chapter 05 lecture outline
TRANSCRIPT
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1Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chapter 05
Lecture Outline
See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables pre-
inserted into PowerPoint without notes.
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5.0 Tissue Organization
• Tissues
– Groups of similar cells and extracellular material
– Common function
– E.g., providing protection
– Study of tissues, histology
• Four types of tissues
– Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
– Varied structure and function
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5.1a Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelium, also referred to as epithelial tissue
– Composed of one or more layers of closely packed
cells
– Contains little to no extracellular matrix
– Covers body surfaces
– Lines body cavities
– Forms majority of glands
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• Cellularity
– Composed almost entirely of tightly packed cells
• Polarity
– Apical surface
oExposed to external environment or internal body space
oMicrovilli or cilia
– Lateral surface with intercellular junctions
– Basal surface
oEpithelium attached to connective tissue
o Lamina propia between
5.1a Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
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• Avascularity
– Nutrients obtained across apical surface or from basal
surface
• Extensive innervation
– Detect changes in environment in that region
• High regeneration capacity
– Undergoes frequent cell division
– Regenerates at high rate
– Necessary due to environmental exposure
– Continual replacement of lost cells
o Cell division of stem cells
5.1a Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
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Figure 5.1
6
Characteristics
of Epithelia
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5.1b Functions of Epithelial Tissue• Physical protection
– Protects external and internal surfaces
– Protects from dehydration, abrasion, destruction
• Selective permeability
– Relatively non-permeable to some substances
– Promotes passage of other molecules
• Secretions
– Some cells are specialized to secrete
– May be scattered among other cell types
• Sensations
– Contain nerve endings
– Supply information to nervous system
o Info on touch, pressure, temperature, pain
– Specialized epithelium, neuroepithelium
o Houses cells responsible for sight, taste, smell, hearing, equilibrium
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5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
• Body has different types of epithelia
• Epithelia classification indicated by two-part
name
Number of epithelial cell layers
Shape of cells at apical surface
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Classification by number of cell layers
• Simple epithelium
– One cell layer thick
– All cells in direct contact with basement membrane
– In areas where stress is minimal
– Filtration, absorption, or secretion is primary function
– E.g., lining of air sacs of lungs, intestines, blood vessels
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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Classification by number of cell layers (continued )
• Stratified epithelium
– Two or more layers of epithelial cells
– Only basal layer in contact with basement membrane
– In areas subjected to mechanical stress
o Better able to resist wear and tear
o E.g., skin, lining of the esophagus, lining of urinary bladder
– Cells in basal layer
o Continuously regenerate as apical layer cells lost
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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Classification by number of cell layers (continued )
• Pseudostratified epithelium
– Appears layered
o Due to cells’ nuclei distribution at different levels
– All cells attached to basement membrane
– Some do not reach the apical surface
– Simple epithelium
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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Classification by cell shape
• Squamous cells
– Flat, wide, irregular in shape
– Floor tile arrangement
– Nucleus flat
• Cuboidal cells
– About as tall as they are wide
– Edges somewhat rounded
– Nucleus spherical and in center of cell
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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Classification by cell shape (continued )
• Columnar cells
– Slender and taller than they are wide
– Nucleus oval; oriented lengthwise in basal region
• Transitional cells
– Change shape, depending on stretch of epithelium
– Located where epithelium stretches and relaxes
o E.g., lining of the bladder
– Polyhedral when epithelium relaxed
– More flat when epithelium stretched
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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Figure 5.2
Classification of Epithelia
