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CHAPTER 11. GARASSIK (MAKASSAR)

I n i t s heyday Makassar was an e n t r e p 6 t - c i t y a t a major d e l t a - t h e a r c h e t y p a l l o c a t i o n o f Southeast A s i a ' s h i s t o r i c a l e n t r e p d t s ( K a t h i r i t h a m b y - W e l I s , 1990:3-4). European : v -

d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e c i t y i n c l u d e s e v e r a l e y e - w i t n e s s ' -is.

accounts, p l u s t h r e e s k e t c h e s made o f Makassar a t c.1638 (Photo 1-1), 1660 (Boxer, 1967: P l a t e I I I ) and 1667 ( B a s s e t t , 1958: P l a t e 2 ) . A l t h o u g h n o t a l l d e t a i l s a r e i m m e d i a t e l y c l e a r , ^ t h e sources demonstrate t h e g e n e r a l o r g a n i s a t i o n o f th e c i t y i n t o q u a r t e r s f o r f o r e i g n e r s near t h e n o r t h o u l e t o f the G a r a s s i k ( J e k n e k b e r a n g ) , Makassar s e t t l e m e n t s near t h e s o u t h o u t l e t , and Benteng Somba Opu on t h e d e l t a i c i s l a n d b e t w i x t ( R e i d , 1983a; Bulbeck, 1990).

S h o r t l y a f t e r h i s conquest o f Somba Opu i n 1669, Speelman wrote t h a t t h e o n l y p a r t which s h o u l d p r o p e r l y be c a l l e d t h e c i t y o f Makassar was t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l l y named v i l l a g e s between Somba Opu and t h e G a r a s s i k ' s s o u t h channel (Reid, 1983a:146-8). Speelman's d e s c r i p t i o n p r e c i s e l y matches a c l u s t e r o f s i t e s a t a d e n s i t y which would appear t o be semi-urban. T h i s "Makassar c l u s t e r " i s f l a n k e d a t t h e immediate s o u t h by a l e s s e r c l u s t e r s t r u n g a l o n g t h e Aeng r i v e r ( 1 1 . 2 ) . Both c l u s t e r s can be t r e a t e d t o g e t h e r under t h e c o v e r i n g l a b e l " Garassik" - an independent kingdom p r i o r t o bei n g swallowed by i t s n e i g h b o u r s , t h e n a major k a r a e n g s h i p d u r i n g t h e 17 t h c e n t u r y ( 4 . 3 ) .

11.1 P h y s i c a l S e t t i n g and F o r t i f i c a t i o n s

20th c e n t u r y Dutch t o p o g r a p h i c maps, a l o n g w i t h a i r photographs t a k e n i n t h e 1940s ( A l l i e d G e o g r a p h i c a l S e c t i o n , 1945) and a f t e r w a r d s , show t h e c o n t i n u a l g r o w t h o f t h e

' C o n t r a d i c t i o n s between t h e t h r e e s k e t c h e s o c c u r , as i n t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e Portuguese q u a r t e r , and none d e p i c t s t h e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s as t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d shows them (Bulbeck, 1990). Nonetheless t h e c.1638 s k e t c h (Photo 1-1) i s the most d e t a i l e d and r e a l i s t i c o f t h e s k e t c h e s , and can be f o l l o w e d so l o n g as we remain awake t o i t s apparent s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s . The o t h e r d e t a i l e d s k e t c h , o f Makassar a t 1660, i n c l u d e s a t l e a s t t h r e e e r r o r s : a l o c a t i o n o f t h e Portuguese q u a r t e r t o o f a r n o r t h w a r d s , t h e m i s l a b e l l i n g o f Benteng Barombong as " F o r t Bayoa", and t h e m i s l a b e l l i n g o f Benteng Ujung Pandang as " F o r t Bontecouge [Bonto Keke]".

Jeknekberang's d e l t a t o t h e p o i n t where i t now impinges on Ujung Pandang's h a r b o u r . Large q u a n t i t i e s o f sand are c a r r i e d t o t h e Jeknekberang's mouth, w h i l e t h e sea t r a n s g r e s s e s the gr o w i n g d e l t a . Consequently t h e p r e v a i l i n g southwards c u r r e n t s d e p o s i t s o u t h - r u n n i n g sandbars which b l o c k t h e main o u t l e t and f o r c e i t t o m i g r a t e g r a d u a l l y n o r t h e a s t w a r d s (Sobur, 1984/85; see F i g u r e 11-4a).

The main body o f sandbars mimics t h e c h e n i e r s on which c o l o n i a l Makassar (Ujung Pandang) was b u i l t , w h i l e t h e curved o u t l e t mimics t h e n o r t h e a s t d i r e c t e d s p i t o f r a i s e d l a n d once o c c u p i e d by Benteng T a l l o k ( 1 2 . 1 ) . The comparison i m p l i e s t h a t t h e s e c h e n i e r s had been d e p o s i t e d by an a n c e s t o r o f the Jeknekberang wh i c h , a t some s t a g e a f t e r t h e mid-Holocene t r a n s g r e s s i o n , debouched where t h e T a l l o k i n l e t now i s (Reid, 1983a:119). The l a t e Holocene d a t e i s shown by t h e p o i n t t h a t most o f t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e c h e n i e r s i s l e s s t h a n f i v e metres above sea l e v e l , i . e . below t h e l e v e l t o which t h e sea l e v e l s r o s e a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4300 BP ( c f . W h i t t e n e t a l . , 1987:19-20). As a f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , SSPHAP's s i t e s Somba Opu, Benteng G a r a s s i k and Bayoa 1 appear t o f a l l a l o n g a low, d i s s e c t e d r i d g e i d e n t i f i a b l e as t h e southwest bending t a i l of t h e p r e h i s t o r i c Ujung Pandang c h e n i e r s . F i v e f l a k e d s tone a r t e f a c t s were r e c o r d e d a t G a r a s s i k ( F i g u r e 11-15a), and so by st a m p i n g t h e s i t e ' s l a n d f o r m as p r e h i s t o r i c , a l l o w us t o d a t e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e Ujung Pandang c h e n i e r s t o between 4000 and 1000 BP ( F i g u r e s 1 1 - l b and l l - l c ) . ^

E vidence r e v i e w e d p r e v i o u s l y suggests t h a t t h e lower Sungai G a r a s s i k may have f o l l o w e d t h e Anak Gowa u n t i l s t r a i g h t e n i n g i t s c o u r s e p a s t Benteng Tua by t h e 17th c e n t u r y ( 8 . 1 ; 9.9.3). The Paknakkukang-Pattukangang c h e n i e r , t o t h e s o u t h o f t h e Jeknekberang, c o n f i r m s t h e s u g g e s t i o n by

^ A p i e c e o f v o l c a n i c s t o n e from Bayoa, which resembles a b i p o l a r c o r e even though Johann Kamminga ( p e r s . comm.) recommends "smashed s t o n e a g g r e g r a t e " as t h e more p a r s i m o n i o u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , o f f e r s f u r t h e r p o s s i b l e support f o r t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

The course o f t h e l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c Jeknekberang, shown i n F i g u r e 11-1c, f o l l o w s t h e p r e s e n t - d a y Sungai Bantimurung above Bontomanaik, based on what appears t o be a remnant channel l e a v i n g t h e p r e s e n t - d a y Jeknekberang d i r e c t l y upstream from Bissua and a r t i c u l a t i n g w i t h t h e Bantimurung (see F i g u r e s 5-2 and 5-6).

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m i m i c k i n g t h e form o f t h e modern d e l t a on a much reduced s c a l e ( F i g u r e 11-19). I t would have been l a r g e l y d e p o s i t e d by the 15th c e n t u r y , t h e d a t e o f t h e o l d e s t t r a d e w a r e s r e c o r d e d on t h e c h e n i e r ( 1 1 . 5 . 3 ) . Hence t h e s t a g e a t which t h e Garassik breached t h e s o u t h t a i l o f t h e Ujung Pandang c h e n i e r s can p r o b a b l y be d a t e d t o around t h e e a r l y 1 6th c e n t u r y . Even t h e n , t h e G a r a s s i k was p r o b a b l y s t i l l a modest r i v e r , w i t h i t s d r a i n a g e b a s i n r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n , and i t s e n t r y t o i t s d e l t a marked by t h e course o f t h e modern Anak Gowa ( F i g u r e 1 1 - I d ) . So when Tunipalangga b u i l t Somba Opu's f i r s t b r i c k w a l l s i n t h e mid-16th c e n t u r y (SG:26), t h e f o r t would have s a t on t h e sho r e d i r e c t l y n o r t h o f t h e G a r a s s i k d e l t a , towards t h e s o u t h o f a l a r g e bay encl o s e d by t h e o l d c h e n i e r s ( c f . F i g u r e 11-2).

As a n e x t s t a g e t h e G a r a s s i k would have begun t h e process o f n o r t h w a r d s d e l t a f o r m a t i o n , l e a d i n g t o t h e s i t u a t i o n o f two c h a n n e l s , n o r t h and s o u t h o f Somba Opu r e s p e c t i v e l y , as d e p i c t e d by t h e 17th c e n t u r y European s k e t c h e s . The c o a s t l i n e a t Somba Opu and southwards must have pro g r a d e d somewhat by t h i s s t a g e (see F i g u r e 11-2), so t h e European s k e t c h e s would be s l i g h t l y i n a c c u r a t e i n d e p i c t i n g Somba Opu r i g h t on t h e shor e . ^

The a p p r o x i m a t e c o u r s e o f t h e s o u t h o u t l e t o f t h e Gar a s s i k , l i k e w i s e i t s s t a t u s as a n a v i g a b l e r i v e r and t h e main o u t l e t , i s c l e a r from t h e European s k e t c h e s ( e . g . Photo 1-1) and a l l t h e o t h e r sources o f e v i d e n c e . The l a t t e r i n c l u d e Speelman's d e s c r i p t i o n o f Makassar, and h i s c i t a t i o n o f P a t t o [ P a t t u n g ] as one o f t h e v i l l a g e s a l o n g t h e channel ( R e i d , 1983a:146); t h e account o f t h e a s s a u l t on Somba Opu (Andaya, 1981:131); t h e 1693 map ( F i g u r e 5 - 5 ) ; and t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e ch a n n e l ' s c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h e modern d e l t a . I n F i g u r e 11-2 I l o c a t e t h e s o u t h o u t l e t t o f o l l o w a p e c u l i a r remnant c h a n n e l , shown on t h e Dutch land-use maps, between Lekokbodong and Bonto L a k j a .

My " r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Makassar 1 667" (Bulbeck, 1 990 : F i g u r e 2) had accepted t h e p o s i t i o n o f Somba Opu r i g h t on t h e beach f r o n t as d e p i c t e d by t h e s k e t c h e s . But t h i s i s because I m i s i n t e r p r e t e d t h e o l d c h e n i e r l i n e as t h e 17th c e n t u r y coast 1 i n e . . .

However, i t i s h a r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e co u r s e o f t h e o u t l e t n o r t h o f Somba Opu. The c.1638 s k e t c h has t h e channel r u n n i n g due west a l o n g t h e f o r t ' s n o r t h w a l l b e f o r e p a s s i n g t h e Portuguese q u a r t e r (Photo 1-1). C o n t r a s t t h a t w i t h Speelman's d e s c r i p t i o n , w r i t t e n i n 1669.

As you l o o k a t [Somba Opu], a l o n g t h e n o r t h s i d e f l o w s a r i v e r , named t h e new r i v e r o r Binanga-beru, because t h i s was dug by t h e f a t h e r o f Karaeng P a t t i n g a l l o a n g , Tumenanga r i Agama o r Karaeng P a t t i n g a l l o a n g , from t h i s bank t o Sambong Jawa and f u r t h e r t o t h e n o r t h o f Sombaopu t o t h e Portuguese q u a r t e r . ' ( R e i d , 1983a:146).

Speelman's words suggest a n o r t h w a r d c o u r s e . The toponym he c i t e s , Sambung Jawa o r " E x t e n s i o n f o r F o r e i g n e r s " , was l o c a t e d w e l l n o r t h o f Somba Opu by a t l e a s t 1693 ( F i g u r e 5 - 5 ) . True, Sambung Jawa as shown on t h e 1693 map had e i t h e r moved n o r t h from i t s 1669 p o s i t i o n , r e f l e c t i n g t h e r e l o c a t i o n o f l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n from Somba Opu t o F o r t Rotterdam, or e l s e c o v e r e d a l a r g e a r e a . But t h e 1693 map a l s o shows t h a t t h e n o r t h o u t l e t , which by t h e n appears t o have been i n a c t i v e , d i d n o t abut Somba Opu so much as f o l l o w a course h a l f w a y between Somba Opu and M a r i s o ( F i g u r e 5-5). Moreover t h e toponym Balang Baru, which s e a t e d a k a r a e n g s h i p between 1634 and 1659 (LB:95,121), i s to d a y a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f w a y between M a r i s o and Benteng Somba Opu ( F i g u r e 1 1 -4). By analogy w i t h t h e use o f t h e name "Balang Beru" f o r t h e Jeknekberang's most r e c e n t channel f o r g e d i n 1977 (Photo 11-1; see a l s o Suaka, 1986/87:Photo 5 ) , t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y toponym p r o b a b l y a l s o s a t on t h e "new r i v e r " o f t h e Garassik.

