion Breaking

Organics, Salts, Metals, and Nutrient Removal 7.35 Soluble Organics Removal 7.36 Inorganic Salt Removal by Ion Exchange 7.37 Demineralization 7.38 Nutrient (Nitrogen and Phosphorous) Removal

Chemical Treatment 7.39 Neutralization Agents and Processes 7.40 pH Control Systems 7.41 Oxidation-Reduction Agents and Processes 7.42 ORP Control (Chrome and Cyanide Treatment) 7.43 Oil Separation and Removal

Sludge Stabilization and Dewatering 7.44 Stabilization: Aerobic Digestion 7.45 Stabilization: Anaerobic Digestion 7.46 Sludge Thickening 7.47 Dewatering Filters 7.48 Dewatering: Centrifugation 7.49 Heat Treatment and Thermal Dryers

Sludge Disposal 7.50 Sludge Incineration 7.51 Lagoons and Landfills 7.52 Spray Irrigation 7.53 Ocean Dumping 7.54 Air Drying 7.55 Composting

8 Removing Specific Water Contaminants 8.1 Removing Suspended Solid Contaminants 8.2 Removing Organic Contaminants 8.3 Removing Inorganic Contaminants 8.4 Inorganic Neutralization and Recovery


8.5 Oil Pollution 8.6 Purification of Salt Water 8.7 Radioactive Liquid Waste Treatment

9 Groundwater and Surface Water Pollution

Principles of Groundwater Flow 9.1 Groundwater and Aquifers 9.2 Fundamental Equations of Groundwater Flow 9.3 Confined Aquifers 9.4 Unconfined Aquifers 9.5 Combined Confined and Unconfined Flow

Hydraulics of Wells 9.6 Two-Dimensional Problems 9.7 Nonsteady (Transient) Flow 9.8 Determining Aquifer Characteristics 9.9 Design Considerations 9.10 Interface Flow

Principles of Groundwater Contamination 9.11 Causes and Sources of Contamination 9.12 Fate of Contaminants in Groundwater 9.13 Transport of Contaminants in Groundwater

Groundwater Investigation and Monitoring 9.14 Initial Site Assessment 9.15 Subsurface Site Investigation

Groundwater Cleanup and Remediation 9.16 Soil Treatment Technologies 9.17 Pump-and-Treat Technologies 9.18 In Situ Treatment Technologies

Storm Water Pollutant Management 9.19 Integrated Storm Water Program 9.20 Nonpoint Source Pollution 9.21 Best Management Practices 9.22 Field Monitoring Programs 9.23 Discharge Treatment

10 Solid Waste

Source and Effect 10.1 Definition 10.2 Sources, Quantities, and Effects

Characterization 10.3 Physical and Chemical Characteristics 10.4 Characterization Methods10.5 Implications for Solid Waste Management

Resource Conservation and Recovery 10.6 Reduction, Separation, and Recycling


10.7 Material Recovery 10.8 Refuse-Derived Fuel

Treatment and Disposal 10.9 Waste-to-Energy Incinerators 10.10 Sewage Sludge Incineration 10.11 Onsite Incinerators 10.12 Pyrolysis of Solid Waste10.13 Sanitary Landfills 10.14 Composting of MSW

11 Hazardous Waste

Sources and Effects 11.1 Hazardous Waste Defined11.2 Hazardous Waste Sources 11.3 Effects of Hazardous Waste

Characterization, Sampling, and Analysis 11.4 Hazardous Waste Characterization 11.5 Sampling and Analysis 11.6 Compatibility

Risk Assessment and Waste Management 11.7 The Hazard Ranking System and the National Priority List 11.8 Risk Assessment 11.9 Waste Minimization and Reduction 11.10 Hazardous Waste Transportation

Treatment and Disposal 11.11 Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Requirements11.12 Storage 11.13 Treatment and Disposal Alternatives 11.14 Waste Destruction Technology 11.15 Waste Concentration Technology 11.16 Solidification and Stabilization Technologies 11.17 Biological Treatment 11.18 Biotreatment by Sequencing Batch Reactors

Storage and Leak Detection 11.19 Underground Storage Tanks 11.20 Leak Detection and Remediation

Radioactive Waste 11.21 Principles of Radioactivity 11.22 Sources of Radioactivity in the Environment 11.23 Safety Standards 11.24 Detection and Analysis 11.25 Mining and Recovery of Radioactive Materials 11.26 Low-Level Radioactive Waste 11.27 High-Level Radioactive Waste 11.28 Transport of Radioactive Materials


Irving M. AbramsBCh, PhD; Manager, Technical Development,Diamond Shamrock Chemical Company

Carl E. Adams, Jr.BSCE, MSSE, PhDCE, PE; Technical Director,Associated Water & Air Resources Engineers, Inc.