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Figure 5.3
Organization and Relationship of Epithelia Types
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• Simple squamous epithelium
– Single layer of flat cells
– Spherical to oval nucleus
– Thinnest barrier
– Allows rapid movement of molecules across surface
– Lines air sacs of lungs (alveoli)
– Lines blood and lymph vessel walls (endothelium)
– Serous membrane of cavities (mesothelium)
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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• Simple cuboidal epithelium
– Single layer
– Uniformly shaped cells
– About as tall as they are wide
– Centrally located spherical nucleus
– Designed for absorption and secretion
– Ideal for structural components of glands
o Thyroid gland
o Surface of ovary
o Walls of kidney tubules
o Secretory regions/ducts of most glands
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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• Simple columnar epithelium
– Single layer of cells
– Taller than they are wide
– Oval nucleus, lengthwise in basal region
– Ideal for secretory and absorptive functions
– Two forms
o Nonciliated
o Ciliated
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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Simple columnar epithelium (continued )
• Nonciliated
– Contains microvilli
oFuzzy structure—brush border
– Unicellular glands—goblet cells
oSecrete glycoprotein—mucin
oForms mucus when mixed with water
– Lines most of digestive tract from stomach to anal
canal
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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Simple columnar epithelium (continued )
• Ciliated
– Cilia project from apical surface
oMove mucus along
– Goblet cells interspersed
– Lines
oBronchioles
oUterine tubes
˗ Helps move oocyte from ovary to uterus
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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Pseudostratifed columnar epithelium
• Ciliated
– Contains cilia on apical surface
– Protective functions
– Goblet cells secrete mucin
o Traps foreign particles moved by cilia
– Located in large passageways of respiratory system
• Nonciliated
– Rare, lacks cilia, goblet cells
– Protective functions
– Occurs mainly in male urethra and epididymis
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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Stratified squamous epithelium
– Multiple cell layers
o Only deepest in direct contact with basement membrane
– Basal layers with cuboidal shape
– Apical cells with squamous shape
– Protects against abrasion and friction
– Stem cells in basal layer continuously divide
o Replace lost cells at surface
– Exists in keratinized and nonkeratinized forms
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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Stratified squamous epithelium (continued )
• Keratinized
– Superficial layers of dead cells
– Cells lack nuclei, filled with keratin
– Cells in basal region migrate toward apical surface
– Fill with keratin and die
– Found in epidermis
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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Stratified squamous epithelium (continued )
• Nonkeratinized
– All cells alive
– Kept moist with secretions (e.g., saliva, mucus)
– Lack keratin, protective protein
– Microscopically visible cell nuclei
– Lines
o Oral cavity, part of pharynx, esophagus, vagina, anus
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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• Stratified cuboidal epithelium
– Two or more layers of cells
– Superficial cells cuboidal in shape
– Forms tubes and coverings
– Protection and secretion
– Forms walls of ducts in most exocrine glands
oSweat glands, parts of male urethra, periphery of
ovarian follicles
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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• Stratified columnar epithelium
– Rare
– Two or more layers of cells
– Columnar cells at apical surface
– Protects and secretes
– Found ino Large ducts of salivary glands
o Some segments of male urethra
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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• Transitional epithelium
– Limited to urinary tract
– In relaxed state
oBasal cells cuboidal or polyhedral; apical cells large and
rounded
– In stretched state
oApical cells flattened
– Binucleated cells (two nuclei)
– Allows for stretching as bladder fills
5.1c Classification of Epithelial Tissue
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5.1d Glands
• Glands
– Individual cells or multicellular organs
– Epithelial tissue
– Secrete substances used elsewhere or for
elimination
– May secrete
oMucin
oElectrolytes
oHormones
oEnzymes
oUrea (nitrogenous waste)
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• Endocrine glands
– Lack ducts
– Secrete hormones into blood