I n one i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e n , t h e c.1638 s k e t c h e r r e d i n g i v i n g t h e channel a due west c o u r s e r a t h e r t h a n t h e n o r t h w e s t c o u r s e i t had (see F i g u r e s 11-5c and 11-5d). I n t h e o t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e c.1638 s k e t c h c o r r e c t l y d e p i c t s t h e 1638 c o u r s e , b u t by 1669 i t f o l l o w e d a new o u t l e t f u r t h e r t o t h e n o r t h . The l a t t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s n o t u n n e c e s s a r i l y c o m p l i c a t e d , r a t h e r i t f i t s t o d a y ' s p a t t e r n i n which t h e p r e v a i l i n g c u r r e n t s f o r c e t h e Jeknekberang's n o r t h o u t l e t t o m i g r a t e g r a d u a l l y n o r t h e a s t w a r d s (Sobur, 1984/85). I n e i t h e r

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i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e n o r t h o u t l e t f o l l o w e d a n o r t h w e s t course by 1667, a l o n g t h e l i n e s shown i n F i g u r e s 11-5c and 11-5d.'*

A f u r t h e r channel shown i n F i g u r e 11-2 f o l l o w s Speelman's r e p o r t o f Hasanuddin's " l a s t d i t c h " which he excavated between G a r a s s i k and Somba Opu a f t e r t h e Dutch b r i e f l y o c c upied Paknakkukang i n 1660 ( R e i d , 1983a:146; Andaya, 1981 : 4 9 ) . v:- --.'te-

While t h e 1660s w i t n e s s e d t h e f r e n e t i c f o r t i f y i n g o f Makassar (Andaya, 1981:49-60), an e q u a l l y pronounced campaign o c c u r r e d i n t h e e a r l y 1630s, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o an i n t e r l u d e o f Dutch a g g r e s s i o n as seen from Makassar (LB:95-96). The r e n o v a t i o n o f M a c i n n i k Dangang (Somba Opu) f o r t h e Gowa r a j a and h i s f a m i l y (LB:92-93), a l o n g w i t h some o f t h e c o a s t a l f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , can be a t t r i b u t e d t o Gowa's A l a u d d i n ( T a b l e 11-1). But an equal number o f works a r e a s c r i b e d t o T a l l o k ' s A b d u l l a h a f t e r he was r e t h r o n e d i n 1634 (LB:95). As I p o i n t e d out p r e v i o u s l y (Bulbeck, 1990:92-93), i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e s e works depends on r e a d i n g t h e r e l e v a n t passages i n LB and ST t o g e t h e r , c o n t e x t u a l i s e d w i t h i n SSPHAP's a r c h a e o l o g i c a l documentation o f t h e c o a s t a l defence works. The l a t t e r i n c l u d e s an e a r t h e n f o r t a t Paknakkukang backed by a s n a t c h o f b r i c k w a l l ( F i g u r e s 11-3b and 11-19), no l e s s t h a n 1.2 km of b r i c k w a l l from Pattukangang t o Barombong, and snatches o f b r i c k w a l l a t G a r a s s i k ( F i g u r e 11-3a) and Bayoa which had a p p a r e n t l y once connected as a w a l l e x t e n d i n g a l o n g t h e c h e n i e r towards Somba Opu. jV^ (>v/W/^/ cm :i>£^ ̂

Data on b r i c k s i z e s ( F i g u r e 11-2) demo n s t r a t e t h a t t h e Barombong and Bayoa b r i c k s , and t h e " s m a l l e r " b r i c k s a t Paknakkukang and G a r a s s i k , c o n s t i t u t e t h e same t y p e which was s l i g h t l y l a r g e r , and i n p a r t i c u l a r t h i c k e r , t h a n t h e

For f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n see 12.1, i n c l u d i n g my argument t h a t Speelman was p r o b a b l y confused i n a t t r i b u t i n g t h i s n o r t h o u t l e t t o t h e e a r t h w o r k s o f A b d u l l a h (Kg Matoaya). Note a l s o t h a t I had e a r l i e r suggested a n o r t h - n o r t h - w e s t course f o r the G a r a s s i k ' s n o r t h o u t l e t (Bulbeck, 1990), b u t t h i s i s because I had b e l i e v e d t h e 1660 s k e t c h i n i t s l o c a t i o n o f the Portuguese q u a r t e r f a r t o t h e n o r t h o f Somba Opu (see f o o t n o t e 1 ) . Note a l s o t h a t i f t h e n o r t h o u t l e t had m i g r a t e d n o r t h e a s t w a r d s between 1638 and 1669, as t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e evidence suggests, t h e n t h e Portuguese had a l s o r e l o c a t e d t h e i r q u a r t e r s when t h e o u t l e t moved, and Balang Baru c o u l d have moved too. L o c a l i s e d r e l o c a t i o n i s o f course a common expe r i e n c e f o r communities l i v i n g on a d e l t a ' s edge.

TABLE 11-1. FORTIFICATION WORKS AT GARASSIK (MAKASSAR)

Works S p o n s o r i n g R u l e r Date References

Somba Opu's f i r s t T u n ipalangga c.1550 SG:26 b r i c k w a l l s

Somba Opu's a d d i t i o n a l A l a u d d i n 1631-2 LB:92-93 b r i c k w a l l s

Somba Opu's town g a t e A b d u l l a h 1635 ST:17-18; LB:96

C o a s t a l w a l l from Ujung A b d u l l a h ,̂ 1634 ST:17 (Bulbeck, Tana s o u t h t o Somba Opu 1990); LB: 95

Co a s t a l w a l l Somba Opu A b d u l l a h 1634 ST:17 (Bulbeck, t o Paknakkukang 1990:92)

Benteng Paknakkukang A l a u d d i n * o r 1634 LB:95 A b d u l l a h

Barombong w a l l Alauddin*» o r 1635 LB:96 s t r e n g t h e n e d A b d u l l a h

Channel between Somba Hasanuddin c.1660 Speelman Opu and G a r a s s i k ( R e i d , 1983a)

Pattukangang w a l l Hasanuddin 1661 LB: 124

Second Barombong w a l l Hasanuddin 1662 : LB:126

* The passage mentions t h a t t h e 'Raja', i . e . A l a u d d i n , s t a y e d a t Paknakkukang w h i l e i t s w a l l s were b e i n g b u i l t .

^ The work was r e p o r t e d l y c a r r i e d o u t by 855 people from Somba Opu, whic h m i g h t i m p l i c a t e A l a u d d i n r a t h e r t h a n A b d u l l a h .

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" s m a l l e r " b r i c k s a t t h e p a l a c e s ( E . 1 ) . The s u g g e s t i o n , t h a t these s t r e t c h e s o f c o a s t a l w a l l were a l l b u i l t i n t h e same programme, c o n f i r m s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t A b d u l l a h b u i l t a c o a s t a l w a l l from Ujung Tana t o Paknakkukang i n 1634, f o l l o w e d by t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Barombong's f i r s t b r i c k w a l l i n 1635 ( T a b l e 11-1). A c c o r d i n g t o my model i n which b r i c k s t e n d t o have g r a d u a l l y decreased i n s i z e d u r i n g t h e same works ( E . 3 ) , c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e w a l l between Paknakkukang and G a r a s s i k s t a r t e d a t Paknakkukang,= and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Barombong's w a l l a l s o s t a r t e d a t t h e s o u t h . The e a r t h f o r t s a t G a r a s s i k (11.5) and, a p p a r e n t l y , Bayoa (11.6) were p o s s i b l y a l s o made a t t h i s j u n c t u r e .

The u n u s u a l l y t h i c k b r i c k s SSPHAP measured a t Pattukangang ( F i g u r e 11-2) suggest a d i f f e r e n t programme, one which might match t h e r e c o r d o f a b r i c k w a l l b u i l t on t h e s o u t h s i d e o f Benteng Paknakkukang i n 1661 (LB:124). A c c e p t i n g t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n would mean t h a t o n l y Barombong's second w a l l , r e p o r t e d l y b u i l t i n 1662 (LB:126), remains unmatched w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e x p r e s s i o n . Now n o t e t h a t t h e t o t a l l e n g t h o f t h e Barombong w a l l amounts t o 800 metres, b u t SSPHAP's b r i c k measurements sampled o n l y t h e 400 metres a t th e s o u t h . As my s c e n a r i o argues t h a t u n u s u a l l y t h i c k b r i c k s were used i n t h e e a r l y 1660s t o complete t h e w a l l between Paknakkukang and Barombong, I i n f e r t h a t Barombong's "second w a l l " r e f e r s t o some o r a l l o f t h e 400 metres a t t h e n o r t h , and hence I p r e d i c t t h i s s e c t i o n s h o u l d c o n t a i n u n u s u a l l y t h i c k b r i c k s . I f n o t , p a r t s o f my s c e n a r i o may need m o d i f i c a t i o n .

11.2 S i t e C l u s t e r i n g A n a l y s i s

F i g u r e 11-4a l a b e l s t h e " N o r t h Polombangkeng" and "Garassik" h i s t o r i c a l s i t e s , a l o n g w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l toponyms t o t h e d i r e c t n o r t h ( 1 2 . 3 ) . The N o r t h Polombangkeng s i t e s a r e not d e a l t w i t h i n t h i s t h e s i s , and I i n c l u d e t h e i r c l u s t e r i n g a n a l y s i s t o show t h a t t h e y form t h e i r own c l u s t e r s d i s t i n c t from t h e Ga r a s s i k s i t e s ( T a b l e 11-5; F i g u r e 11-6).

^ Here c o n f i r m e d by t h e presence o f some " l a r g e " b r i c k s a t Paknakkukang which were a l r e a d y t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y o b s o l e s c e n t ' by t h a t s t a g e and absent from any l a t e r b r i c k w o r k s .

358

F i g u r e 11-4b shows t h e t h e r e c o r d e d land-use topography i n 1969, t h e modern a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i v i s i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d by 1973, and t h e lower Jeknekberang pre-1977. B e f o r e t h e 1977 f l o o d t h e s o u t h o u t l e t o f t h e Jeknekberang used t o r u n n o r t h o f Somba Opu, b u t d u r i n g t h e f l o o d i t s t r a i g h t e n e d i t s course s o u t h a l o n g Somba Opu (Photo 11-1), washing away t h e former s i t e o f Lekokbodong (hence now t r e a t e d as a h i s t o r i c a l toponym) and much o t h e r s e t t l e m e n t b e s i d e s . The o u t l e t now debouches d i r e c t l y n o r t h o f Paknakkukang, dumping l a r g e amounts o f sand which t h e p r e v a i l i n g southwards c u r r e n t s have reworked i n t o l o n g s h o r e b a r s west and s o u t h o f Paknakkukang (Photo 11-2). T h i s geomorphic r e m o d e l l i n g n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e dominant land-use p a t t e r n s shown by t h e 1969 map - r i c e f i e l d s , s e t t l e m e n t and some f i s h ponds - p e r s i s t i n those areas most a f f e c t e d by t h e 1977 f l o o d as elsewhere.

The 1977 d e s t r u c t i o n o f Lekokbodong, and t h e s m a l l s i z e of many o f t h e r e c o r d e d s i t e s , i n d i c a t e t h a t o n l y an i m p o v e r i s h e d sample o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s a l o n g t h e lower Jeknekberang i s a v a i l a b l e f o r r e c o r d i n g . ^ What remains may w e l l be r e s t r i c t e d t o t h o s e examples perched on r e s i l i e n t e n c l a v e s o f r a i s e d l a n d which have s u r v i v e d t h e r i g o u r s o f channel a l t e r a t i o n . W h i l e s i t e c l u s t e r s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o Speelman's "Makassar c i t y " can be r e c o n s t r u c t e d , t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n would presumably be more i n c i s i v e i n an u n d i s t u r b e d landscape.

^ For i n s t a n c e Bonte Keke, mentioned by Speelman as one of t h e l a r g a r v i l l a g e s a l o n g t h e G a r a s s i k ' s s o u t h o u t l e t (Reid, 1983a:146), has v a n i s h e d even as a toponym. Andaya (1981:319) not e s t h a t i t and a n o t h e r nearby v i l l a g e a t t a c k e d i n 1669, Tana-Tana, do not appear on t h e 1693 map, which he a s c r i b e s t o t h e p r e d i l i c t i o n o f t h e Makassar not t o r e s e t t l e d i s a s t e r - s t r u c k s i t e s . However, Speelman's d e s c r i p t i o n of Bonto Keke p o s t d a t e s t h e a t t a c k on t h e v i l l a g e , and Tana-Tana was t h e k a r a e n g s h i p o f Mohammad A l l ' s d aughter Fatimah (1673-1739).

By t h e same t o k e n , t h e l a c k o f s i t e s and s c a r c i t y o f h i s t o r i c a l toponyms d i r e c t l y n o r t h o f Somba Opu cannot be t a k e n a t f a c e v a l u e . The area would be l a r g e l y c o n s t i t u t e d of r e c e n t l y formed and, hence, r e c e n t l y o c c u p i e d l a n d s u r f a c e s . A s u r v e y i m m e d i a t e l y n o r t h o f Somba Opu, c a r r i e d out by M u t t a l i b (Suaka) and A l b e r t i n u s ( a r c h a e o l o g y s t u d e n t , Hasanuddin U n i v e r s i t y ) , found o n l y European and r e c e n t t r a d e w a r e s . Granted t h a t most o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d may w e l l have been d e s t r o y e d t h r o u g h d e l t a i c r e m o d e l l i n g , n o n e t h e l e s s much o f t h i s would r e f e r s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e 17th c e n t u r y f o r e i g n e r s ' q u a r t e r s c e n t r e d i n t h i s area. Hence we

• ••

359

To gauge t h e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s o f r i v e r c h annels on s i t e c l u s t e r i n g p a t t e r n s ( 6 . 6 . 2 ) , we use t h e i n f e r r e d 1660s' channels.® The i s s u e whether o r not t o count f o r t r e s s w a l l as s i t e (6.6.2) does n o t a f f e c t Somba Opu and Paknakkukang/Pattukangang, which b o t h count as one s i t e e i t h e r way. But i t does suggest c o a s t a l w a l l as an analogue, b o t h t h e r e c o r d e d and t h e i n f e r r e d l e n g t h s .

Hence f o u r approaches a r e used: (A) s i t e e x c l u d i n g w a l l s , r i v e r c h a nnels i g n o r e d ; (B) a l l r e c o r d e d s i t e , r i v e r channels i g n o r e d ; (C) s i t e e x c l u d i n g w a l l s , j o i n s p r e v e n t e d a c r o s s i n f e r r e d c h a n n e l s ; and (D) a l l r e c o r d e d and i n f e r r e d s i t e , j o i n s p r e v e n t e d a c r o s s i n f e r r e d c h a n n e l s . As t h r e e c l a s s e s o f s i t e a r e e n t e r t a i n e d , i n t e r s i t e d i s t a n c e s a r e g i v e n t h r i c e ( T ables 11-2 t o 11-4). But t h e same p a t t e r n o f s i t e s c o n s i s t e n t l y emerges r e g a r d l e s s o f how t h e d a t a a r e p r o j e c t e d . The s i t e s between Somba Opu and t h e Aeng r i v e r , o r between t h e s o u t h G a r a s s i k o u t l e t and t h e Aeng r i v e r i f i n f e r r e d c h a n n e l s a r e t r e a t e d as b a r r i e r s , j o i n t o g e t h e r i n a " s u p e r c l u s t e r " ( F i g u r e 11-5).

T r e a t i n g t h e i n f e r r e d c h a n n e l s as b a r r i e r s l o o k s s u s p e c t . Even i f I have l o c a t e d t h e 1660s ch a n n e l s p r e c i s e l y , t h e y were o f course i n f l u x . The d e l t a c h a n n e l s u n d o u b t e d l y o p e r a t e d more as highways t h a n as b a r r i e r s , w h i l e t h e incon v e n i e n c e s f o r p e d e s t r i a n s were p r o b a b l y remedied by s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d f e r r i e s ( c f . Photo 11-1). The v a l u e o f t h e e x e r c i s e , as i t were, i s i t s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Somba Opu as a " c e n t r a l p l a c e " ( F i g u r e 11-5c). Somba Opu's 17 t h c e n t u r y name Ma c i n n i k Dangang ("Watch t h e Trade") b e t r a y s i t s c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n t o s u p e r v i s e t h e t r a d e o c c u r r i n g a l o n g t h e Ga r a s s i k o u t l e t s , b o t h a t t h e n o r t h where f o r e i g n e r s were m a i n l y i n v o l v e d and a t t h e Makassar-dominated s o u t h . ' But c l e a r l y Somba Opu's r d l e as a c e n t r a l p l a c e was n e i t h e r t o a d m i n i s t e r l o c a l communities a f t e r t h e manner o f Benteng Tua ( 6 . 7 ) , nor

are spared t h e quandary o f d e c i d i n g whether o r not such p l a c e s s h o u l d be ranked a l o n g s i d e SSPHAP's Makassar s i t e s . ® Hasanuddin's d e f e n s i v e channel dug i n 1660 i s here i g n o r e d as t o o t r i v i a l f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . ^ I c o u l d have s i m p l y noted t h a t Somba Opu s i t s c e n t r a l l y w i t h i n G a rassik i s l a n d and l e f t i t a t t h a t . However, t r e a t i n g the channels as b a r r i e r s s i m u l a t e s t h e same r e s u l t w i t h i n t h e s i t e - c l u s t e r i n g procedures f o l l o w e d h e r e .