Elmar R. AltwickerBS, PhD; Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering,Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Donald B. AulenbachBSCh, MS, PhDS; Associate Professor,Bio-Environmental Engineering,Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Richard C. BailieBSChE, MSChE, PhDChE;Professor of Chemical Engineering,West Virginia University

Edward C. BinghamBSCh, MBA; Technical Assistant to General Manager,Farmers Chemical Association, Inc.

L. Joseph BollykyPhD; President,Pollution Control Industries Ozone Corp.

David R. Bookchin, Esq.BA, JD, MSL; private practice, Montpelier, Vermont

Paul A. BouisBSCh, PhDCh; Assistant Director, Research &Development, Mallinckrodt-Baker, Inc.

Jerry L. BoydBSChE; Chief Process Application Engineer, EimcoCorp.

Contributors

Thomas F. Brown, Jr.BSAE, EIT; Assistant Director, Environmental Engineering,Commercial Solvents Corp.

Barrett BruchBSME, BSIE; Oil Spill Control Project Leader,Lockheed Missiles & Space Company

Robert D. BuchananBSCE, MSCE, PE; Chief Sanitary Engineer,Bureau of Indian Affairs

Don E. BurnsBSCE, MSCE, PhD-SanE; Senior Research Engineer,Eimco Corp.

Larry W. CanterBE, MS, PhD, PE;Sun Company Chair of Ground Water Hydrology,University of Oklahoma

Paul J. Cardinal, Jr.BSME; Manager, Sales Development, Envirotech Corp.

Charles A. CaswellBS Geology, PE; Vice President,University Science Center, Inc.

Samuel Shih-hsien ChaBS, MS; Consulting Chemist, TRC Environmental Corp.

Yong S. ChaeAB, MS, PhD, PE; Professor and Chairman,Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rutgers University

Karl T. ChuangPhDChE; Professor, Department of ChemicalEngineering, University of Alberta

Richard A. ConwayBS, MSSE, PE; Group Leader, Research & Development,Union Carbide Corp.

George J. CritsBSChE, MSChE, PE; Technical Director,Cochrane Division, Crane Company

Donald DahlstromPhDChE; Vice President and Director of Research &Development, Eimco Corp.

Stacy L. DanielsBSChE, MSSE, MSChE, PhD; Development Engineer,The Dow Chemical Company

Ernest W.J. DiaperBSc, MSc; Manager,Municipal Water and Waste Treatment,Cochrane Division, Crane Company

Frank W. DittmanBSChE, MSChE, PhD, PE;Professor of Chemical Engineering, Rutgers University

Wayne F. Echelberger, Jr.BSCE, MSE, MPH, PhD; Associate Professor of CivilEngineering, University of Notre Dame

Mary Anna EvansBS, MS, PE; Senior Engineer, Water and Air Research,Inc.

Jess W. EverettBSE, MS, PhD, PE; Assistant Professor, School of CivilEngineering and Environmental Engineering, Universityof Oklahoma

David C. Farnsworth, Esq.BA, MA, JD, MSL; Vermont Public Service Board

J.W. Todd FerrettiPresident, The Bionomic Systems Corp.

Ronald G. GantzBSChE; Senior Process Engineer,Continental Oil Company

William C. GardinerBA, MA, PhD, PE; Director, Electrochemical Development,Crawford & Russell, Inc.

Louis C. Gilde, Jr.BSSE; Director, Environmental Engineering,Campbell Soup Company

Brian L. GoodmanBS, MS, PhD; Director, Technical Services,Smith & Loveless Division, Ecodyne Corp.

Ahmed HamidiPhD, PE, PH, CGWP; Vice President,Sadat Associates, Inc.

Negib HarfouchePhD; President, NH Environmental Consultants

R. David HolbrookBSCE, MSCE; Senior Process Engineer, I. Krüger, Inc.

Sun-Nan HongBSChE, MSChE, PhD; Vice President, Engineering,I. Krüger, Inc.