– Chemical messengers that influence cell activity elsewhere
• Exocrine glands
– Invaginated epithelium in connective tissue
– Connected with epithelial surface by duct
o Epithelium-lined tube for gland secretion
– E.g., sweat glands, mammary glands, salivary glands
5.1d Glands
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• Unicellular exocrine glands
– Do not contain a duct
– Located close to epithelium surface
– Most common type is goblet cell
• Multicellular exocrine glands
– Numerous cells
– Acini—cells clusters that produce secretions
– Ducts transport secretions to epithelial surface
– Surrounded by fibrous capsule
o Extensions of capsule—septa, partition gland into lobes
5.1d Glands
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Figure 5.5
General Structure
of Multicellular
Exocrine Glands
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• Exocrine glands are classified by anatomic form or
method of secretion
• Anatomic form
– Simple glands—a single, unbranched duct
– Compound glands—branched ducts
– Tubular glands—secretory portion and duct same diameter
– Acinar glands—secretory portion forms expanded sac
– Tubuloacinar gland—both tubules and acini
5.1d Glands
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Figure 5.633
Structural Classification of Multicellular Exocrine Glands
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• Method of secretion—merocrine, apocrine,
holocrine
– Merocrine glands
oPackage secretions into vesicles
oRelease secretions by exocytosis
oExamples include
– Lacrimal (tear) glands
– Salivary glands
– Some sweat glands (eccrine glands)
– Exocrine glands of the pancreas
–Gastric glands of the stomach
5.1d Glands
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Apocrine glands
o Apical membrane pinches off and becomes
secretion
o Damage repaired by glandular cells
o Continue to produce new secretions in same
manner
o Examples include
˗ Mammary glands
˗ Ceruminous glands of ear
5.1d Glands
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– Holocrine glands
o Formed from cells that accumulate product
o Cell disintegrates
o Viscous mixture of cell fragments and cell
product
o Ruptured cells replaced
o Examples include
˗ Oil-producing glands in the skin (sebaceous
glands)
5.1d Glands
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Figure 5.7
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Methods of Exocrine Gland Secretion
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Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill EducationCopyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education
What did you learn?
• Why does an epithelium need
to be highly regenerative?
• How does simple epithelium
differ from stratified
epithelium?
• What epithelial tissue lines
the air sacs of the lungs?
• What mode of secretion is
employed by dandruff?
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• Connective tissue
– Most diverse, abundant, and widely distributed of tissues
– Supports, protects, and binds organs
– Cells, protein fibers, and ground substance
– Examples
o Tendons
o Ligaments
o Adipose tissue
o Cartilage
o Bone
o Blood
5.2 Connective Tissue:
Cells in a Supportive Matrix
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5.2a Characteristics of Connective Tissue
• All CT shares three basic components: cells,
protein fibers, ground substance
• Cells
– Classes of CT have specific cell types
– Most cells not in direct contact with each other
– Two classes of cells
o Resident cells: housed in the CT
o Wandering cells: continuously move through the CT
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• Resident cells
– Fibroblasts
o Most abundant resident cells in CT proper
o Produce fibers and ground substance of extracellular matrix
– Adipocytes
o Fat cells in small clusters in some types of CT proper
– Mesenchymal cells
o Embryonic stem cell that divides to replace damaged cells
– Fixed macrophages
o Derived from monocytes (white blood cells)
o Dispersed throughout matrix
o Phagocytize (engulf) damaged cells or pathogens
o Release chemicals that stimulate immune system/attract wandering cells
5.2a Characteristics of Connective Tissue
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• Wandering cells
– Mast cells
o Secrete heparin to inhibit blood clotting
o Secrete histamine to dilate blood vessels
– Plasma cells
o Form when B-lymphocytes are activated when exposed to foreign material
o Produce antibodies (proteins that immobilize foreign material)
– Free macrophages
o Mobile, phagocytic cells
o Function like fixed macrophages, yet able to move
– Other leukocytes
o Neutrophils
˗ Phagocytizes bacteria
o T-lymphocytes
˗ Leukocyte that attacks foreign materials
5.2a Characteristics of Connective Tissue
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• Protein fibers
– Strengthen and support tissue
– Three types: collagen fibers, reticular fibers, elastic
fibers
– Collagen fibers
oUnbranched, “cable-like” long fibers