TABLE 11-2. GARRASIK INTERSITE DISTANCES IN METRES - WALL IGNORED

Rappocinik R H B J B B 6 Mariso 2190 Bonto Rannu 2750 840 Jongaya 2710 1700 1190 Bonto Tangnga 3160 2470 1930 780 Balang Benj 3550 2340 1600 840 790 Bonto Kapette 2580 3130 3000 1630 1650 2420 Bontomanaik 1 3530 4120 3900 2540 2240 3020 1005 SofflbaOpu (4580) (3300)(2480)(1880)(1520) (1070)(3050)(3360) Pattung (5200) (3670)(2840)(2360)(2130)(1530)(3610)(3800) 340 Lekokbodong (4630) (3700)(2980)(2070)(1480)(1370)(2770)(2880) 670 930 Bonto lakja Selatan (5460) (4480)(3725)(2890)(2305)(2150)(3470)(3410)(1110) (900) (820) B. Lakja Timur Daya (5310) (4320)(3580)(2740)(2175)(2030)(3350)(3320) (950) (800) (680) 140 -B. Lakja Barat Daya (5405) (4350) (3610) (2810) (2260) (2030) (3490) (3485) (935) (720) (760) 170 165 ? f i,. Bonto Lakja Barat (5510) (4450)(3680)(2920)(2380)(2140)(3620)(3610) (985) (710) (905) 240 250 125 Bayoa 2 (5830) (4510)(3840)(3170)(2685)(2360)(4100)(4190)(1080) (770)(1250) 600 660 530 380 Kaccia (6180) (4690)(4070)(3480)(3050)(2520)(4340)(4470)(1310) (980)(1660) 1050 1070 950 790 420 , Gotong (6230) (5200)(4410)(3645)(3080)(2870)(4150)(4125)(1670)(1370)(1600) 720 870 820 690 650 725 Makam Kg Papok (6660) (5580)(4800)(4060)(3500)(3260)(4595)(4555)(2030)(1690)(2020) 1150 1300 1240 1150 940 730 340 <• Timbuseng (6840) (5760)(5000)(4270)(3680)(3480)(4820)(4640)(2210)(1870)(2235) 1330 1480 1420 1330 1110 900 510 180 ; , ,; Bilaya Lama (7360) (6340)(5550)(4800)(4180)(4020)(4750)(4915)(2790)(2450)(2740) 1850 2010 1970 1850 1710 1440 1100 760 570 - -Mamampang (6300) (4100)(4170)(3815)(3340)(2750)(5010)(5140)(1610)(1405)(2280) 1790 1805 1670 1450 1210 780 1530 1530 1620 2040 Bayoa 1 (5800) (4210)(3410)(3180)(2720)(2250)(4120)(4670) 880 690 1820 (1760)(1720)(1620)(1520)(1320)(1070)(1860)(1950)(2080)(2475) (530) Garassik (5380) (4000)(3170)(2620)(2310)(1790)(3870)(4440) 690 920 1590 (1495)(1410)(1310)(1230)(1070) (930)(1670)(1870)(2020)(2560) (860) 215 Paknakkukang/Pat. (6150) (4380)(3580)(3530)(3450)(2740)(4840)(5110)(1410)(1630)(2370) 2380 2330 2210 2120 1890 1510 2290 2250 2320 2700 720 (310) (750) Makam Tuan Biraeng (7350) (5700)(4880)(4650)(4110)(3620)(5830)(6080)(2410)(2330)(3210) 2600 2750 2610 2450 2100 1610 2230 2170 2190 2470 940 (1160)(1650) Tangaya (7480) (5850)(5040)(4610)(4220)(3750)(6050)(6140)(2550)(2430)(3300) 2730 2790 2650 2510 2130 1630 2310 2110 2120 2400 1010 (1310)(1820) Saukang Parasangang (7560) (5950)(5140)(4720)(4320)(3870)(6110)(6220)(2650)(2510)(3380) 2820 2860 2720 2550 2210 1685 2360 2150 2130 2395 1110 (1410)(1910) Barombong (7720) (6120)(5290)(4890)(4590)(3990)(6225)(6300)(2790)(2630)(3470) 2880 2950 2800 2640 2320 1750 2330 2140 2090 2230 1230 (1540)(2040) Bontoa (7220) (6030)(5200)(4490)(4410)(3930)(5780)(5850)(2570)(2290)(3050) 2350 2430 2315 2050 1810 1220 1790 1530 1400 1685 1030 (1510)(1880) Ujung Kassik (8160) (6680)(6010) (4540) (5320)(4810)(6740)(6730)(3440)(3190) (3970) 3280 3370 3230 3070 2730 2145 2650 2350 2250 2270 1850 (2260)(2710) flengtoa (8330) (6910)(6200)(5310)(5370)(4920)(6680)(6610)(3560)(3260)(3960) 3200 3300 3190 3025 2710 2130 2480 2135 2000 1890 2010 (2480)(2880) Karama (9120) (7570)(6830)(6440)(6080)(5620)(7150)(7050)(4235)(3970)(4680) 3910 4020 3910 3750 3420 2845 3200 2870 2730 2510 2680 (3110)(3530) Jonggoa Batu-Batu (9970) (8580)(7510)(7050)(6900)(6190)(8200)(8090)(5090)(4790)(5470) 4680 4810 4700 4550 4220 3670 3920 3570 3390 3135 3550 (3990)(4400) Suooanak (8290) (6860)(6010)(5630)(5090)(4830)(6195)(5950)(3530)(3170)(3620) 2750 2900 2835 2690 2470 2020 1940 1600 1520 990 2380 (2930)(3100) Pangkajeknek (9050) (7670)(6860)(6400)(5880)(5600)(7000)(6730)(4270)(3930)(4410) 3550 3680 3620 3480 3230 2750 2730 2400 2220 1775 3000 (3520)(3770) Pakkala Barat (9490) (8160)(7370)(6930)(6350)(6130)(7370)(6990)(4850)(4500)(4900) 4030 4120 4130 3980 3790 3350 3210 2870 2690 2170 3670 (4210)(4430) Pakkala Timur (9550) (8360)(7490)(6990)(6415)(6195)(7380)(6950)(4930)(4590)(4950) 4070 4230 4190 4040 3870 3450 3260 2950 2780 2230 3790 (4330)(4530)

N.B. Bracketed intersite distances involve crossings across either one or both of the reconstructed Garassik channels. Historical toponyms and sites close to the Garassik s i tes but not actually clustering uith then are included to shou they do not cluster.

TABLE 11-2. GARRASIK INTERSITE DISTANCES IN METRES - WALL IGNORED (CONT.)

R M B J B B B B S P L B B B B B K G H T B H B G Sanpulunqanq (11590)(10200)(9350)(8780)(8460)(7800)(9720)(9510)(6730)(6470)(7090) 6235 6285 6300 6140 5850 5320 5465 5110 4930 4560 5280 (5730)(6110) Kanji loT-L - - - - - - (3795)(3365)(2735)(2540)(1995) 1575 1750 1890 1990 1945 2355 1495 1715 1720 1810 3135 (3380)(3200) Kanji loB-L - (3775)(3375) (2565)(2360)(1835) 1380 1570 1730 1795 1745 2160 1325 1565 1580 1690 2935 (3185)(3000) Kanjilo Barat - (3930)(3930)(2620)(2405)(1910) 1425 1635 1745 1820 1690 2065 1230 1390 1395 1455 2860 (3165)(3000) Kanjilo T-D - - - - - - (4225)(4225)(3005)(2750)(2325) 1825 2050 2160 2225 2035 2400 1570 1650 1640 1575 3190 (3530)(3390) KanjungMaek - - - - - - (4460)(4460)(3140)(2935)(2480) 1940 2170 2260 2335 2080 2405 1580 1645 1630 1450 3190 (3610)(3465)

Paknakkukang/Pat. P H T S B B U A K J S P P P S K K K K Hakao Tuan Biraeng 550 • • •'•< •1.

Tangaya 710 180 Saukang Parasangang 890 290 110 Barombong 1050 430 250 125 • •• '• '. .

Bontoa 1310 860 750 730 630 • ' ^

Ujung Kassik 1790 990 810 700 560 930 Aengtoa 2090 1520 1335 1250 890 1000 390 Karama 2640 2080 1890 1770 1420 1690 870 410 Jonggoa Batu-Batu 3510 2730 2550 2440 2300 2530 1730 1180 880 Suomanak 2860 2415 2280 2190 1880 1560 1730 1190 1740 2195 Pangkajeknek 3330 2800 2650 2570 2250 2030 1580 1105 1430 1580 810

....

Pakkala Barat 4050 3520 3250 3?80 2870 2740 2210 1800 2060 1870 1330 610 Pakkala Timur 4190 3680 3510 3450 3140 28'/0 2450 1980 2215 2060 1430 890 150 Sampulungang 5190 4640 4460 4350 4210 4230 3450 2880 2640 1710 3570 2790 2620 2720 Kanjilo T-L yivb 3905 3900 3895 3930 3385 Kanjilo B-L 3685 3905 3830 3725 3875 3220 158 Kanjilo Barat 3560 3635 3620 3610 3685 3055 151 126 Kanjilo T-0 3925 3955 3900 3845 3800 3250 3810 3480 - 4840 2910 3075 3785 3305 - 324 520 183 Kaojung Haek 3990 3900 3850 3790 3750 3165 3725 3400 - 4660 2765 2885 3530 3055 - 584 494 290 145

Figure 11-5a. BG joins P(/P) at 530m, these (BGP) join N at 703ffl; MTSP joins Bontoa at 743m; GMT joins Bilaya at 810m; BBBB joins KB at 745m, these join SPL at 962m (BBBBKB to GMTB is 1305ai and SPL to BGPM is 1441m); MTSPB joins UAK at 1256m (UAK to Jonggoa is 1263m); BBBBKBSPL joins BGPM at 1525m (BBBBKBSPL to GMTB is 1555m and BGPM to MTSPBUAK is 1753m); BBBBKBSPLBGPM joins GMTB at 1707m (GMTB is only 1556m from KKKKK but KKKKK had already joined AAJB at 1217m (Table 6-4]); BJB joins MB at 1872m (BJB to B8 i s 2250m); BJBMB joins Rappocini at 2872m (BJBMB to BB is only 2765m but BB had already joined eastwards at 1785m [Analysis 6-3]); SPPP joins Jonggoa at 1926m (Jonggoa to Sampulungang is only 1710m but the latter had already joined south [Table 11-5]); Jonggoa to MTSPBUAK is 2042m); MTSPBUAK joins SPPPJ at 2319m (MTSPBUAK to BBBBKBSPLBGPMGMTB is 2451m; SPPPJ to B(2)B is 2611m [Table 12-^)); MTSPBUAKSPPPJ joins BBBBKBSPLBCPMCMTB at 2845iii.

Figure 11-5c. BJB joins MB at 1872m (BJB to BB is 2250m); BJBMB joins Rappocini at 2872m (BJBM to BB i s only 2594m, but BB bad already joined BJKKMKKBKPMPKPPSSPT at 2542m [Analysis 6-4]). SPLBG (forced join) - "Somba Opu cluster". PM joins MTSBB at 983m (MTSBB to UAK is 1256iii); UAK joins Jonggoa at 1263ffl (thus UAKJ); BBBKB joins GMTB at 1305m; UAKJ joins SPPP at 1920ffl (UAKJ to PMMTSBB is 2219m, SPPP to GMTO is 2441m); PMIfTSBB joins BB8BKBGMTB at 2185m; PMMTSBBBBBBKGMTB joins UAKJSPPP at 2831n).

TABLE 11-3. GARASSIK INTERSITE DISTANCES IN METRES - SURVEYED WALL INCLUDED

Rappocinik R N B J B B B B S P L B B B B B K G H T B H B G

Mariso 2190 Bonto Rannu 2750 840 Jongaya 2710 1700 1190

< . .

Bonto Tangnga 3160 2470 1930 780 Balang Beru 3550 2340 1600 840 790 . .•.( \- ;

Bonto Kapette 2580 3130 3000 1630 1650 2420 ••

Bontomanaik 1 3530 4120 3900 2540 2240 3020 1005 Sooba Opu (4580)(3300)(2480)(1880)(1520)(1070)(3050)(3360) Pattung (5200)(3670)(2840)(2360)(2130)(1530)(3610)(3800) 340 Lekokbodong (4630)(3700)(2980)(2070)(1480)(1370)(2770)(2880) 670 930 Bonto Lakja Selatan (5460)(4480)(3725)(2890)(2305)(2150)(3470)(3410)(1110) (900) (820) B. Lakja Tiaur Daya (5310)(4320)(3580)(2740)(2175)(2030)(3350)(3320) (950) (800) (680) 140 B. Lakja Barat Daya (5405)(4350)(3610)(2810)(2260)(2030)(3490)(3485) (935) (720) (760) 170 165 Bonto Lakja Barat (5510)(4450)(3680)(2920)(2380)(2140)(3620)(3610) (985) (710) (905) 240 250 125 Bayoa 2 (5830) (4510) (3840X 3170) (2685) (2360) (4100) (4190)(1080) (T70) (1250) 600 660 530 380 Kaccia (6180)(4690)(4070)(3480)(3050)(2520)(4340)(4470)(1310) (980)(1660) 1050 1070 950 790 420 Gotong (6230)(5200)(4410)(3645)(3080)(2870)(4150)(4125)(1670)(1370)(1600) 720 870 820 690 650 725 Makam Kg Papok (6660)(5580)(4800)(4060)(3500)(3260)(4595)(4555)(2030)(1690)(2020) 1150 1300 1240 1150 940 730 340 rinbuseng (6840)(5760)(5000)(4270)(3680)(3480)(4820)(4640)(2210)(1870)(2235) 1330 1480 1420 1330 1110 900 510 180 Bilaya Lama (7360)(6340)(5550)(4800)(4180)(4020)(4750)(4915)(2790)(2450)(2740) 1850 2010 1970 1850 1710 1440 1100 760 570 Mamampang (6300)(4170)(4100)(3815)(3340)(2750)(5010)(5140)(1610)(1405)(2280) 1790 1805 1670 1450 1210 780 1530 1530 1620 2040 Bayoa 1 (5800)(4210)(3410)(3180)(2720)(2250)(4120)(4670) 880 690 1820 (1760)(1720)(1620)(1520)(1320)(1070)(1860)(1950)(2080)(2475)(530) Garassik (5380)(4000)(3170)(2620)(2310)(1790)(3870)(4440) 690 920 1590 (1495)(1410)(1310)(1230)(1070) (930)(1670)(1870)(2020)(2560)(860) 215 PaknakkukaDg/BaroiDbong(6150)(4380)(3580)(3530)(3450)(2740)(4840)(5110)(1410)(1630)(2370) 2380 2330 2210 2120 1890 1510 2230 2110 2090 2230 720 (310) (750) Bontoa (7220)(6030)(5200)(4490)(4410)(3930)(5780)(5850)(2570)(2290)(3050) 2350 2430 2315 2050 1810 1220 1790 1530 1400 1685 1030 (1510)(1880) Ujung Kassik (8160)(6680)(6010)(4540)(5320)(4810)(6740)(6730)(3440)(3190)(3970) 3280 3370 3230 3070 2730 2145 2650 2350 2250 2270 1850 (2260X 2710) Aengtoa (8330)(6910)(6200)(5310)(5370)(4920)(6680)(6610)(3560)(3260)(3960) 3200 3300 3190 3025 2710 2130 2480 2135 2000 1890 2010 (2480)(2880) Karama (9120)(7570)(6830)(6440)(6080)(5620)(7150)(7050)(4235)(3970)(4680) 3910 4020 3910 3750 3420 2845 3200 2870 2730 2510 2680 (3110)(3530) Jonggoa Batu-Batu (9970)(8580)(7510)(7050)(6900)(6190)(8200)(8090)(5090)(4790)(5470) 4680 4810 4700 4550 4220 3670 3920 3570 3390 3135 3550 (3990)(4400) Summanak (8290) (6860)(6010)(5630)(5090)(4830)(6195)(5950)(3530)(3170)(3620) 2750 2900 2835 2690 2470 2020 1940 1600 1520 990 2380 (2930)(3100) Pangkajeknek (9050) (7670)(6860)(6400)(5880)(5600)(7000)(6730)(4270)(3930)(4410) 3550 3680 3620 3480 3230 2750 2730 2400 2220 1775 3000 (3520)(3770)

N.B. Bracketed intersite distances inwolving crossings across either one or both of the reconstructed Garassik channels are retained ewen though the results are not

directly analysed here.