Derk T.A. HuibersBSChE, MSChE, PhDChE, FAIChE; Manager,Chemical Processes Group, Union Camp Corp.

Frederick W. Keith, Jr.BSChE, PhDChE, PE; Manager, Applications Research,Pennwalt Corp.

Edward G. KominekBS, MBA, PE; Manager, Industrial Water & Waste Sales,Eimco Processing Machinery Division, Envirotech Corp.

Lloyd H. Ketchum, Jr.BSCE, MSE, MPH, PhD, PE; Associate Professor,Civil Engineering and Geological Sciences,University of Notre Dame

Mark K. LeeBSChE, MEChE; Project Manager,Westlake Polymers Corp.

David H.F. LiuPhD, ChE; Principal Scientist, J.T. Baker, Inc. a divisionof Procter & Gamble

Béla G. LiptákME, MME, PE; Process Control and Safety Consultant,President, Liptak Associates, P.C.



Janos LiptákCE, PE; Senior Partner, Janos Liptak & Associates

Andrew F. McClure, Jr.BSChE; Manager, Industrial Concept Design Division,Betzon Environmental Engineers

George W. McDonaldPhD, ChE; Pulping Group Leader, Research andDevelopment Division, Union Camp Corp.

Francis X. McGarveyBSChE, MSChE; Manager, Technical Center,Sybron Chemical Company

Kent Keqiang MaoBSCE, MSCE, PhDCE, PE; President, North America Industrial Investment Co., Ltd.

Thomas J. Myron, Jr.BSChE; Senior Systems Design Engineer, The Foxboro Company

Van T. NguyenBSE, MSE, PhD; Department of Civil Engineering,California State University, Long Beach

Frank L. ParkerBA, MS, PhD, PE; Professor of Environmental and Water ResourcesEngineering, Vanderbilt University

Joseph G. RaboskyBSChE, MSE, PE; Senior Project Engineer, Calgon Corp.

Gurumurthy RamachandranBSEE, PhD; Assistant Professor,Division of Environmental and Occupational Health,University of Minnesota

Roger K. RauferBSChE, MSCE, MA, PhD, PE; Associate Director,Environmental Studies,Center for Energy and the Environment,University of Pennsylvania

Parker C. ReistScD, PE; Professor of Air and Industrial HygieneEngineering, University of North Carolina

LeRoy H. ReuterMS, PhD, PE; Consultant

Bernardo Rico-OrtegaBSCh, MSSE; Product Specialist, Pollution Control Department,Nalco Chemical Company

Howard C. RobertsBAEE, PE; Professor of Engineering (retired)

Reed S. RobertsonBSChE, MSEnvE, PE; Senior Group Leader, NalcoChemical Company

David M. RockBSChE, MSChE, PE; Staff Engineer,Environmental Control, American Enka Company

F. Mack RuggBA, MSES, JD, Environmental Scientist,Project Manager, Camp Dresser & McKee Inc.

Alan R. SangerBSc, MSc, DPhil; Consultant and Professor,Department of Chemical Engineering,University of Alberta

Chakra J. SanthanamBSChE, MSChE, ChE, PE; Senior Environmental Engineer, Crawford & Russell, Inc.

E. Stuart SavageBSChE, PE; Manager, Research and Development,Water & Waste Treatment, Dravco Corp.

Letitia S. SavageBS Biology; North Park Naturalist,Latodami Farm Nature Center,Allegheny County Department of Conservation

Frank P. SebastianMBA, BSME; Senior Vice President, Envirotech Corp.

Gerald L. ShellMSCE, PE; Director of Sanitary Engineering,Eimco Corp.

Wen K. ShiehPhD; Department of Systems Engineering,University of Pennsylvania

Stuart E. SmithBChE, MSChE, MSSE, PE; Manager,Industrial Wastewater Operation, Environment/One Corp.

John R. SnellBECE, MSSE, DSSE, PE; President, John R. Snell Engineers

Paul L. StavengerBSChE, MSChE; Director of Technology,Process Equipment Division, Dorr-Oliver, Inc.

Michael S. SwitzenbaumBA, MS, PhD; Professor,Environmental Engineering Program,Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Floyd B. TaylorBSSE, MPH, PE, DEE; Environmental Engineer,Consultant

Amos TurkBS, MA, PhD; Professor Emeritus,Department of Chemistry,The City College of New York

Curtis P. WagnerBA, MS; Senior Project Manager, TRC Environmental,Inc.