oStrong, flexible, and resistant to stretching
oAppear white in fresh tissue
oNumerous in tendons and ligaments
5.2a Characteristics of Connective Tissue
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– Reticular fibers
o Similar to collagen fibers but thinner
o Form branching, interwoven framework
o Tough but flexible
o Abundant in stroma (CT framework) of
˗ Lymph nodes, Spleen, Liver
– Elastic fibers
o Contain protein elastin
o Branching wavy fibers
o Stretch and recoil easily
o Yellow in color when fresh
o Help structures return to normal shape after stretching
o Found in skin, arteries, lungs
5.2a Characteristics of Connective Tissue
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• Ground substance
– Noncellular material produced by CT cells
– Residence of CT cells and protein fibers
– Consistency:
oViscous (e.g., blood)
o semisolid (e.g., cartilage)
oSolid (e.g., bone)
– Ground substance + protein fibers = extracellular
matrix
5.2a Characteristics of Connective Tissue
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• Ground substance (continued )
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
o Large molecule in ground substance
o Carbohydrate building blocks, some with attached
amines
o Negatively charged and hydrophilic
o Charge attracts cations, water follows
o Types include
˗ Chondroitin sulfate
˗ Heparin sulfate
˗ Hyaluronic acid
5.2a Characteristics of Connective Tissue
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• Ground substance (continued )
Proteoglycanso Formed with GAG linked to a protein
o 90% carbohydrate in the form of GAGs
o Large structure due to negative repelling charges
o Perform numerous important functions
Adherent glycoproteinso Proteins with carbohydrates attached
o Bond CT cells and fibers to ground substance
o Includes: fibronectin, fibrillin, laminin
5.2a Characteristics of Connective Tissue
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Connective Tissue Components and Organzation
Figure 5.8
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• Collagen is an important protein
• Strengthens and supports almost all body tissues
• Vitamin C essential for healthy collagen fibers
• Scurvy caused by vitamin C deficiency
• Symptoms: weakness, gum ulceration, hemorrhages,
abnormal bone growth
• Caused by nutritional deficiencies
• Treated by consuming foods high in vitamin C or
supplements
Clinical View: Scurvy
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5.2b Functions of Connective Tissue
• Functions of CT
– Physical protection
o Bones of skull and thoracic cage protect delicate organs
o Adipose tissue protects kidneys and eyes
– Support and structural framework
o Bones, body framework
o Place for muscle attachment
o Cartilage keeps trachea and bronchi open
o Supportive capsules around kidney and spleen
– Binding of structures
o Ligaments bind bone to bone
o Tendons bind muscle to bone
o Dense irregular tissue anchors skin to muscle and bone
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• Functions of CT (continued )
– Storage
o Adipose CT is the major energy reserve
o Bone, primary reservoir for calcium and phosphorus
– Transport
o Blood carries nutrients, gases, wastes between regions of body
– Immune protection
o Leukocytes protects body against disease
o Immune response when necessary
o Extracellular matrix restricts movement of disease-causing
organisms
5.2b Functions of Connective Tissue
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Marfan Syndrome• Hereditary defect in
elastin fibers
– Symptoms:• Hyperextensible joints,
hernias of the groin, visual problems from elongated eyes and deformed lenses
• Tall stature, long limbs, spidery fingers, abnormal spinal curvature, weakened heart valves and arterial walls
– Most die by age 50 due to aortic rupture
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5.2c Embryonic Connective Tissue
• Two types of embryonic CT: mesenchyme, mucous CT
• Mesenchyme
– First type of CT in developing embryo
– Source of all other CT cells
• CT Proper
• Supporting CT
• Fluid CT
– Adult CT often has mesenchymal stem cells
o Provide support in repair of tissue
• Mucous connective tissue
– Second type of embryonic CT
– Found in umbilical cord only
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CT proper – Loose and Dense
• Loose CT
– Fewer cells and protein fibers than dense CT
– Protein fibers are sparse and irregularly arranged
– Abundant ground substance
– Body’s “packing material”, supports structures
– Three types
1. Areolar
2. Adipose
3. Reticular
5.2d Classification of Connective Tissue
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• Loose CT (continued )
Areolar CT
o Loose organization of collagen and elastic fibers
o Highly vasularized
o Contains all fixed and wandering cells of CT proper
o Ground substance is abundant and viscous
o Found in the papillary layer of dermis
o Major component of subcutaneous layer
o Surrounds organs, nerve and muscle cells, and blood
vessels