TABLE 11-3. GARASSIK INTERSITE DISTANCES IN METRES - SURVEYED WALL INCLUDED (CONT.) R M B J B B B B S P L B B B B B K G H T B N B G

Pakkala Barat (9490) (8160)(7370)(6930)(6350)(6130)(7370)(6990)(4850)(4500)(4900) 4030 4120 4130 3980 3790 3350 3210 2870 2690 2170 3670 (4210)(4430) Pakkala Timur (9550) (8360)(7490)(6990)(6415)(6195)(7380)(6950)(4930)(4590)(4950) 4070 4230 4190 4040 3870 3450 3260 2950 2780 2230 3790 (4330)(4530) Sampulungang (11590)(10200)(9350)(8780)(8460)(7800)(9720)(9510)(6730)(6470)(7090) 6235 6285 6300 6140 5850 5320 5465 5110 4930 4560 5280 (5730)(6110) Kanjilo T-L (3795)(3365)(2735)(2540)(1995) 1575 1750 1890 1990 1945 2355 1495 1715 1720 1810 3135 (3380)(3200) Kanjilo B-L - - . . _ - (3775) (3375)(2565) (2360) (1835) 1380 1570 1730 1795 1745 2160 1325 1565 1580 1690 2935 (3185) (3000) Kanjilo Barat - - - - - - (3930)(3930)(2620)(2405)(1910) 1425 1635 1745 1820 1690 2065 1230 1390 1395 1455 2860 (3165)(3000) Kanjilo T-D - - - - - - (4225) (4225)(3005) (2750) (2325) 1825 2050 2160 2225 2035 2400 1570 1650 1640 1575 3190 (3530) (3390) Kanjung Maek - - - - - - (4460)(4460)(3140) (2935) (2480) 1940 2170 226Q 2335 2080 2405 1580 1645 1630 1450 3190 ( 3610) (3465)

Paknakkukang/Barombong P B U A K J S P P P S K K K

Bontoa 630 Ujung Kassik 560 930 Aengtoa 890 1000 390 Karama 1420 1690 870 410 Jonggoa Batu-Batu 2300 2530 1730 1180 880 Summanak 1880 1560 1730 1190 1740 2195 Pangkajeknek 2250 2030 1580 1105 1430 1580 810 Pakkala Barat 2870 2740 2210 1800 2060 1870 1330 610 Pakkala Timur 3140 2870 2450 1980 2215 2060 1430 890 150 Sampulungang 4210 4230 3450 2880 2640 1710 3570 2790 2620 2720 Kanjilo T-L 3785 3385 Kanjilo B-L 3685 3220 - - - - - - - - - 158 Kanjilo Barat 3560 3055 - 151 126 Kanjilo T-D 3800 3250 3810 3480 - 4840 2910 3075 3785 3305 - 324 520 183 Kanjung Maek 3750 3165 3725 3400 - 4660 2765 2885 3530 3055 - 584 494 290

Figure 11-5b. BG joins P(/B) at 530m, these (BGP) join Mamampang at 703m; GMT joins Bilaya at SlOm; BBBB joins KB at 745m, these join SPL at %2ra (BBBBKB to GMTB is 1305m and SPL to BGPM is 1441m); UAK joins Bontoa at 1207ra; BBBBKBSPL joins BGPM at 1525iii (BBBBKBSPL to GMTB is 1555m and BGPM to UAKB is 1%4m); UAKB join Jonggoa at 1580iii; BBBBKBSPLBGPM joins GMTB at 1690ni (GMTB is only 1556in from KKKKK but KKKKK had already joined AJB at 1116m [Table 6-3]); UAKBJ joins SPPP at 1920di (SPPP to B(2)B is 2634m [Table 12-6]); BJB joins MB at 18720 (BJB to BB is 2250m); BJBMB joins Rappocini at 2872m (BJBMB to BB is only 2765ffl but BB had already joined eastwards at 1785m [Analysis 6-1]); BBBBKBSPLBGPMGMTB joins UABKJSPPP at 3110m (UABKJSPPP to Sampulungang is 2957m but Sampulungang had joined south [Table 11-5]).

r

TABLE 11-4. GARASSIK INTERSITE DISTANCES IN METRES - RECORDED AND INFERRED WALL INCLUDED

Hariso-Ujung Tana H R B J B B B B S P L B B B B B K G M T B H P B U

Rappocinik 2190 ^ , , , . Bonto Rannu 840 2750 'r'-':'^4ta-u-'^^--.-Jongaya 1700 2710 1190 Bonto Tangnga 2470 3160 1930 780 Balang Beru 2340 3550 1600 840 790 " . i t Bonto Kapette 3130 2580 3000 1630 1650 2420 '"^ ^̂ 'f ' '

Bontomanaik 1 4120 3530 3900 2540 2240 3020 1005 ' • * Somba Opu Hall (3300)(4580)(2480)(1880)(1520)(1070)(3050)(3360) Pattung (3670)(5200)(2840)(2360)(2130)(1530)(3610)(3800) 340 Lekokbodong (3700)(4630)(2980)(2070)(1480)(1370)(2T70)(2880) 670 930 B. Lakja Selatan (4480)(5460)(3725)(2890)(2305)(2150)(3470)(3410)(1110) (900) (820) B.Lakja Timur Daya (4320)(5310)(3580){2740)(2175)(2030)(3350)(3320) (950) (800) (680) 140 B.Lakja Barat Daya (4350)(5405)(3610)(2810)(2260)(2030)(3490)(3485) (935) (720) (760) 170 165 Bonto Lakja Barat (4450)(5510)(3680)(2920)(2380)(2140)(3620)(3610) (985) (710) (905) 240 250 125 Bayoa 2 (4510)(5830)(3840)(3170)(2685)(2360)(4100)(4190)(1080) (T70)(1250) 600 660 530 380 Kaccia (4690)(6180)(4070)(3480){3050)(2520)(4340)(4470)(1070) (980)(1660) 1050 1070 950 790 420 Gotong (5200)(6230)(4410)(3645)(3080)(2870)(4150)(4125)(1670)(1370)(1600) 720 870 820 690 650 725 Hakam Kg Papok (5580)(6660)(4800)(4060)(3500)(3260)(4595)(4555)(1870)(1690)(2020) 1150 1300 1240 1150 940 730 340 Timbuseng (5760)(6840)(5000)(4270)(3680)(3480)(4820)(4640)(2020)(1870)(2235) 1330 1480 1420 1330 1110 900 510 180 Bilaya Lama (6340)(7360)(5550)(4800)(4180)(4020)(4750)(4915)(2475)(2450)(2740) 1850 2010 1970 1850 1710 1440 1100 760 570 Mamampang (4170)(6300)(4100)(3815)(3340)(2750)(5010)(5140) (530)(1405)(2280) 1790 1805 1670 1450 1210 780 1530 1530 1620 2040 Paknakkukang/Bar. (4380)(6150)(3580)(3530)(3450)(2740)(4840)(5110) (310)(1630)(2370) 2380 2330 2210 2120 1890 1510 2230 2110 2090 2230 720 Bontoa (6030)(7220)(5200)(4490)(4410)(3930)(5780)(5850)(1510)(2290)(3050) 2350 2430 2315 2050 1810 1220 1790 1530 1400 1685 1030 630 Ujung Kassik (6680)(8160)(6010)(4540)(5320)(4810)(6740)(6T30)(2260)(3190)(3970) 3280 3370 3230 3070 2730 2145 2650 2350 2250 2270 1850 560 930 Aengtoa (6910)(8330)(6200)(5310)(5370)(4920)(6680)(6610)(2480)(3260)(3960) 3200 3300 3190 3025 2710 2130 2480 2135 2000 1890 2010 890 1000 380 Karama (9120)(7570)(6830)(6440)(6080)(5620)(7150)(7050)(3110)(3970)(4680) 3910 4020 3910 3750 3420 2845 3200 2870 2730 2510 2680 1420 1690 410 Jonggoa Batu-Batu (8580)(9970)(7510)(7050)(6900)(6190)(8200)(8090)(3990)(4790)(5470) 4680 4810 4700 4550 4220 3670 3920 3570 3390 3135 3550 2300 2530 1730 Summanak (6860)(8290)(6010)(5630)(5090)(4830)(6195)(5950)(2930)(3170)(3620) 2750 2900 2835 2690 2470 2020 1940 1600 1520 990 2380 1880 1560 1730 Pangkajeknek (7670) (9050) (6860) (6400) (5880) (5600) (7000) (6730) (3520)(3930) (4410) 3550 3680 3620 3480 3230 2750 2730 2400 2220 1775 3000 2250 2030 1580 Pakkala Barat (8160)(9490)(7370)(6930)(6350)(6130)(7370)(6990)(4210)(4500)(4900) 4030 4120 4130 3980 3790 3350 3210 2870 2690 2170 3670 2870 2740 2210 Pakkala Timur (8360)(9550)(7490)(6990)(6415)(6195)(7380)(6950)(4330)(4590)(4950) 4070 4230 4190 4040 3870 3450 3260 2950 2780 2230 3790 3140 2870 2450 Sampulungang (10200)(11590)(9350)(8780)(8460)(7800)(9720)(9510)(5730)(6470)(7090) 6235 6285 6300 6140 5850 5320 5465 5110 4930 4560 5280 4210 4230 3450

ON

TABLE 11-4. GARASSIK INTERSITE DISTANCES IN METRES - RECORDED AND INFERRED WALL INCLUDED (NOTES)

N.B. "Mariso-Ujung Tana" refers to the wall apparently built along the coast between Ujung Tana and Mariso. "Makassar wall" includes Somba Opu, Bayoa 1 and Garassik in the same "site". As the latter wall's extent north beyond Somba Opu can only be guessed, Somba Opu is used as a proxy for measuring the distance between the "Somba Opu wall" and sites to the north. Bracketed intersite distances involve crossings across one or both of the reconstructed Garassik channels. For remaining distances see previous table.

Figure 11-5d. BJB joins Bonto Rannu but no further joins (Table 12-6). Somba Opu wall joins Pattung and Lekokbodong (SPL or "Somba Opu cluster"). PS joins Mamampang at 875m (hence P8H); UAK joins Jonggoa at 1263ig (hence UAKJ); BBBBKB joins GHTB at 1305m; PBN joins UAKJ at 1784m (PBM to BBBBKSGMB is 1837m, and UAKJ to SPPP is 1920b); PBMUAKJ joins SPPP at 2247m (BBBBKBGMTB is 1837ffl to SPPP and 3180m to PBMUAKJ); PBMUAKJSPPP joins BBBBKBGMYB at 3120iii.

TABLE 11-5. NORTH POLOMBANGKENG INTERSITE DISTANCES IN METRES

Summanak S P P P J B(2) B S T J B B C T T P M M M H P T Pangkajeknek 810 Pakkala Barat 1330 610 Pakkala Timur 1430 890 150 Jonggoa Batu-Batu 2195 1580 1870 2060 < ^ Bontomanaik 2 2720 3080 2820 2695 4365 Bonto Pakja 2425 2730 2280 2110 4760 7 X . : Sampulungang 3570 2790 2620 2720 1710 4885 5445 ') Tabaringang Barat 3270 3045 2320 2330 2685 4030 4760 1690 ' ' x^a..-:. j Jamarang 4585 4305 3750 3810 3150 5750 6430 1470 1630 ^ r ' . ^ , ;u Bonto Lebang 4155 3920 3310 3320 3105 5050 5780 1770 910 70O Bebak - 2810 2730 1150 1570 Campagaya Lama - - - - - - - 3040 2900 1570 1755 480 Taipanorang - - - - - - - 3690 3350 2030 2190 890 400 Tamasongok . . . . . . . 4950 4660 3080 3530 2150 1630 990 . - i . Parebalang - - - - - - - 4215 3610 2530 2530 1440 850 630 1210 • < ' '» Mandallek/Pannujuang - 3710 2990 2070 1925 1190 625 720 1480 280 , • . Matoanqing . . . . . . . 4110 3480 2390 2350 1510 840 880 1370 340 180 Maccinik Kondo - - - - - - - 4560 3510 2990 2650 2320 1330 1730 2190 1135 540 555 Manjallinq Lompoe 5230 3940 3750 3290 3230 2480 2640 2870 2040 1440 1480 930 Borong Punaga . . . . . . . 5310 4070 3820 3390 3090 2220 2590 2810 1960 1440 1410 905 470 Talaborong . . . . . . . 5320 3950 3930 3410 3500 2780 3000 3330 2390 1730 1810 1250 190 110 , ' • • ••

Figure 11-6. Campagaya lama/Taipanorang joins Bebak at 685iii; Mandallek/Matoanging/Parebalang joins Maccinik Kondo at 743m; CTP joins MMPM at 1172m; Jamarang/Bonto Lebang joins Tabaringang Barat at 1270m; JBT joins Sampulungang at 1643m; NMPMCTB joins " jv, ? Tamasongok at 1574m; MMPMCTBT joins MBT at 2222a. ^ v - y - - : .