Cecil C. WaldenBA, MA, PhD; Associate Director, B.C. Research, Canada

Roger H. ZanitschBSCE, MSSE; Senior Project Engineer, Calgon Corp.

William C. ZegelScD, PE, DEE; President, Water and Air Research, Inc.



Engineers respond to the needs of society with technicalinnovations. Their tools are the basic sciences. Some en-gineers might end up working on these tools instead ofworking with them. Environmental engineers are in a priv-ileged and challenging position, because their tools are thetotality of man’s scientific knowledge, and their target isnothing less than human survival through making man’speace with nature.

When, in 1974, I wrote the preface to the three-volumefirst edition of this handbook, we were in the middle ofan energy crisis and the future looked bleak, I was wor-ried and gloomy. Today, I look forward to the 21stCentury with hope and confidence. I am optimistic be-cause we have made progress in the last 22 years and I amalso proud, because I know that this handbook made asmall contribution to that progress. I am optimistic be-cause we are beginning to understand that nature shouldnot be conquered, but protected, that science and tech-nology should not be allowed to evolve as “value-free”forces, but should be subordinated to serve human valuesand goals.

This second edition of the Environmental Engineers’Handbook contains most of the technical know-howneeded to clean up the environment. Because the environ-ment is a complex web, the straining of some of the strandsaffects the entire web. The single-volume presentation ofthis handbook recognizes this integrated nature of our en-vironment, where the various forms of pollution are in-terrelated symptoms and therefore cannot be treated sep-arately. Consequently, each handbook section is built uponand is supported by the others through extensive cross-ref-erencing and subject indexes.

The contributors to this handbook came from all con-tinents and their backgrounds cover not only engineering,but also legal, medical, agricultural, meteorological, bio-logical and other fields of training. In addition to discussing

the causes, effects, and remedies of pollution, this hand-book also emphasizes reuse, recycling, and recovery.Nature does not cause pollution; by total recycling, naturemakes resources out of all wastes. Our goal should be tolearn from nature in this respect.

The Condition of the EnvironmentTo the best of our knowledge today, life in the universeexists only in a ten-mile-thick layer on the 200-million-square-mile surface of this planet. During the 5 millionyears of human existence, we lived in this thin crust ofearth, air, and water. Initially man relied only on inex-haustible resources. The planet appeared to be withoutlimits and the laws of nature directed our evolution. Laterwe started to supplement our muscle power with ex-haustible energy sources (coal, oil, uranium) and to sub-stitute the routine functions of our brains by machines. Asa result, in some respects we have “conquered nature” andtoday we are directing our own evolution. Today, our chil-dren grow up in man-made environments; virtual realityor cyberspace is more familiar to them than the open spacesof meadows.

While our role and power have changed, our conscious-ness did not. Subconsciously we still consider the planetinexhaustible and we are still incapable of thinking in time-frames which exceed a few lifetimes. These human limi-tations hold risks, not only for the planet, nor even for lifeon this planet, but for our species. Therefore, it is neces-sary to pay attention not only to our physical environmentbut also to our cultural and spiritual environment.

It is absolutely necessary to bring up a new generationwhich no longer shares our deeply rooted subconsciousbelief in continuous growth: A new generation which nolonger desires the forever increasing consumption of space,raw materials, and energy.

Preface

Dr. David H.F. Liu passed away during the preparation of this revised edition.

He will be long remembered by his co-workers,

and the readers of this handbook will carry his memory into the 21st Century

It is also necessary to realize that, while as individualswe might not be able to think in longer terms than cen-turies, as a society we must. This can and must be achievedby developing rules and regulations which are appropri-ate to the time-frame of the processes that we control orinfluence. The half-life of plutonium is 24,000 years, thereplacement of the water in the deep oceans takes 1000years. For us it is difficult to be concerned about the con-sequences of our actions, if those consequences will takecenturies or millennia to evolve. Therefore, it is essentialthat we develop both an educational system and a bodyof law which would protect our descendants from our ownshortsightedness.

Protecting life on this planet will give the coming gen-erations a unifying common purpose. The healing of en-vironmental ills will necessitate changes in our subcon-scious and in our value system. Once these changes haveoccurred, they will not only guarantee human survival, butwill also help in overcoming human divisions and therebychange human history.