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• Loose CT (continued )
Adipose CT (fat)o Composed mostly of adipocytes
o Two types
˗ White (stores energy, acts as insulator, cushions)
˗ Brown (found in newborns, generates heat, lost as we
age)
o Adipocyte number remains stable
o Weight gain/loss due to adipocytes enlarging or shrinking
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• Loose CT (continued )
Reticular CT
o Meshwork of reticular fibers, fibroblasts, leukocytes
o Structural framework of many lymphatic organs
˗ Spleen
˗ Thymus
˗ Lymph nodes
˗ Bone marrow
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CT proper
• Dense CT
– Mostly protein fibers
– Less ground substance than loose CT
– Collagen fibers predominate
– Three categories
1. Dense regular
2. Dense irregular
3. Elastic
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• Dense CT(continued )
– Dense regular CT
o Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers
o Resemble stacked lasagna noodles
o In tendons and ligaments
˗ Stress typically applied in a single direction
o Few blood vessels
o Takes a long time to heal
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• Dense CT(continued )
– Dense irregular CTo Clumps of collagen fibers extend in all directions
o Provides support and resistance to stress in multiple directions
o Extensive blood supply
o Found in:
˗ Most of the skin dermis
˗ Periosteum of bone
˗ Perichondrium of cartilage
o Forms capsules around some internal organs
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• Dense CT(continued)
–Elastic CT
o Branching, densely packed elastic fibers
o Able to stretch and recoil
o Found in
˗ Walls of large arteries
˗ Trachea
˗ Vocal cords
5.2d Classification of Connective Tissue
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• Supporting CT
– Two types: cartilage, bone
• Cartilage
– Collagen and elastic protein fibers
– Stronger and more resilient than other CT
– More flexible than bone
– In areas of body that need support and must withstand deformation (e.g., tip of
nose)
– Avascular in mature state
– Chondrocytes—mature cells
o Occupy small spaces called lacunae
– Three types
1. Hyaline cartilage
2. Fibrocartilage
3. Elastic cartilage
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• Hyaline cartilage
– Most common type
– Clear, glassy appearance under microscope
– Chondrocytes irregularly scattered
– Surrounded by perichondrium
– Located in
o Nose, trachea, and larynx
o Costal cartilage
o Articular ends of long bones
o Most of fetal skeleton
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• Fibrocartilage
– Weight-bearing cartilage, resists compression
– Protein fibers in irregular bundles between
chondrocytes
– Sparse ground substance
– No perichondrium
– Located in
o Intervertebral discs
oPubic symphysis
oMenisci of knee joint
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• Elastic cartilage
– Flexible, springy cartilage
– Numerous densely packed elastic fibers
oEnsure tissue is resilient and flexible
– Resists deformational pressure
– Chondrocytes closely packed
– Surrounded by a perichondrium
– Located in external ear and epiglottis
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• Bone
– More solid than cartilage
– Greater support, but less flexible
– Organic components (collagen and glycoproteins)
– Inorganic components (calcium salts)
– Bone cells—osteocytes
o Housed within spaces in extracellular matrix called lacunae
– Two types
o Compact bone
o Spongy bone
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• Bone types
– Compact bone
oPerforated by neurovascular canals
oCylindrical structures—osteons
˗ Display concentric rings of bone CT called lamellae
˗ Lamellae encircle central canal, location of blood
vessels and nerves
– Spongy bone
oLocated in interior of bone
oLatticework structure, strong and lightweight
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• Bone functions
– Levers for movement
– Supports tissues
– Protects vital organs
– Stores minerals, e.g., calcium and phosphorus
– Houses hemopoietic cells, which make blood cells
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72
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• Fluid CT
Two types: blood, lymph
• Blood
– Fluid connective tissue with formed elements
o Cells
o Erythrocytes transport respiratory gases
o Leukocytes protect against infectious agents
o Cellular fragments, called platelets, help clot blood
– Liquid ground substance is called plasma
o Dissolved proteins
o Transports nutrients, wastes, hormones
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Fluid CT (continued )
• Lymph
– Derived from blood plasma
– No cellular components or fragments
– Ultimately returned to bloodstream
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75
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Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill EducationCopyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education
What did you learn?