If Tabaringang Barat rejected from analysis for abutting a survey boundary, then Jamaranq/Bonto Lebang would join Sanpulunganq at 1620m. If MBT rejected from analysis for same reason, then HMPHCTB would join Jamarang/Bonto Lebanq/Sampulungang at 28U8m. \jj

U1

TABLE 11-6. RESULTS OF SOIL TESTS CARRIED OUT AT SOMBA OPU

L o c a l i t y S o i l Type N u n s e l l Colour pH I n t e r p r e t a t i o n

S o i l Test 1, l o o t e r ' s h o l e i n east S a p i r e a

S i l t s w i t h sone f i n e sand and c l a y t o p 70 cm

Clayey s i l t s 70 cm t o water t a b l e a t 2 metres

S o i l Test 2, f i e l d i n n o r t h S a p i r e a

S o i l Test 3, h o l e a t f o r t r e s s s o u t h

S o i l Test 4, ploughed f i e l d a t f o r t southwest

S o i l Test 5, f i e l d i n f a l l o w

S o i l Test 6, r i c e f i e l d bund 100 m west o f f o r t , c. 500 m east o f sea

T o p s o i l s i l t s

F i n e sand w i t h a minor s i l t f r a c t i o n

T o p s o i l f i n e sand

Topsoi1 s i I t s

T o p s o i l s i l t y c l a y

10-25 cm de p t h , s i l t w i t h some l a m i n a t i o n s

7.5YR 6/2 t o lOYR 6/2 Not ( p i n k i s h g r e y t o r e c o r d e d

l i g h t b r o w n i s h g r e y )

10YR 3/4 t o 7.SYR 3/4 Not ( d a r k y e l l o w i s h brown r e c o r d e d

t o d a r k brown)

Jeknekberang's levee d e p o s i t s

S o i l Test 6, h o l e i n th e bunded f i e l d

25 cm t o 1 metre d e p t h muddy c l a y w i t h some g r i t

6 V :

Not r e c o r d e d

Not r e c o r d e d

10YR 6/3 ( p a l e brown) ( d r y sample)

7.SYR 3/2 ( d a r k brown)

7.SYR 3/4 6 V 2 ( d a r k brown)

SYR 5/4 7 ( r e d d i s h brown)

SYR S/4 7 ( r e d d i s h brown)

SYR 4/3 7 ( r e d d i s h brown)

Jeknekberang's o l d e r levee

d e p o s i t s

Jeknekberang's levee d e p o s i t s

Jeknekberang's post-1977 banks

Jeknekberang's levee d e p o s i t s

Jeknekberang's pre-1977 banks

Backswamp c l a y s mixed w i t h s i l t s

from annual f l o o d s

Jeknekberang's levee d e p o s i t s

Older backswamp d e p o s i t s

A d d i t i o n a l n o t e s on S o i l Test 6 l o c a t i o n : mangrove-type v e g e t a t i o n a l o n g r i c e - f i e l d bunds; area r e g u l a r l y f l o o d e d t o around 15 cm dep t h i n wet season; water from t h e w e l l s i s b i t t e r ( b r a c k i s h ) .

367

t o p r o v i d e t h e k i n d o f d e f e n s i v e f o c u s f o r which Benteng Anak Gowa appears t o have been b u i l t ( 8 . 2 . 1 ) .

The acceptance o f t h e Barombong w a l l as " s i t e " , such t h a t i t j o i n s Pattukangang-Paknakkukang t o form a s i t e n e a r l y two k i l o m e t r e s l o n g , c r e a t e s a c o n f i g u r a t i o n which n e a t l y mimics t h e 1667 s i e g e o f Makassar ( F i g u r e 11-5b). The "Makassar c l u s t e r " embraces t h e Paknakkukang-Barombong w a l l and t h e imm e d i a t e l y h i n t e r l a n d defended by t h e w a l l , i . e . t h e c i t y and i t s c o a s t a l defences, an area which Speelman and Arung Palakka (Sahaduddin) f a i l e d t o p e n e t r a t e b e f o r e 1669. The "Aeng c l u s t e r " c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e b a t t l e l i n e d u r i n g t h e s i e g e between t h e Makassar t r o o p s h o l d i n g t h e n o r t h bank o f th e Aeng and t h e Bugis l a n d t r o o p s amassed a l o n g t h e s o u t h (Bulbeck, 1990:82-3). T h i s c l u s t e r a l s o i n c l u d e s Bontoa where t h e 1667 Bungaya t r e a t y was s i g n e d a t t h e end o f t h e s i e g e ( K a l l u p a , 1985:154-156). -

The ongoing o r g a n i s a t i o n o f G a r a s s i k d u r i n g t i m e s o f s e c u r i t y , which was t h e r u l e r a t h e r t h a n t h e e x c e p t i o n a t l e a s t between c.1550 and 1615 ( e . g . R e i d , 1981), i s p r o b a b l y best r e p r e s e n t e d by F i g u r e 11-5a. A c c o r d i n g l y I w i l l use t h a t c o n f i g u r a t i o n t o o r g a n i s e my d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s i t e s .

11.3 Benteng Somba Opu ^ ^ r ^ , . , , , j

11.3.1 P h y s i c a l remains and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n

Benteng Somba Opu l i e s a t s i x metres a s l between t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y s o u t h o u t l e t o f t h e Jeknekberang up t o 1977, and t h e post-1977 s o u t h o u t l e t (see F i g u r e 1 1 - 4 ) . The s i t e ' s d e p o s i t s , as observed by SSPHAP, can a l l be a s c r i b e d t o these 20th c e n t u r y o u t l e t s and t h e degree o f p r o x i m i t y t o t h e sea (Table 11-6). But l o c a l r e p o r t s d e s c r i b e t h e deeper d e p o s i t s below t h r e e metres as sands. These c o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e s o u t h t a i l o f t h e Ujung Pandang c h e n i e r s , o r p o s s i b l y 1 7 t h c e n t u r y beach o r r i p a r i a n d e p o s i t s .

Since t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f SSPHAP's f i e l d w o r k , Somba Opu has hosted e x t e n s i v e e x c a v a t i o n s and an a m b i t i o u s programme o f r e s t o r a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( R e i d and C a l d w e l l , 1990:88-89). The work supersedes SSPHAP's programme which

mapped t h e v i s i b l e s t r u c t u r a l remains ( F i g u r e 11-9),^° c l e a r e d a s m a l l s e c t i o n and measured some b r i c k s ( F i g u r e 11-2). Few d e t a i l s from t h e e x c a v a t i o n s a r e y e t r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , and I w i l l be l u c k y i f my r e v i e w o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a t hand (E.2.3; E.4) does not need any r e v i s i o n . A v a i l a b l e p h o t o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n shows t h e "one-on-two" method o f l a y i n g b r i c k s (Photo 11-4) and t h e massive c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e west w a l l and b a s t i o n (Photos 11-5 and 11-6).^^ A c h a r t o f e x c a v a t e d squares shows t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n a l o n g t h e r u b b l e - s t r e w n f o o t p a t h a t t h e s i t e ' s n o r t h (Photo 1 1 - 3 ) , s u g g e s t i n g t h e e x c a v a t o r s were f o l l o w i n g t h e n o r t h w a l l . I t d e f u s e s t h e s u g g e s t i o n by Reid (1983a:149), f o l l o w e d by Bulbeck (1990:93), t h a t t h e f o r t had once extended w e l l t o t h e n o r t h o f t h e s u r v e y a b l e remains, and so s u g g e s t s t h a t Somba Opu as a c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l p a l a c e c e n t r e w h i c h embraced o n l y 11.8 h e c t a r e s . *

SSPHAP r e c o r d e d Somba Opu's s u r f a c e t r a d e w a r e s over s e v e r a l v i s i t s , w o r k i n g b o t h by observed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f sherdage and by land-use zones. The h y b r i d c o m p i l a t i o n o f the d a t a n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e y can be matched a g a i n s t t h e c.1638 s k e t c h o f t h e f o r t (Photo 1-1) and what i s known o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n h i s t o r y .

The c l e a r e s t i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s c o n s i s t e d o f a rounded mound, here i n t e r p r e t e d as a f l a g s t a n d (Photo 11-8), and a s u r r o u n d i n g l i n e o f w a l l r u b b l e i n t h e f o r t ' s n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 9 ) . The f i e l d n o r t h o f t h e mound, Gowa 3.3, c o n t a i n e d an e x t r a o r d i n a r y q u a n t i t y o f b l u e - a n d - w h i t e and c o a r s e stoneware p i e c e s , and earthenware sherdage (Appendix D ) . A f t e r making a complete c o l l e c t i o n on o u r f i r s t v i s i t t o s e r v e as l a b o r a t o r y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s ( L I s ) , " " ^ we n o t e d on a

° The f i r s t p u b l i s h e d s u r v e y o f Somba Opu i s Reid's (1983a:147) rough s k e t c h . The o r i g i n a l p l a n e - t a b l e survey of Somba Opu's e x t e r n a l w a l l s was i n s t i g a t e d and s u p e r v i s e d by P e t e r B e l l w o o d on 19 August 1986. I n September 1986 Suaka (1986/87) i n d e p e n d e n t l y s u r v e y e d Somba Opu w i t h a p l a n e t a b l e and i n c l u d e d t h e west Pakbenderang o r f l a g s t a n d which had been r e p o r t e d by Sagimun (1985:279). T h i s was added t o SSPHAP's p l a n and complemented w i t h t r a c e s o f i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s on 14 November 1986.

Somba Opu's b r i c k w a l l s are d e s c r i b e d as t h r e e and a h a l f metres t h i c k by t h e Dutch sources (Andaya, 1981:131). '2 L a b e l l e d G.3.3B i n Appendix D. The earthenwares are very u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c o l l e c t i o n .

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l a t e r v i s i t t h a t p l o u g h i n g had b r o u g h t up an even g r e a t e r assemblage which we t h e n i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e f i e l d ( F I s ) . Both assemblages produce a " f i n e " t r a d e w a r e p r o f i l e w i t h a 16th c e n t u r y s p i k e ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 8 ) . ^ ^ W i t h t h e assemblages combined, the r e s u l t i n g d e n s i t i e s o f "Qing BW" and e s p e c i a l l y "Ming" p i e c e s exceed any o t h e r r e c o r d e d d e n s i t i e s a t t h e s i t e ( F i g u r e 11-10).

The n e x t h i g h e s t d e n s i t i e s , which a l s o produced a 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y s p i k e , were r e c o r d e d i n a f i e l d due s o u t h l a b e l l e d zone 8. A l t h o u g h no s t r u c t u r a l remains have s u r v i v e d , t h e l o c a l i t y c o i n c i d e s w i t h where t h e c.1638 s k e t c h p l a c e d Somba Opu's wooden " r o y a l p a l a c e " . T h i s was p r o b a b l y th e M a c c i n i k Danggang p a l a c e which s t o o d between 1631 and 1650 ( R e i d , 1983a:144; LB:92,112).

I f so, zone 3 must have been t h e p a l a c e o c c u p i e d by Hasanuddin when Somba Opu was sacked i n 1669. The t r a c e s o f c o n c e n t r i c b r i c k w a l l s a c c o r d w i t h t h e w r i t t e n r e f e r e n c e s t o Somba Opu's massive f o r t i f i c a t i o n s i n i t s l a s t days (Andaya, 1981:117-136), w h i l e t h e dense sherdage would r e f l e c t t h e pal a c e ' s f o r c e d abandonment and subsequent r a n s a c k i n g . Zones 3 and 8 p r o b a b l y a l s o s i t e d t h e r o y a l p a l a c e s between c.1550 and 1618, g i v e n t h e i r s t r o n g emphasis on 16 t h c e n t u r y sherdage ( F i g u r e 11-8).

F u r t h e r eastwards we r e c o r d e d e v e n l y spaced patches o f sherdage w i t h i n a p a t t e r n o f d w i n d l i n g amounts and d e n s i t i e s ( F i g u r e 11-10). Zone 6 i s f l a n k e d by two i n t e r r u p t e d l i n e s o f b r i c k r u b b l e which might r e p r e s e n t i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s ( F i g u r e 1 1-9), p o s s i b l y t h e " o t h e r p a l a c e " and r o y a l s t o r e h o u s e s o f t h e c.1638 s k e t c h . F u r t h e r e a s t a r e an o l d s e p u l c h r e (Photo 11-9) and a commemorated grave i n a cement tomb a t t h e s o u t h (Photo 11-7). As t h e o n l y two o l d I s l a m i c graves SSPHAP r e c o r d e d , t h e s e might match t h e r e c o r d e d b u r i a l s o f two Makassar n o b l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Gowa's

F i g u r e 11-8 a l s o shows t h e s t a n d a r d i s e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l h i s t o g r a m s based on SSPHAP's broad t r a d e w a r e c l a s s e s . As p o i n t e d out elsewhere (B.5.2), t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s which can be drawn from t h e broad t r a d e w a r e c l a s s e s are u n n e c e s s a r i l y coarse when l a r g e t r a d e w a r e samples a r e a v a i l a b l e . For i n s t a n c e , w h i l e t h e y c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f y t h e masses o f "Ming" sherdage a t Somba Opu, v e r y l i t t l e o f t h i s sherdage i s o f 15th c e n t u r y a n t i q u i t y .

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"lineage group", R a l l e Dg Paikak and Dg Manarai Kg Mamampang, at Somba Opu i n 1692 (LB:176).^'» The graves are bracketed by two looted a r e a s , zones 2 and 4, which presumably mark p r e - I s l a m i c b u r i a l grounds of the s i t e ' s o r d i n a r y i n h a b i t a n t s . Next to the tomb i s a cannon c a l l e d Mariang polong {fragmentary cannon) which, according to Sagimun (1985:278), had been salvaged from Somba Opu and kept i n Ka c c i a before i t s r e c e n t r e t u r n to Somba Opu (Photo 11-7). I t alone seems to have escaped the Dutch s e i z u r e of 44 cannons and other a r s e n a l which had guarded the pala c e ( c f . Andaya, 1981 :134) . -.̂ - .

Some f u r t h e r "Ming" p i e c e s were recorded along or beyond the f o r t ' s outer west w a l l ( F i g u r e 11-10). E i t h e r they r e f l e c t use of Somba Opu's beach frontage or they are ex s i t u remains from zone 3. The footpath t r a n s e c t recorded mainly l a t e r p i e c e s which would correspond to the development of modern Sarorabe kampung. Sarombe's area has a l s o included the westernmost s t r i p of Somba Opu during the 20th century, and i t s cemetery of 20 to 30 cement graves, o r i e n t e d around 20° from north, has been e s t a b l i s h e d at Hasanuddin's former p a l a c e . The r e s t of Somba Opu has become part of S a p i r e a kampung whose I s l a m i c cemetery, s i t u a t e d on the l i n e of wall rubble at the north of the s i t e , has looked g e n e r a l l y older than Sarombe ' s . ̂ S a p i r e a ' s i n h a b i t a n t s were a l s o our informants on the l o o t i n g which appears to have been a f t e r b r i c k s as w e l l as antiques ( F i g u r e 11-9). >

The few " e a r l y " tradewares found a t the f a r west (Figure 11-10) have s p a l l e d o f f celadon p l a t e s which were presumably part of Gowa's r o y a l wealth. But the l a r g e r number to the east i n c l u d e s Vietnamese monochromes and e a r l y whiteware, BW and enamelled p i e c e s (Appendix D). These demonstrate use of the s i t e before i t s f o r t i f i c a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y as the southern zones, 1 and 4, show a pre-Ming emphasis i n t h e i r tradewares

Unfortunately I d i d not ask about the a s s o c i a t i o n s of the marked graves we observed. R a l l e Dg Paikak (1626-1692) was the s i s t e r of Kg Lengkesek and wife of Gowa's Mohammad Said and, l a t e r , Bima's Abdul K h a i r . Kg Mamampang was the son of Hasanuddin's son Kare Tojeng Kg Galesong (Chapter 3 ) . ^ I use the past imperfect tense here as I would not wish to

p r e d i c t the f a t e of these kampungs or t h e i r cemeteries during Somba Opu's r e s t o r a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . -

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p r o f i l e ( F i g u r e 1 1-8). A c c o r d i n g t o t h e c.1638 s k e t c h , Somba Opu's mosque was c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h i s a r e a . The spot might have been chosen because o f i t s keramat ( m y s t i c a l l y p o w e r f u l ) a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e s i t e ' s o r i g i n a l community c e n t r e . Zone 2, however, can be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e b u r i a l ground o f t h e populace who l i v e d a t t h e f o r t ' s r e a r , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c.1638 s k e t c h .