The Condition of the WatersIn the natural life cycle of the water bodies (Figure 1), thesun provides the energy source for plant life (algae), whichproduces oxygen while converting the inorganic moleculesinto larger organic ones. The animal life obtains its mus-cle energy (heat) by consuming these molecules and by alsoconsuming the dissolved oxygen content of the water.

When a town or industry discharges additional organicmaterial into the waters (which nature intended to be dis-posed of as fertilizer on land), the natural balance is up-set. The organic effluent acts as a fertilizer, therefore thealgae overpopulates and eventually blocks the trans-parency of the water. When the water becomes opaque,the ultraviolet rays of the sun can no longer penetrate it.This cuts off the algae from its energy source and it dies.The bacteria try to protect the life cycle in the water byattempting to break down the excess organic material (in-cluding the dead body cells of the algae), but the bacteriarequire oxygen for the digestion process. As the algae isno longer producing fresh oxygen, the dissolved oxygencontent of the water drops, and when it reaches zero, allanimals suffocate. At that point the living water body hasbeen converted into an open sewer.

In the United States, the setting of water quality stan-dards and the regulation of discharges have been based onthe “assimilative capacity” of the receiving waters (a kindof pollution dilution approach), which allows dischargesinto as yet unpolluted waterways. The Water Pollution Actof 1972 would have temporarily required industry to ap-ply the “best practicable” and “best available” treatmentsof waste emissions and aimed for zero discharge by 1985.While this last goal has not been reached, the condition ofAmerican waterways generally improved during the last

decades, while on the global scale water quality has dete-riorated.

Water availability has worsened since the first editionof this handbook. In the United States the daily withdrawalrate is about 2,000 gallons per person, which representsroughly one-third of the total daily runoff. The bulk ofthis water is used by agriculture and industry. The aver-age daily water consumption per household is about 1000gallons and, on the East Coast, the daily cost of that wa-ter is $2–$3. As some 60% of the discharged pollutants(sewage, industrial waste, fertilizers, pesticides, leachingsfrom landfills and mines) reenter the water supplies, thereis a direct relationship between the quality and cost of sup-ply water and the degree of waste treatment in the up-stream regions.

There seems to be some evidence that the residual chlo-rine from an upstream wastewater treatment plant cancombine in the receiving waters with industrial wastes toform carcinogenic chlorinated hydrocarbons, which canenter the drinking water supplies downstream. Toxicchemicals from the water can be further concentratedthrough the food chain. Some believe that the gradual poi-soning of the environment is responsible for cancer, AIDS,and other forms of immune deficiency and self-destructivediseases.


FIG. 1 The natural life cycle.


While the overall quality of the waterways has im-proved in the United States, worldwide the opposite oc-curred. This is caused not only by overpopulation, but alsoby ocean dumping of sludge, toxins, and nuclear waste, aswell as by oil leaks from off-shore oil platforms. We donot yet fully understand the likely consequences, but wecan be certain that the ability of the oceans to withstandand absorb pollutants is not unlimited and, therefore, in-ternational regulation of these discharges is essential. Interms of international regulations, we are just beginningto develop the required new body of law. The very first

case before the International Court of Justice (IJC) whereinit was argued that rivers are not the property of nationstates, and that the interests of nations must be balancedagainst the interests of mankind, was heard by IJC in 1997in connection with the Danube.

The Condition of the AirThere is little question about the harmful effects of ozonedepletion, acid rain, or the greenhouse effect. One mightdebate if the prime cause of desertification is acid rain, ex-

FIG. 2 Areas of diminishing rain forests and spreading deserts.

cessive lumbering, soil erosion, or changes in the weather,but it is a fact that the rain forests are diminishing and thedeserts are spreading (Figure 2). We do not know whatquantity of acid fumes, fluorinated hydrocarbons, or car-bon dioxide gases can be released before climatic changesbecome irreversible. But we do know that the carbon diox-ide content of the atmosphere has substantially increased,that each automobile releases 5 tons of carbon dioxideevery year, and that the number of gas-burning oil plat-forms in the oceans is approaching 10,000.

Conditions on the land and in the waters are deter-mined by complex biosystems. The nonbiological natureof air makes the setting of emission standards and theirenforcement somewhat easier. As discussed in Chapter 5of this handbook, the United States has air quality andemission standards for particulates, carbon monoxide, sul-

fur and nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, photochemical ox-idants, asbestos, beryllium, and mercury.