• What are the three basic
components of connective tissue?
• What CT fibers are deficient in
Marfan’s Syndrome?
• What is mesenchyme?
• Compare loose connective tissue to
dense connective tissue.
• Describe the composition and
location of fibrocartilage.
• List the 10 different types of CT.
76
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• Muscle tissue
– Cells contract when stimulated
– Contraction causes movement
o Voluntary motion of body parts
o Contraction of heart
o Propulsion of material through digestive and urinary tracts
– Three types
1. Skeletal
2. Cardiac
3. Smooth
5.3 Muscle Tissue: Movement
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5.3 Muscle Tissue: Movement
• Skeletal muscle tissue
– Striated or voluntary muscle tissue
– Moves skeleton
– Long cylindrical cells
o Skeletal muscle fibers
– Arranged in parallel bundles that run length of entire
muscle
– Multinucleated
– Alternating light and dark bands, striations
– Does not contract unless stimulated by somatic nervous
system
o Voluntary
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5.3 Muscle Tissue: Movement
• Cardiac muscle tissue
– Confined to middle layer of heart wall, myocardium
– Responsible for heart contraction to pump blood
– Visible striations
– Cells short and often bifurcating
– One or two nuclei
– Cells connected by intercalated discs
• Strengthen connection between cells
• Promote rapid conduction of electrical activity
– Involuntary
• Cannot be controlled by voluntary nervous system
• Pacemaker cells initiate contraction
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5.3 Muscle Tissue: Movement
• Smooth muscle tissue
– Visceral or involuntary muscle tissue
– Lacks striations; appears smooth
– Cells are spindle-shaped
– Cells short with one central oval nucleus
– Found in walls of intestines, stomach, airways, bladder,
uterus, blood vessels
– Helps propel movement through these organs
– No voluntary control over the muscle
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• Nervous tissue
– Located in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
– Cells called neurons
oReceive, transmit, and process nerve impulses
– Larger number of glial cells
oDo not transmit nerve impulses
o Instead, are responsible for protection, nourishment, and
support of neurons
5.4 Nervous Tissue:
Information Transfer and Integration
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• Parts of a neuron
– Cell body
o Houses nucleus and other organelles
– Nerve cell processes extend from cell body
– Shorter and more numerous processes are called dendrites
o Receive incoming signals and transmit information
– Axon is the single long process extending from the cell
body
o Carries outgoing signals to other cells
– Neurons are longest cells in the body
5.4 Nervous Tissue:
Information Transfer and Integration
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5.5a Organs
• Organs
– Two or more tissue types
– Work together to perform specific complex
functions
– Different structures must work in concert
– E.g., stomach, contains all four tissue types
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5.5a Organs
• The stomach
– Lined by epithelium
o Secretes substances for chemical digestion of nutrients
– Areolar and dense CT in walls
o Blood vessels and nerves
o Provides shape and support
– Three layers of smooth muscle in walls
o Contract and relax to mix stomach contents
– Abundant nervous tissue
o Responsible for regulating muscle contraction and gland
secretion
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Figure 5.1187
Roles of Tissue in an Organ
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5.5b Body Membranes
• Body membranes
– Formed from epithelial layer bound to underlying CT
– Line body cavities
– Cover viscera
– Cover body’s external surface
– Four types
1. Mucous
2. Serous
3. Cutaneous
4. Synovial
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Figure 5.12
89
Body
Membranes
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• Mucous membrane
– Mucosa
– Lines compartments that open to external environment
– Includes: digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive
tracts
– Performs absorptive, protective, and secretory functions
– Formed from epithelium and underlying CT
o CT component, lamina propria
o Covered with a layer of mucus derived from goblet cells,
multicellular glands, or both
5.5b Body Membranes
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• Serous membrane
– Lines body cavities that do not open to external
environment
– Simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium)
– Produces thin, watery serous fluid
o Derived from blood plasma
o Reduces friction between opposing surfaces
– Forms parietal and visceral layers
– Serous cavity is in between
5.5b Body Membranes
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• Cutaneous membrane
– Skin
– Covers external surface of body
– Composed of
o Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
o Underlying CT
– Protects internal organs and prevents water loss
5.5b Body Membranes
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• Synovial membrane
– Lines some joints in body
– Composed of
o Areolar CT
o Covered by squamous epithelial cells lacking basement
membrane
– Synovial fluid secreted by epithelial cells
o Reduces friction among moving bone parts
o Distributes nutrients to cartilage
5.5b Body Membranes
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What did you learn?