11.3.2 Occupation h i s t o r y

The evidence o f l i g h t o c c u p a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h and | 15th c e n t u r i e s s uggests t h e s i t e had p r o b a b l y e n j o y e d a r a i s e d l o c a t i o n a t t h e sho r e , and access t o f r e s h w a t e r , b e f o r e Tunipalangga b u i l t t h e r e . The t r a d e w a r e s c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f y massive o c c u p a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 16 t h and e a r l y 1 7th c e n t u r i e s , a l t h o u g h t h e i r emphasis on t h e e a r l y 16th c e n t u r y a t t h e p a l a c e s appears p r e c o c i o u s ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 8 ) . T h i s unexpected r e s u l t might be an a r t e f a c t o f t h e s p e c i f i c n a t u r e o f t h e Ming BW assemblage.^^ On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e i s no reason why Gowa c o u l d n o t have o c c u p i e d t h e s i t e d u r i n g t h e e a r l y 16th c e n t u r y . Gowa's l i n e a g e group b r i e f l y r u l e d G arassik a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 16 t h c e n t u r y ; P a i v a r e f e r r e d t o Makassar as t h e p o r t - c i t y o f Gowa i n 1544; and t h e passage on Tunipalangga's b r i c k w a l l s p o s s i b l y i m p l i e s t h a t Somba Opu, l i k e Benteng Tua, p r e v i o u s l y had e a r t h w a l l s b u i l t by Tum a p a k r i s i k K a l l o n a ( 4 . 3 ) . T r a n s p o s i n g t h e e a r l y and l a t e 16th c e n t u r y segments o f t h e t r a d e w a r e s p r o f i l e might w e l l be adequate c o r r e c t i o n t o r e p r e s e n t Gowa's e a r l y use o f Somba Opu f a i t h f u l l y . i ; \r

The t r a d e w a r e s a l s o c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f y Somba Opu's s u b s t a n t i a l abandonment a f t e r t h e e a r l y 1 7 t h c e n t u r y ( F i g u r e 11-8). The p r o f i l e s based on t h e f i n e c l a s s e s more suggest a "whimper" t h a n t h e "bang" we know t o o k p l a c e , except f o r t h e p r o f i l e o f zone 3 based on l a b o r a t o r y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s which, l i k e t h e "broad" t r a d e w a r e p r o f i l e s , c o r r e c t l y pegs Somba

e.g. t h e c o m p a r a t i v e l y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f b l u e - a n d - w h i t e j a r s o f s t u r d y p r o d u c t i o n , compared t o t h e more f r a g i l e bowls which u s u a l l y dominate "Ming" assemblages; and t h e use o f t h e ceramics as r o y a l household goods, which might have i n v o l v e d a longer l i f e span t h a n t h a t o f t h e wares b u r i e d i n graves.

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Opu's sudden demise t o Note a l s o t h a t even a f t e r 1669 t h e s i t e s t i l l p l a y e d a r d l e , as i n d i c a t e d by i t s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e 1693 map ( F i g u r e 5-5), t h e r e c o r d e d 1692 b u r i a l s , and t h e d e a t h i n 1724 o f M a t i n r o e r i Somba Opu.^®

11.4 Other BBBBKBSPL S i t e s ( S i t e s Near Somba Opu)

11.4.1 P a t t u n g (Gowa 4 ) , Lekokbodong, and Bayoa 2 (UP 7)

The a p p a r e n t l y s u b s t a n t i a l s i t e o f P a t t u n g i s a n n u a l l y i n u n d a t e d a t de p t h s up t o one and a h a l f metres d e s p i t e i t s p r o t e c t i o n by an e a r t h e n dyke c o n s t r u c t e d a l o n g t h e Jeknekberang's s o u t h bank.^' Two areas emerge above t h e Jeknekberang's g r e y i s h brown s i l t y sands: an o l d g r a v e y a r d (no f u r t h e r r e c o r d e d ) h a r d a g a i n s t t h e dyke (Photo 11-10); and 300 metres s o u t h w e s t , a t a s l i g h t l y h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n , a ploughed f i e l d whose a r t e f a c t u a l c o n t e n t s we c o l l e c t e d . The tra d e w a r e s suggest f a i r l y s t e a d y o c c u p a t i o n from t h e 16th c e n t u r y ( F i g u r e 11-10), a l t h o u g h t h e l a c k o f 2 0 t h c e n t u r y p i e c e s might p l a c e t h e f i e l d o u t s i d e t h e kampung d e p i c t e d on t h e maps. The i n t e r v e n i n g l a n d has r e p o r t e d l y been e x t e n s i v e l y l o o t e d , p r o d u c i n g m a i n l y b l u e - a n d - w h i t e wares " (Photo 11-11), b u t a l s o coming upon t h e o c c a s i o n a l s k e l e t o n , head d i r e c t e d e a s t w a r d , i n a d u n i . The a v a i l a b l e evidence p r o v i d e s a good case f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h e s i t e w i t h "Pattunga"

The d i f f i c u l t y h ere i s t h a t Somba Opu's second phase as Gowa's p a l a c e , 1631 t o 1669, o v e r l a p s w i t h t h e i n i t i a l p e r i o d o f "Qing Swatow" and Qing BW wares. The " f i n e " t r a deware p r o f i l e s based on l a b o r a t o r y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s compensate f o r t h i s p o s s i b l e d i s t o r t i o n by two means. F i r s t l y , Qing BW p i e c e s (1650-1800) c o u l d be more c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d as "Kangxi" (1650-1750) i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y , b u t such a f i n e l e v e l o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s n o t f e a s i b l e i n t h e f i e l d . Secondly, Wanli and l a t e Ming BW p i e c e s a r e v e r y h a r d t o d i s c r i m i n a t e from Qing Swatow and Qing BW p i e c e s i n t h e f i e l d . See Appendix B f o r d e t a i l s . ^« i . e . Kg Anak Moncong S u l t a n I s m a i l (GXX/BXIX/SXIX) who d i e d i n 1724 s h o r t l y a f t e r b e i n g removed s i m u l t a n e o u s l y from t h e Bone and Soppeng t h r o n e s ( L i g t v o e t , 1880:201-202). As he was b u r i e d a t Benteng Tua ( 6 . 5 . 1 ) , " M a t i n r o e " must here r e f e r t o where he d i e d .

My s i t e map ( F i g u r e 11-4) p o r t r a y s P a t t u n g as a dot because any t o p o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s which might have a l l o w e d me t o l o c a t e i t s area p r e c i s e l y on my pre-1977 maps appear t o have been b u r i e d s i n c e t h e Jeknekberang had changed i t s c o u r s e .

37

c i t e d i n t h e Makassar r e c o r d s as a 1 6 t h - 1 7 t h c e n t u r y k a r a e n g s h i p ( T a b l e 3 - 5 ) . ? * v ...

Lekokbodong kampung had been l o c a t e d on t h e s o u t h levee o f t h e lower Jeknekberang b e f o r e t h e s t r a i g h t e n e d s o u t h o u t l e t swept i t away i n 1977- The i n h a b i t a n t s saved t h e grave markers and removed them t o T a m a n j a l l i n g a c r o s s t h e Sungai Anak Gowa from K a n j i l o Lama. The r e s t o r e d cemetery i s c a l l e d Kompleks Makam I s l a m Karaeng Lekokbodong a f t e r i t s eponymic personage Sambalik Kg Lekokbodong. ̂ T h e g e n e a l o g i c a l r e c o r d s p r o v i d e a p r e c i s e match (LEK2 i n Tab l e 3-5) which a l l o w s t h e toponym t o be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y Lekokbodong (ex-Marusuk) descent group ( 4 . 8 . 2 ) . W i t h i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e former kampung i t s e l f , we c o u l d n o t g a t h e r any r e p o r t s o f l o o t i n g , a l t h o u g h such i n f o r m a t i o n might have been l o s t s i n c e t h e 1977 f l o o d .

The Dutch 1:50k map shows two kampungs c a l l e d Bayoa a l o n g t h e Sungai Banda (Anak Gowa) - Bayoa 1 near G a r a s s i k , and Bayoa 2 i n s i d e a meander one k i l o m e t r e upstream. The Banda has s t r a i g h t e n e d i t s channel h e r e , as shown by a i r photographs, p r o m p t i n g t h e abandonment o f "Bayoa 2". The former kampung area i n c l u d e s an e n c l a v e o f r a i s e d l a n d (Photo 11-16) where l o o t i n g has l e f t a s m a l l r e s i d u e o f "Ming" sherdage ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 1 ^ ) . As t h i s s m a l l p r e - I s l a m i c b u r i a l ground i s n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h any o l d I s l a m i c g r a v e s , t h e s i t e may have been abandoned i n t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y b e f o r e i t s subsequent r e s e t t l e m e n t from Bayoa 1.

11.4.2 K a c c i a Lama (OP 4)

The s i t e i s a s t r i p o f s l i g h t l y r a i s e d l a n d which i n c l u d e s two I s l a m i c g r a v e y a r d s , 80 metres a p a r t , a d j a c e n t t o l o o t e d areas ( F i g u r e 11-7). The s o u t h cemetery c o n t a i n s over 100 marked g r a v e s and t h e n o r t h cemetery more t h a n 50, o l d t o modern i n b o t h cases ( T a b l e F-8a).

The s o u t h g r a v e y a r d i n c o r p o r a t e s an a p p a r e n t l y e l i t e c l u s t e r o f o l d g r a v e s perched on a r a i s e d b r i c k p l a t f o r m

I was unaware o f t h i s s p e c i f i c a s s o c i a t i o n when I v i s i t e d t h e cemetery and d i d not r e c o r d h i s grave marker, nor indeed t h e cemetery i t s e l f a p a r t from n o t i n g i t s new ( i . e . r e s t o r e d ) appearance. ^' The s i n g l e , wooden marked grave a t t h e s i t e i s modern.

which may be o f s i m i l a r a n t i q u i t y . Two o f t h e markers en c l o s e e x q u i s i t e l y c a r v e d masonry nisan which resemble t h e 17th c e n t u r y r o y a l Gowa nisan i n form and d e l i c a c y o f s t y l e (Photos 11-14 and 11-15). B l u e - a n d - w h i t e c e r a m i c s were r e p o r t e d l y o b t a i n e d i n t h e v i c i n i t y , w h i l e 16th c e n t u r y o r i g i n s f o r t h e b u r i a l ground i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e Ming Swatow p i e c e we fo u n d .

The n o r t h g r a v e y a r d a b u t s t h e main l o o t e d a r e a . We were shown t h r e e a n t i q u e s : "Ming r e d " and Ming BW bowls (Photo 11-12), and a marble f i g u r e o f a l i o n w hich l o o k s Chinese (Photo 11-13). We observed two h o l e s spaced two metres a p a r t a l o n g an a x i s 15° from n o r t h , and were t o l d o f t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h a n o r t h - s o u t h d i r e c t e d s k e l e t o n b u r i e d w i t h gravegoods, even though t h e o t h e r s k e l e t o n s e n countered were r e p o r t e d l y a l i g n e d e a s t - w e s t . The datum s u g g e s t s an unusual s y n c r e t i s t b u r i a l , e i t h e r a p r e - I s l a m i c b u r i a l i n f l u e n c e d by I s l a m i c i d e a s o f o r i e n t a t i o n , ^ ^ o r an i n i t i a l I s l a m i c b u r i a l among t h e p r e - I s l a m i c a n c e s t o r s . The s m a l l b u t i n t e r e s t i n g assemblage o f t r a d e w a r e s p o i n t s t o a p o s s i b l e 1 4 t h c e n t u r y o r i g i n s and a c l i m a x i n t h e 15t h c e n t u r y ( F i g u r e 11-10; Appendix D).

Kaccia appears t o have been o r g a n i s e d i n t o two " f a m i l i e s " which have k e p t d i s t i n c t b u r i a l grounds f o r more t h a n f o u r c e n t u r i e s . The o r i g i n a l f a m i l y would be t h e one r e p r e s e n t e d a t t h e n o r t h . The younger f a m i l y a t t h e s o u t h a p p a r e n t l y a c h i e v e d p a r t i c u l a r prominence i n e a r l y I s l a m i c t i m e s , p o s s i b l y r e l a t e d t o K a c c i a ' s c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n i n i t s s i t e c l u s t e r ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 5 ) .

11.4.3 Bonto L a k j a (Gowa 62)

Suaka's l o c a l f i e l d o f f i c e r A z i z A l l a n g a l e r t e d SSPHAP t o t h e u n e a r t h i n g o f some empty tempayan (stoneware j a r s ) a t Bonto L a k j a . T h i s l e d us t o r e c o r d f o u r c o n t i g u o u s s i t e s a t an a l t i t u d e o f around t h r e e metres a s l . Three o f t h e s i t e s a r e s m a l l i s l a n d s i n a sea o f sawah, s u s c e p t i b l e t o b e i n g f l o o d e d t o a metre's d e p t h when t h e Jeknekberang b u r s t s i t s banks.

^2 Malays were p r e s e n t i n Makassar, n o t f a r from Kaccia, by th e mid-16th c e n t u r y .