For other materials, such as the “possible human car-cinogens,” the furans and dioxins (PCDD and PCDF),there are no firm emission or air quality standards yet.These materials are the byproducts of paper bleaching,wood preservative and pesticide manufacturing, and theincineration of plastics. Because typical municipal solidwaste (MSW) in the U.S. contains some 8% plastics, in-cineration is probably the prime source of dioxin emis-sions. Dioxins are formed on incinerator fly ash and endup either in landfills or are released into the atmosphere.Dioxin is suspected to be not only a carcinogen but alsoa cause of birth defects. It is concentrated through the foodchain, is deposited in human fat tissues, and in some casesdioxin concentrations of 1.0 ppb have already been foundin mother’s milk.


FIG. 3 The “open” and “closed” material-flow economies.

A circular or closed materials economy. Limits on the total amount of materials or wealth will depend upon theavailability of resources and energy and the earth’s ecological, biological and physical system. Within these limits,the lower the rate of material flow, the greater the wealth of the population. The objective would be to maximizethe life expectancy and, hence, quality of items produced.

An essentially “linear” or open materials economy. The objective is to increase annual production (GNP) bymaximizing the flow of materials. The natural pressure, therefore, is to decrease the life or quality of the itemsproduced.


Although in the last decades the air quality in the U.S.improved and the newer standards (such as the Clean AirAct of 1990) became stricter, lately we have seen misguidedattempts to reverse this progress. Regulations protectingwetlands, forbidding clear-cutting of forests, and mandat-ing use of electric cars have all been relaxed or reversed.In the rest of the world, the overall trend is continued de-terioration of air quality. In the U.S., part of the im-provement in air quality is due not to pollution abatementbut to the exporting of manufacturing industries; part ofthe improvement is made possible by relatively low pop-ulation density, not the result of conservation efforts.

On a per capita basis the American contribution toworldwide pollutant emissions is high. For example, theyearly per capita generation of carbon dioxide in the U.S.is about 20 tons. This is twentyfold the per capita CO2

generation of India. Therefore, even if the emission levelsin the West are stabilized or reduced, the global genera-tion of pollutants is likely to continue to rise as worldwideliving standards slowly equalize.

The Condition of the LandNature never produces anything that it can not decom-pose and return into the pool of fresh resources. Man does.Nature returns organic wastes to the soil as fertilizer. Manoften dumps such wastes in the oceans, buries them inlandfills, or burns them in incinerators. Man’s deeplyrooted belief in continuous growth treats nature as a com-modity, the land, oceans, and atmosphere as free dumps.There is a subconscious assumption that the planet is in-exhaustible. In fact the dimensions of the biosphere arefixed and the planet’s resources are exhaustible.

The gross national product (GNP) is an indicator basedon the expectation of continuous growth. We consider theeconomy healthy when the GNP and, therefore, the quan-tity of goods produced increases. The present economicmodel is like an open pipeline which takes in resources atone end and spills out wastes at the other. The GNP inthis model is simply a measure of the rate at which re-sources are being converted to wastes. The higher the GNP,the faster the resources are exhausted (Figure 3). Accordingto this model, cutting down a forest to build a parking lotincreases the GNP and is therefore good for the economy.Similarly, this open-loop model might suggest that it ischeaper to make paper from trees than from waste paper,because the environmental costs of paper manufacturingand disposal are not included in the cost of the paper, butare borne separately by the whole community.

In contrast, the economic model of the future will haveto be a closed-loop pipeline (Closed-GNP). This will beachieved when it becomes more profitable to reuse rawmaterials than to purchase fresh supplies. This is a func-tion of economic policy. For example, in those cities whereonly newspapers printed on recycled paper are allowed tobe sold, there is a healthy market for used paper and the

volume of municipal waste is reduced. Similarly, in coun-tries where environmental and disposal costs are incorpo-rated into the total cost of the products (in the form oftaxes), it is more profitable to increase quality and dura-bility than to increase the production quantity (Figure 3).

In addition to resource depletion and the disposal oftoxic, radioactive, and municipal wastes, the natural en-vironment is also under attack from strip mining, clear cut-ting, noise, and a variety of other human activities. In short,there is a danger of transforming the diverse and stableecosystem into an unstable one which consists only of manand his chemically sustained food factory.