• What are the four types of
membranes? Where are these
located in the body?
• What are the differences
between the parietal and
visceral layers of the serous
membrane?
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5.6a Tissue Development
• Stages of tissue development
– Oocyte fertilized by a sperm
– Forms diploid cell, zygote
– After multiple cell divisions, becomes blastocyst
– Cells forming embryo, embryoblast
– Three primary germ layers formed by 3rd week
o Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
– Growing structure now an embryo
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96Figure 5.13
Primary
Germ Layers
and Their
Derivatives
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• Hypertrophy
– Increase in size of existing cells of a tissue
• Hyperplasia
– Increase in number of cells of a tissue
• Atrophy
– Shrinkage of tissue by decrease in cell number or size
– Due to normal aging or disuse
– E.g., bedridden individual
o Skeletal muscle fibers become smaller
o Reversible by physical therapy
5.6b Tissue Modification
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Clinical View: Stem cells
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5.6b Tissue Modification
• Metaplasia
– Change of mature epithelium to a different form
– May occur as epithelium adapts to environment
– E.g., smokers
o Experience metaplastic changes in trachea epithelium
o Normal pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
changed
o Becomes nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
o Will revert back quickly if person quits smoking
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• Dysplasia
– Abnormal tissue development
– May be precancerous, or revert back to normal
– Must be closely monitored by professionals
– E.g., cervical dysplasia due to exposure to human
papillomavirus
5.6b Tissue Modification
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• Neoplasia
– Tissue growth is out of control
– Tumor of abnormal tissue develops
o Benign
˗ Localized growth
˗ Does not spread
o Malignant
˗ Metastasizes, spreads and invades other tissues
˗ Cancer
˗ Can interfere with normal functioning, leading to death
5.6b Tissue Modification
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• Necrosis
– Tissue death
– Due to irreversible tissue damage
– Inflammatory response to tissue damage
– E.g., gangrene
• Necrosis of soft tissues of a body part
• Due to diminished arterial blood supply
• Most common in limbs, fingers, toes
• Major complications of diabetes
5.6b Tissue Modification
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• Intestinal gangrene
Follows obstruction of blood supply to intestines
If untreated, leads to death
• Dry gangrene
Involved part is desiccated and shriveled
Usually due to extreme cold
• Wet gangrene
Caused by bacterial infection of tissues with lost blood
supply
Ruptured dying cells release fluid, allows bacteria to flourish
• Gas gangrene
Bacteria invade necrotic tissue (often muscle)
Bacteria produce gas bubbles
Clinical View: Gangrene
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5.6c Aging of Tissues
• All tissues change with aging
– Proper nutrition, good health, normal circulation,
infrequent wounds—all promote normal functioning
– Support, maintenance, replacement of cells and
extracellular matrix
o Less efficient after middle age
– Structure and chemical composition of many tissues altered
o Epithelia thins
o CT loses pliability and resiliency
o Collagen declines
o Bones become brittle
o Muscles atrophy
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What did you learn?
• What are the three primary germ layers?
• What is the difference between hypertrophy and hyperplasia?
• What is the difference between metaplasia, dysplasia, and neoplasia?
• Which is a more severe form of cancer, benign or malignant?
105