375

w h i l e t h e f o u r t h s i t e has been c o n v e r t e d t o bunded f i e l d s ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 1 1 ) . — -

I n Bonto L a k j a S e l a t a n we were shown t h e h o l e where t h e tempayan (Photo 11-17) were r e p o r t e d l y found w i t h t h e i r mouths a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 cm underground. The tempayan (Photos 11-20 t o 11-23) compare v e r y w e l l w i t h pre-Ming j a r s made i n China between t h e 1 0 t h and 14th c e n t u r i e s ( c f . H a r r i s s o n , * 1986:45): f o u r s m a l l handles h o r i z o n t a l l y a p p l i e d a t t h e neck; o v o i d form w i t h s w e l l i n g s h o u l d e r s ; r o l l e d l i p s ; " B r i t t l e w a r e " o r "Guangdong" t y p e body; and s m a l l n e s s compared w i t h e i t h e r t h e c o e v a l " g u s i " j a r s o r l a t e r Ming Chinese j a r s ( T a b l e 1 1 - 7 ) . ^ ^ Tempayan i n t h e ground t e n d t o be a f e a t u r e o f B u g i s areas where t h e y were b u r i e d w i t h cremated remains u n t i l I s 1 a m i s a t i o n ( e . g . K a l l u p a e t a l . , 1989). I t e s t e d t h e s o i l a t s i x l o c a l i t i e s i n Bonto L a k j a t o see i f t h e r e was any r e l a t i o n s h i p between pH and t h e presence o f human b u r i a l s , b u t t h e r e s u l t s suggest none ( T a b l e 11-8). Other t r a d e w a r e s a t Bonto L a k j a S e l a t a n were 1 7 t h c e n t u r y and l a t e r ( F i g u r e 11-12), and none o f t h e 110 marked graves i n t h e cemetery l o o k s v e r y o l d ( T a b l e F-8a). Whether t h e j a r s had been s t a s h e d o r had c o n t a i n e d human b u r i a l s , t h e y precede t h e o t h e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l remains r e c o r d e d a t Bonto L a k j a S e l a t a n by s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s . =:

A s h o r t d i s t a n c e n o r t h , i n Bonto L a k j a Timur Daya, l i e 47 marked graves i d e n t i f i e d w i t h Bonto L a k j a ' s o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s by t h e " f a m i l y " which uses t h e g r a v e y a r d (Table F-8a). The o l d e s t g r a v e s , as i n d i c a t e d by i n s p e c t i o n and what we were t o l d , a r e c a l l e d Makam P e t t a Sakga. They c o n s i s t o f f i v e s i n g l e s t o n e s , a p p a r e n t l y m a r k i n g n o r t h - s o u t h b u r i a l s , spaced a l o n g a d i l a p i d a t e d p l a t f o r m o f r e d b r i c k s 4 metres east-west by 1.5 metres wide. We c o u n t e d 15 l o o t e r ' s h o l e s by t h e p l a t f o r m and 19 more t o t h e immediate west. R e p o r t e d l y , a n t i q u e s were f i r s t f o u n d when t h e s c h o o l ' s f o u n d a t i o n s were b e i n g e x c a v a t e d , and c o n s i s t e d o f l o t s o f b l u e - a n d - w h i t e supplemented by Ming w h i t e w a r e s , Sawankhalok and a few c e l a d o n s . C o n f i r m i n g t h e r e p o r t o f many b u l i - b u l i ( j a r l e t s )

The spouted j a r may be a " g u s i " form, but t h i s specimen and t h e o t h e r s were e i t h e r g l a z e d brown or b l a c k , whereas " g u s i " j a r s are g l a z e d g r e e n i s h ( c f . H a r r i s s o n , 1986:44).

a TABLE 11-7. OBSERVATIONS ON THE BONTO LAKJA TEMPAYAN

L i p Shoulder Basal H e i g h t T o t a l Glaze Unglazed Base Comparisons J a r d i a m e t e r c i r c u m - d i a m e t e r t o h e i g h t Colour Colour ( H a r r i s s o n , 1986)

f e r e n c e s h o u l d e r

G.62.0.1 11.5 cm 110 cm 12.5 cm 27 cm 36 cm 5YR 4/4 7.5YR 6/6 35 (Chinese, ( r e d d i s h ( r e d d i s h 11-12th c e n t u r i e s )

brown) y e l l o w )

G.62.0.2 12 cm 112 cm 13 cm 27 cm 36 cm 5YR3/3 ( d a r k 7.5YR 6/4 35 (Chinese. r e d d i s h brown) ( l i g h t brown) 11-12th c e n t u r i e s )

G.62.0.3 11.5 cm 112 cm 12 cm 24 cm 33 cm 5YR3/2 ( d a r k 2.5Y 7/2 35 (Chinese, r e d d i s h brown) ( l i g h t g r e y ) 11-12th c e n t u r i e s )

G.62.0.4 6 cm 53.5 cm 11.5 cm 12.5 cm 19.5 cm 10YR 3/3 10YR 7/3 ( v e r y 26 (Vietnamese, ( d a r k brown) p a l e brown) 10-11th c e n t u r i e s )

G.62.0.5 9.5 cm 52.5 cm 11 cm 11.5 cm 16 cm 10YR 2/1 10YR 7/4 ( v e r y ( b l a c k ) p a l e brown)

Other d i a g n o s t i c t r a i t s . Four h o r i z o n t a l h andles on a l l j a r s (supplemented w i t h a spout and a v e r t i c a l h a ndle f o r p o u r i n g on G.62.0.4). Glaze comes r i g h t t o t h e base w i t h a smooth f i n i s h on a l l j a r s ( a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s some s l i g h t d r i p p i n g on G.62.0.4). Smooth base w i t h a f i n e f a b r i c c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e i t h e r t h e " B r i t t l e w a r e " o r t h e "Guangdong" t y p e o f H a r r i s s o n ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

N.B. As a l l t h e j a r s a r e undecorated, s p e c i f i c comparisons w i t h examples f e a t u r e d i n H a r r i s s o n (1986) and elsewhere a r e s c a r c e because d e c o r a t e d j a r s a r e u s u a l l y p r e f e r r e d i n t h e books.

TABLE 11-8. RESULTS OF SOIL TESTS CARRIED OUT AT BONTO LAKJA

L o c a l i t y S o i l Type N u n s e l l Colour pH Reason f o r t e s t

S o i l Test 1, zone 4 where j a r s found

S o i l Test 2, zone 5 a t 5 cm d e p t h

S o i l Test 3, zone 5 a t 5 cm dep t h

S o i l Test 4, zone 8 (Kuburan Nenek Noyang)

S o i l Test 5, zone 9 a t 5 cm dep t h

S o i l Test 6, sawah bund n o r t h o f s c h o o l

G r i t t y s i l t w i t h some c l a y at 5 cm d e p t h

More g r i t t y s i l t w i t h l e s s c l a y t h a n S o i l Test 1

G r i t t y s i l t w i t h some c l a y and s m a l l g r a v e l s

Loose sandy s i l t a t 5 cm dep t h

S i l t s l i g h t l y l o o s e r and more sandy t h a n Test 4

Clayey s i l t a t 5 cm d e p t h

lOYR 3/3 6 (d a r k brown)

10YR 3/2 ( v e r y 6 V 2 d a r k g r e y i s h brown)

SYR 3/3 63/^ (d a r k r e d d i s h brown)

SYR 3/4 6 (d a r k r e d d i s h brown)

SYR 3/4 6 ( d a r k r e d d i s h brown)

SYR 3/4 6 (d a r k r e d d i s h brown)

P o s s i b l e human b u r i a l s

Comparison w i t h S o i l Test 1

Comparison w i t h S o i l Test 1

Known human b u r i a l s

Suspected human b u r i a l s

Unoccupied la n d w i t h o u t b u r i a l s

378

we were shown a "Ming r e d " example (Photo 11-23). S u r f a c e sherdage a l s o i n c l u d e d a 16th c e n t u r y p i e c e ( F i g u r e 11-12).

A s h o r t d i s t a n c e west l i e s Kuburan I s l a m Tuan S a i d whose 47 marked gr a v e s i n c l u d e a few o l d s t y l e s ( T a b l e F-8a). Tuan Said was r e p o r t e d t o be t h e nenek moyang o f Cikkoang people i n s o u t h T a k a l a r . H i s s h e l t e r e d grave shares a b r i c k p l a t f o r m , 13 metres e a s t - w e s t by f i v e metres wide, w i t h f o u r masonry marked gr a v e s (Photo 11-18). The o c c u r r e n c e o f two such p l a t f o r m s a t Bonto L a k j a and one a t K a c c i a p o i n t t o a l o c a l t r a d i t i o n . The 14 b r i c k s we measured, which showed l i t t l e s i z e v a r i a t i o n , have dimensions w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a l range observed a t t h e Makassar f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h no p a r t i c u l a r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n can be made ( F i g u r e 11-2).

Bonto L a k j a B a r a t c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e r i c e f i e l d s where some a n t i q u e s had r e p o r t e d l y been f o u n d (Photo 11-19). Zone 13 i n p a r t i c u l a r produced 206 t r a d e w a r e p i e c e s r a n g i n g between t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h and 1 9 t h - 2 0 t h c e n t u r i e s and 668 earthenware sherds (Appendix D ) . ^ ^ I t would appear t o mark a f o c u s o f h a b i t a t i o n u n t i l t h e 17th c e n t u r y ( F i g u r e 11-12), and p r o v i d e s a c h r o n o l o g i c a l l i n k between t h e p o s s i b l e pre-Ming j a r b u r i a l s , M i n g - p e r i o d p r e - I s l a m i c b u r i a l ground, and e a r l y I s l a m i c c e m e t e r i e s r e c o r d e d nearby.

A l l f o u r l o c a l i t i e s a t Bonto L a k j a might have o r i g i n a l l y belonged t o t h e same l a n d s u r f a c e , and t h e t o t a l t radewares i n d i c a t e a s t r o n g presence u n t i l t h e l a t e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y . Hence Bonto L a k j a , p o s s i b l y under a n o t h e r name, may have been one o f t h e l a r g e r v i l l a g e s a l o n g t h e lower G a r a s s i k u n t i l t h e 1669 r a i d s , o r changes i n r i v e r d i s c h a r g e p a t t e r n s , decreased t h e v i l l a g e ' s s u i t a b i l i t y . *

11.5 G a r a s s i k H e a r t l a n d (BGPM Group)

11.5.1 Benteng G a r a s s i k (Gowa 5)

The s i t e i s b e s t approached w i t h a s y n o p s i s o f my main i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . The 1977 f l o o d reduced G a r a s s i k kampung t o a v e s t i g e o f i t s f o r m e r s e l f , and what has s u r v i v e d o f h i s t o r i c a l G a r a s s i k must a l s o be a m i n u t e f r a c t i o n .

The zone 12 p i e c e s were a l s o from t h i s g e n e r a l area, brought t o us by c h i l d r e n .

379

Nonetheless t h e e x t a n t remains i n c l u d e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s which i d e n t i f y t h e s i t e w i t h Benteng G a r a s s i k c i t e d i n t h e Bungaya t r e a t y f o r d e s t r u c t i o n (Andaya, 1981:306). The n a t u r e o f t h e o t h e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d e b r i s f u r t h e r stamps t h e s i t e as h a v i n g been, i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , o l d G a r a s s i k ' s c o r e .

I n t h e e a r l y 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , and a p p a r e n t l y as l a t e as 1969, t h e s i t e c o n s t i t u t e d t h e southwest t a i l o f G a r a s s i k kampung which t h e n l a y a c r o s s t h e Sungai Banda from "Bayoa 1". The Jeknekberang's 1977 f l o o d speared G a r a s s i k kampung, washing i t away o r c o v e r i n g i t w i t h s i l t s , a p a r t from Benteng G a r a s s i k . The Banda now r u n s s o u t h o f Bayoa, and t h e modern stream between G a r a s s i k and Bayoa i s p a r t o f a network o f channels where t h e Banda meets t h e Jeknekberang d e l t a ( F i g u r e 11-4). The s i n u o u s c o n t o u r s o f t h e f i e l d s around t h e s i t e , and t h e a l t e r n a t i o n o f s i l t s and sands i n t h e f i e l d s and t h e w e l l s ( F i g u r e 11-14), r e f l e c t t h e s e f l u v i a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e landscape d u r i n g t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y .

The former w a l l l i n e a l o n g Bayao's f o o t p a t h i s d i r e c t e d a t Benteng G a r a s s i k ' s n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r ( F i g u r e 11-14), c o r r o b o r a t i n g f o l k memories t h a t a b r i c k w a l l had once connected Bayoa and G a r a s s i k . The i n s i t u b r i c k w a l l a t G a r a s s i k ' s n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r i n c l u d e s a l i n e on t h e s u r f a c e , an i n t e r s e c t i o n exi>osed by a h o l e (Photo 11-26), and a c r o s s - s e c t i o n i n t h e bank o f a sunken f i e l d a t t h e n o r t h ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 3 a ) . T h i s p a r t o f G a r a s s i k a l s o c o n t a i n s a masonry p o s t - s u p p o r t (Photo 11-27) - one o f f i v e r e p o r t e d l y found a t t h e s i t e - and by f a r t h e main c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f b r i c k r u b b l e . Most o f t h e o t h e r b r i c k r u b b l e o c c u r s t o t h e e a s t i n a p a t t e r n which s u g g e s t s c o l l u v i a l r e d e p o s i t i o n from t h e n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r . However, n o r t h o f Benteng G a r a s s i k r u b b l e was r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e f i e l d f l a n k i n g t h e sunken f i e l d w i t h t h e exposed c r o s s - s e c t i o n , so t h e w a l l had p r o b a b l y c o n f i n e d n o r t h - n o r t h - e a s t towards Somba Opu. Thus t h e snatches o f G a r a s s i k ' s i n s i t u b r i c k w a l l appear t o o u t l i n e a s q u a r i s h

Without t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e i t would have been t e m p t i n g t o i n t e r p r e t t h e l i n e o f f i e l d s r u n n i n g west a l o n g Benteng Garassik's n o r t h b o r d e r , b e f o r e t u r n i n g n o r t h w e s t , as a remnant of t h e d e f e n s i v e d i t c h e s e xcavated a l o n g Makassar's coast i n t h e 1660s ( c f . Andaya, 1981:51). The work mapping the f i e l d s and r e c o r d i n g d e p o s i t s i n t h e w e l l p r o f i l e s was d i r e c t e d p r i m a r i l y by Sonny Wibisono.

380

s t r u c t u r e , presumably a p a r a p e t , o u t s i d e a l i n e o f c o a s t a l w a l l ( F i g u r e 11-14).

The p a r a p e t marks t h e f o r t ' s l o c a t i o n b u t i s not t h e a c t u a l f o r t . As shown i n F i g u r e 11-15,^^ " e a r l y " p i e c e s (and f l a k e d s t o n e a r t e f a c t s ) were w i d e l y but s p a r s e l y d i s t r i b u t e d , even o c c u r r i n g i n t h e sunken f i e l d s w hich, o f c o u r s e , drop i n t o t h e s i t e ' s o l d e r d e p o s i t s . But t h e "Ming" and "Qing BW" p i e c e s - w h i c h would c o v e r any 17th c e n t u r y p i e c e s - were s p e c i f i c a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e r a i s e d area o f s i l t s s o u t h e a s t o f t h e b r i c k w o r k s . Many a n t i q u e s have r e p o r t e d l y been found w i t h i n t h i s r a i s e d area (none i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g f i e l d s ) which a l s o i n c l u d e s two o l d , v e n e r a t e d I s l a m i c graves ( T a b l e F-8b). As t h i s p a r t o f t h e s i t e appears t o have l o n g been a f o c u s o f h a b i t a t i o n w i t h some b u r i a l s , s e n t i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s would have d i c t a t e d i t s f o r t i f i c a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n , say, t h e area a b u t t i n g t h e p a r a p e t ' s n o r t h w e s t . P r o b a b l y a l s o t h e most s t a b l e s u r f a c e would have a t t r a c t e d f o r t i f i c a t i o n w h i l e , m u t a t i s m u t a n d i s , t h e works would have s u b s e q u e n t l y p r o t e c t e d t h e d e p o s i t s . But t h e r e a r e no c l e a r s i g n s o f b r i c k w o r k s c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h e s i t e ' s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l h e a r t . Hence G a r a s s i k F o r t would appear t o have been e s s e n t i a l l y earthen.^''

The s i t e ' s t r a d e w a r e p r o f i l e summarises t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e t r a d e w a r e s i n s i d e and o u t s i d e t h e apparent f o r t ( F i g u r e 11-21). The s i t e ' s h i g h c o u n t s o f coarse stoneware

^* The two s m a l l s u r v e y e d squares i n F i g u r e s 11-14 and 11-15 are remnants o f SSPHAP's i n i t i a l work a t G a r a s s i k b e f o r e I r e a l i s e d t h a t s u r v e y i n g by q u a d r a n t s r a t h e r t h a n land-use zones was j u s t a waste o f t i m e . We had a l s o surveyed some o t h e r s m a l l squares b u t t h e s e were s u b s e q u e n t l y r e p l a c e d by s u r v e y o f t h e land-use zones i n c l u d i n g t h e squares. Zone 6, i t s h o u l d be mentioned, was n o t e d and surveyed by two o f SSPHAP's crew members on s e p a r a t e o c c a s i o n s . A l l o f t h e "Ming" and Qing Swatow i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s were c o l l e c t e d on t h e f i r s t o c c a s i o n (G.5.6 i n Appendix D); t h e o t h e r p i e c e s were r e t u r n e d and so c o u l d have been among t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s on th e second o c c a s i o n (G.5.6B i n Appendix D); hence my a n a l y s i s adds t h e c o u n t s f o r t h e c l a s s e s c o l l e c t e d on t h e f i r s t o c c a s i o n but o t h e r w i s e uses whichever count i s h i g h e r . Note a l s o t h a t G.5.1 i s a g e n e r a l c o l l e c t i o n made on SSPHAP's f i r s t v i s i t , and provenanced no more t i g h t l y t h a n t o t h e r a i s e d p a r t o f t h e s i t e southwest o f t h e b r i c k w o r k s .