EnergyWhen man started to supplement his muscle energy withoutside sources, these sources were all renewable and in-exhaustible. The muscle power of animals, the burning ofwood, the use of hydraulic energy were man’s external en-ergy sources for millions of years. Only during the last cou-ple of centuries have we started to use exhaustible energysources, such as coal, oil, gas, and nuclear. This change inenergy sources not only resulted in pollution but has alsocaused uncertainty about our future because we can notbe certain if the transition from an exhausted energy sourceto the next one can be achieved without major disruptions.

The total energy content of all fossil deposits and ura-nium 235 (the energy source of “conventional” nuclearplants) on the planet is estimated to be 100 3 1018 BTUs.Our present yearly energy consumption is about 0.25 31018 BTUs. This would give us 400 years to convert to aninexhaustible energy source, if our population and energydemand were stable and if some energy sources (oil andgas) were not depleted much sooner than others.

Breeder reactors have not been considered in this eval-uation because the plutonium they produce is too dan-gerous to even contemplate a plutonium-based future. Thisis not to say that conventional nuclear power is safe. Manhas not lived long enough with radiation to know if mil-lions of cubic feet of nuclear wastes can be stored safely.

We receive about 100 Watts of solar energy on eachsquare meter of the Earth’s surface, or a yearly total ofabout 25 3 1018 BTUs. Therefore, 1% of the solar energyreceived on the surface of the planet could supply our to-tal energy needs. If collected on artificial islands or in desertareas around the Equator, where the solar radiation in-tensity is much higher than average, a fraction of 1% ofthe globe’s surface could permanently supply our total en-ergy needs. If the collected solar power were used to ob-tain hydrogen from water and if the compressed hydro-gen were used as our electric, heat, and transportationenergy source, burning this fuel would result in the emis-sion of only clean, nonpolluting steam. Also, if the com-bustion took place in fuel cells, we could nearly doublethe present efficiency of electric power generation (about33%) or the efficiency of the internal combustion engine

(about 25%) and thereby substantially reduce thermal pol-lution.

Today, as conventional energy use increases, pollutiontends to rise exponentially. As the population of the U.S.has increased 50% and our per capita energy consump-tion has risen 25%, the emission of pollutants has soaredby 2000%. While the population of the world doubles inabout 50 years, energy consumption doubles in about 20and electric energy use even faster. In addition to chemi-cal pollution, thermal pollution also rises with fossil en-ergy consumption, because for each unit of electricity gen-erated, two units of heat energy are discharged into theenvironment.

It is time to redirect our resources from the military—whose job it is to protect dwindling oil resources—andfrom deep sea drilling—which might cause irreversibleharm to the ocean’s environment—and use these resourcesto develop the new, permanent, and inexhaustible energysupplies of the future.

PopulationProbably the most serious cause of environmental degra-dation is overpopulation. More people live on Earth to-day than all the people who died since Creation (or, if youprefer, the “accidental” beginning of “evolution”). Threehundred years ago the world’s population doubled every250 years. Today it doubles in less than a life span. WhenI was editing the first edition of this handbook, the pop-ulation of the planet was under 4 billion; today it is near-ing 6 billion (Figure 4). During that same time period, thepopulation of the Third World increased by more than thetotal population of the developed countries.

The choice is clear: we either take the steps needed tocontrol our numbers or nature will do it for us throughfamine, plague, and loss of fertility. We must realize thatthe teaching which was valid for a small tribe in the desert(“Conquer nature and multiply”) is no longer valid for the

overpopulated planet of today. We must realize that, evenif we immediately take all the steps required to stabilizethe population of the planet, the total number will stillreach some 15 billion before it can be stabilized.

To date, food production has kept pace with popula-tion growth, but only at a drastic price: increases in pes-ticide (300%) and fertilizer (150%) use, which in turn fur-ther pollutes the environment.

The total amount of land suitable for agriculture isabout 8 billion acres. Of that, 3.8 billion acres are undercultivation and, with the growth of the road systems andcities, the availability of land for agricultural uses is shrink-ing. The amount of water available for irrigation is alsodropping. Without excessive fertilization, one acre of landis needed to feed one person: therefore, the human popu-lation has already exceeded the number supportable with-out chemical fertilizers. As chemical fertilizer manufactur-ing is based on the use of crude oil, models simulatingworld trends predict serious shortages in the next century(Figure 5).

While all these trends are ominous, the situation is nothopeless. The populations of the more developed countriesseem to have stabilized, the new communication tech-nologies and improved mass transit are helping to stop oreven reverse the further concentration of urban masses.Environmental education and recycling have been suc-cessful in several nations. New technologies are emergingto serve conservation and to provide nonpolluting and in-exhaustible energy sources.

When Copernicus discarded the concept of an earth-centered and stationary Universe, the Earth continued totravel undisturbed in its orbit around the Sun, yet the con-sequences of this discovery were revolutionary.Copernicus’ discovery changed nothing in the Universe,but it changed our subconscious view of ourselves as the“centerpiece of creation.” Today, our concept of our im-mediate universe, the Earth, is once again changing andthis change is even more fundamental. We are realizingthat the planet is exhaustible and that our future depends


FIG. 4 Growth of human population.


on our own behavior. It took several centuries forCopernicus’ discovery to penetrate our subconscious.Therefore, we should not get impatient if this new under-standing does not immediately change our mentality andlife style. On the other hand, we must not be complacent.Human ingenuity and the combined talent of people, suchas the contributors and readers of this handbook, can solvethe problems we face, but this concentrated effort mustnot take centuries. We do not have that much time.

Protecting the global environment, protecting life onthis planet, must become a single-minded, unifying goalfor all of us. The struggle will overshadow our differences,will give meaning and purpose to our lives and, if we suc-ceed, it will mean survival for our children and the gener-ations to come.

Béla G. Lipták Stamford, Connecticut

FIG. 5 Computer simulation of world trends.


Foreword

The revised, expanded, and updated edition of theEnvironmental Engineers’ Handbook covers in depth theinterrelated factors and principles which affect our envi-ronment and how we have dealt with them in the past,how we are dealing with them today, and how we mightdeal with them in the future. Although the product isclearly aimed at the environmental professional, it is writ-ten and structured in a way that will allow others outsidethe field to educate themselves about our environment, andwhat can and must be done to continue to improve thequality of life on spaceship earth. EnvironmentalEngineers’ Handbook CRCnetBASE 1999 covers in detailthe ongoing global transition among the cleanup of the re-mains of abandoned technology, the prevention of pollu-tion from existing technology, and the design of futurezero emission technology. The relationship of cost to ben-efit is examined and emphasized throughout the product

The Preface will remind the reader of Charles Dickens’famous A Christmas Carol, and we should reflect on itsimplications carefully as we try to decide the cost-to-benefit ratio of environmental control technology.Following the Preface, Environmental Engineers’Handbook CRCnetBASE 1999 begins with a thorough re-view of environmental law and regulations that are thenfurther detailed in individual chapters. The chapter on en-vironmental impact assessment is the bridge between therelease of pollutants and the technology necessary to re-duce the impact of these emissions on the global ecosys-tem. Chapters on the source control and/or prevention offormation of specific pollutants in air, water, land, and ourpersonal environment follow these introductory chapters.A chapter on solid waste is followed by the final chapteron hazardous waste, which tries to strike a balance be-tween the danger of hazardous wastes and the low prob-ability that a dangerous environmental event will occur be-cause of these wastes.

The type of information contained in every chapter isdesigned to be uniform, although there is no unified for-mat that each chapter follows, because subject mattervaries so widely. The user can always count on findingboth introductory material and very specific technical an-swers to complex questions. In those chapters where it isrelevant, in-depth technical information on the technologyand specific equipment used in environmental control andcleanup will be found. Since analytical results are an in-tricate part of any environmental study, the user will findample sections covering the wide variety of analyticalmethods and equipment used in environmental analysis.Several chapters have extensive sections where the deriva-tion of the mathematical equations used are included.Textual explanations usually also accompany these math-ematical-based sections.

A great deal of effort has gone into providing as muchinformation as possible in easy-to-use tables and figures.We have chosen to use schematic diagrams rather than ac-tual pictures of equipment, devices, or landscapes to ex-plain or illustrate technology and techniques used in var-ious areas. The bulk of material is testimony to the levelof detail that has been included in order to make this asingle-source handbook. The user will also find ample ref-erences if additional information is required. The authorof a section is given at the end of each section and we en-courage users to contact the author directly with any ques-tions or comments. Although extensive review and proof-reading of the manuscript was done, we ask users whofind errors or omissions to bring them to our attention.

Finally, we wish to acknowledge the numerous indi-viduals and organizations who either directly or indirectlyhave contributed to this work, yet have not been men-tioned by name.

Paul A. BouisBethlehem, Pennsylvania

chapter 0. preface

Documents