The argument a d m i t t e d l y appeals t h r o u g h c i r c u m s t a n t i a l evidence and d e f a u l t r a t h e r t h a n d i r e c t e v i d e n c e , but no o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e seems a t a l l a t t r a c t i v e u n t i l e x c a v a t i o n r e c o v e r s evidence t o t h e c o n t r a r y .

381

sherds (Appendix D) a l s o i n d i c a t e that at v a r i o u s times i t was e i t h e r a palace c e n t r e ( c f . 11.4.1) or a port. ^

The tradewares a l s o i n d i c a t e a c l e a r o r i g i n by at l e a s t the 14th century.^® The point c o n t e x t u a l i s e s the s i t e ' s name which almost c e r t a i n l y d e r i v e s from north Java (Reid, 1983a). G r e s i k was a leading s p i c e s port from the e a r l y 15th century, following what must have been a meteoric r i s e given Ma Huan's report, w r i t t e n i n 1433, that i t had been founded by Chinese l a t e i n the 14th century (Guy, 1986:32-33). The name must a l s o have been q u i c k l y g r a f t e d onto Makassar's shores given that G a r a s s i k e x i s t e d as a kingdom by the l a t e 15th century (Figure 4-6). The 15th century, indeed e a r l y 15th century surge i n G a r a s s i k ' s histogram probably corresponds t o when the settlement took G r e s i k ' s name. But t h i s would have occurred i n the context o f G r e s i k Javanese e x e r t i n g major i n f l u e n c e on an already w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d community.

The histogram's l a t e 15th century dip ( F i g u r e 11-19) might be r e l a t e d t o a d e c l i n e i n G a r a s s i k ' s fortunes d i r e c t l y preceding i t s absorption by Gowa a t c.1500. But i t might be more parsimonious t o i n t e r p r e t the r e s u l t as an a r t e f a c t o f a n a l y s i s , e.g. the d i f f i c u l t y i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g l a t e 15th century p i e c e s from 1 6 t h century p i e c e s . A b e t t e r p e r s p e c t i v e might be gained from evening out the tradeware p r o f i l e i n t o a g e n e r a l i s e d 15th century apogee. At the same time, the strong presence o f p i e c e s dated to the 1 6 t h century i s not t o t a l l y anomalous,even though the period witnessed G a r a s s i k ' s absorption (4.3) and the establishment o f Somba Opu a short d i s t a n c e t o the north (11.4.2). Benteng G a r a s s i k could well have remained a port o r a l o c a l population c e n t r e throughout the 16th century. A l l i n a l l , I i n t e r p r e t the s i t e as a h i s t o r i c a l palimpsest whose v a r i o u s r d l e s - small 15th century palace, 17th century f o r t r e s s , and more g e n e r a l l y a b u r i a l , h a b i t a t i o n and port area - are not r e a d i l y disentangled by s u r f a c e survey alone.

^* The observed tradewares include a range of r a r e l y recorded c l a s s e s which, not withbut some misgivings, I g e n e r a l l y assigned to 14th-15th century c l a s s e s (Appendix D; Photo 11-24) .

382

11.5.2 Bayoa 1 (Ujung Pandang 1)

D u r i n g t h e 1980s Bayoa's v i l l a g e r s r a i d e d a n e s t o f a n t i q u e s i n an area now c o n t a i n i n g two c o n c e n t r i c ejnpang ( f i s h ponds) t i d a l l y i n u n d a t e d v i a t h e Sungai Bontorea (Banda). I n s p e c t i n g t h e i n n e r empang we found f i v e f r a g m e n t s o f bronze l e a f (Photo 11-29) and, o r i e n t e d 130° from n o r t h , t h e v i s i b l e o u t l i n e o f a d u n i o r l o g c o f f i n (Photo 11-30). The banks o f t h e i n n e r empang appeared a r t i f i c i a l l y b u i l t up b u t t h e n o r t h e r n f a c e s o f t h e o u t e r empang r e t a i n e d t h e o r i g i n a l d e p o s i t s (Photo 11-28). A r t e f a c t u a l remains were e s s e n t i a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e banks o f t h e i n n e r empang and e a s t e r n o u t e r empang, so we t r e a t e d t h e v e r t i c a l f a c e s and d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d h o r i z o n t a l s u r f a c e s as e i g h t s u r v e y zones ( F i g u r e s 11-16). The r e s u l t i n g p a t t e r n s o f t r a d e w a r e d e n s i t i e s h i g h l i g h t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f "Ming" and "Qing BW" p i e c e s i n t h e empang compared t o t h e r e s t o f Bayoa ( F i g u r e 11-16). A f t e r s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n t h e t r a d e w a r e s d a t e m a i n l y between t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h and t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r i e s , w i t h an apparent 15th c e n t u r y peak ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 2 1 ) . ^ ' Other observed remains i n c l u d e d 73 b r i c k f r a g m e n t s ; seven T r i d a c n a s h e l l s presumably b r o u g h t i n as gravegoods o r f o r f u n e r a r y f e a s t s ; and n i n e f r a g m e n t s o f bone, none o f w h i c h l o o k e d c l e a r l y human (Photo 11-32) .

On 20 September 1986, c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h e r e t u r n o f Sonny Wibisono who had c o - d i r e c t e d t h e i n i t i a l s u r v e y , Suaka s a l v a g e d t h e d u n i (Photo 11-31). The e x c a v a t i o n r e v e a l e d a h o l l o w e d l o g w i t h two s l i t s i n t h e base, e n c l o s e d by a p a r t l y p r e s e r v e d o u t r i g g e r r e s t i n g on wooden end s u p p o r t s ( F i g u r e 11-17c). The l o g measured 4 metres l o n g , 90 cm wide and 30 cn deep, and t h e o u t r i g g e r was 5 metres l o n g by 1.2 metres. Some

A r a t i o n a l e f o r z o n i n g t h e empang was t o a n a l y s e t h e w i t h i n - d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e t r a d e w a r e s , but 40 t r a d e w a r e s spread over e i g h t zones comes t o a s m a l l sample i n each case, and t h e a l t e r n a t i o n o f h i g h and n u l l t r a d e w a r e d e n s i t i e s r e f l e c t s t h e zones' s m a l l a r e a s . Earthenwares, i n c l u d i n g fragments o f "cogwheel p o t s " ( c f . Photo 7-16) and f i n e l y i n c i s e d and stamped s h e r d s , were r e c o r d e d i n abundance (Appendix D). O b v i o u s l y t h e r a t i o o f earthenwares t o t r a d e w a r e s i s anomalously h i g h by g e n e r a l s t a n d a r d s , which presumably r e f l e c t s t h e g r e a t e r v i s i b i l i t y o f earthenware sherdage on c l e a n v e r t i c a l s u r f a c e s t h a n on v e g e t a t e d and s c u f f e d h o r i z o n t a l s u r f a c e s .

38

earthenware and b l u e - a n d - w h i t e sherds were found i n t h e e x c a v a t i o n . I i n s p e c t e d t h e b a u l k s whose p r o f i l e s can be p r o j e c t e d a g a i n s t zone 1's p r o f i l e , u s i n g t h e t o p l e v e l a l o n g zone 1 as my datum ( F i g u r e 11-17a). The comparison p l a c e s t h e duni a t t h e base o f t h e s i l t y c l a y s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e t h e bottom h a l f o f t h e empang's d e p o s i t s , i m m e d i a t e l y on t o p o f b l a c k , g r i t t y beach sands (whi c h I would i n t e r p r e t as t h e t a i l o f t h e Ujung Pandang c h e n i e r s ) . The d e p o s i t s a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e d u n i were y e l l o w i s h and s l i g h t l y a c i d i c , c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h t h e a l k a l i n e , brown t o b l a c k d e p o s i t s elsewhere.

We were i n f o r m e d t h a t many a n t i q u e s had been found w i t h t h e d u n i b u t no human remains were d e s c r i b e d . I t would seem t h a t d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f p o s s i b l y s e v e r a l c o r p s e s , and t o some degree t h e c o f f i n i t s e l f , had c r e a t e d a s l i g h t l y a c i d i c m i c r o - e n v i r o n m e n t i n which wood b u t no human bones were p r e s e r v e d , even though t h e d e p o s i t s a r e g e n e r a l l y a l k a l i n e . Two samples, Bayoa A and Bayoa B r e s p e c t i v e l y , were t a k e n from t h e o u t s i d e o f t h e l o g ' s n o r t h and eas t ends f o r r a d i o c a r b o n d a t i n g . Bayoa A d a t e d a t 101.7 + 2.2 *Modern (ANU-5926), which c o n v e r t s t o 50 (70) 250 BP i f we f o l l o w t h e 101.7 d a t e , w h i l e Bayoa B was d a t e d 270 + 120 BP (ANU-5927), i . e . a c o r r e c t e d d a t e o f 310 BP w i t h a s i n g l e S.D. range between 30 and 480 BP ( S t u i v e r and Pearson, 1986:810). I f we i g n o r e Bayoa A and f o c u s on t h e o l d e r p a r t o f Bayoa B's range t h e d u n i c o u l d be as o l d as t h e 1 5 t h - 1 6 t h c e n t u r i e s . But a 17th c e n t u r y d a t e c a t c h e s t h e o v e r l a p between t h e two r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s and must be p r e f e r r e d , even though g r e a t e r Gowa had embraced I s l a m by t h i s stage.^° Nor can we argue t h e specimen might m e r e l y be an abandoned canoe; i t s p e r f o r a t e d base ( t o d r a i n t h e decomposing body f l u i d s ) and east-west o r i e n t a t i o n a l s o c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e l o g c o f f i n s e xcavated a t

^° The s k e t c h i n e s s o f my r e c o r d s n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , b o t h samples c l e a r l y came from i n s i d e t h e t r e e - t r u n k which s u p p l i e d t h e l o g , and so would merely d a t e when t h e t r e e was a l i v e . I t c o u l d have been a f a s t - g r o w i n g t r e e f e l l e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o make t h e c o f f i n , so a d a t e i n t h e 17th c e n t u r y can s t i l l s t a n d as t h e best e s t i m a t e . On t h e o t h e r hand, a d a t e as l a t e as t h e 18th c e n t u r y would be a l l o w e d by th e tradewares found i n t h e empang.

384

Agop A t a s , Sabah ( B e l l w o o d , 1988b:103) and Palambeang, Pangkep ( T j a n d r a s a s m i t a , 1970:23-24).^^

N o r t h o f t h e empang a p a s t u r e f u l l o f l o o t e r ' s h o l e s reaches Bayoa's cemetery which i s i t s e l f f l a n k e d by f u r t h e r l o o t e d areas ( F i g u r e 11-16). The cemetery's 94 marked graves i n c l u d e t h r e e e a s t - w e s t examples overgrown by t r e e - r o o t s (Photo 11-33; T a b l e F-8b). A s l i g h t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f " e a r l y " and "Ming" t r a d e w a r e p i e c e s o c c u r s i n t h e v i c i n i t y ( F i g u r e 11-18). Hence i t seems t h a t from t h e e a s t p a r t o f t h e empang t o t h e f o o t p a t h a l o n g t h e cemetery, t h e area had been used f o r b u r i a l s , i n c l u d i n g a s u b s t a n t i a l s y n c r e t i s t I s l a m i c phase which might have l a s t e d t i l l t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y .

A n t i q u e s had a l s o r e p o r t e d l y been found t h r o u g h o u t t h e kampung, i n c l u d i n g t h r e e s t i l l u n s o l d 1 6 t h - 1 7 t h c e n t u r y p i e c e s (Photos 11-35 and 11-36). The r e p o r t matches t h e wide d i s p e r s a l o f "Ming" sherdage ( F i g u r e 11-18). However, i t i s h a r d t o say whether o c c u p a t i o n d e b r i s o r goods a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i s o l a t e d g r a v e s a r e i n v o l v e d . ; . ̂

Bayoa's f o o t p a t h r u n s between t h e streams which f l a n k t h e kampung. B r i c k r u b b l e o c c u r s r i g h t a l o n g t h e f o o t p a t h which t h u s marks t h e f o r m e r w a l l t h r o u g h t h e s i t e (Photo 11-37). The area s o u t h o f t h e f o o t p a t h has c l e a r l y been t h e focus o f Bayoa's o c c u p a t i o n , a t l e a s t between t h e 15th and 1 9 t h c e n t u r i e s ( F i g u r e 11-21). The e a r l y 2 0 t h c e n t u r y maps show t h a t t h e f o o t p a t h marks t h e f o r m e r b o r d e r between kampung and backswamp a t t h e n o r t h . However, t h e kampung used t o e x t e n d f u r t h e r s o u t h , p a s t t h e empang t o t h e p o i n t on t h e Bontorea l a b e l l e d zone 34. Here I n o t i c e d some o b j e c t s e r o d i n g out o f t h e bank i n t o t h e s t r e a m (Photo 11-34), and some c h i l d r e n f i s h i n g f o r m o l l u s c s r e t r i e v e d f u r t h e r o b j e c t s i n t h e water. The c o m b i n a t i o n o f a r t e f a c t s and a r e m a r k a b l e range o f n a t u r a l s t o n e ( T a b l e 11-9; Photos 11-38 and 11-39) p o i n t s t o an a r t i f i c i a l d e p o s i t , p a r t i c u l a r l y as pebbles were n o t observed a t comparable d e p t h s i n t h e empang. Something o t h e r t h a n an 1 8 t h t o 2 0 t h c e n t u r y r u b b i s h dump i s i n v o l v e d because

'̂' The Agap Atas l o g c o f f i n a l s o had a j a r underneath t h e h o l e t o c a t c h t h e body f l u i d s ( B e l l w o o d , 1988b:252-253); f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f i t s d a t i n g , see 13.2.3. The Palambeang c o f f i n was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h decomposed human bones and 1 5 t h - 1 6 t h c e n t u r y t r a d e w a r e s . . „

385

TABLE 11-9. OBJECTS FISHED OUT OF THE BONTOREA AT ZONE 34 ^

Type o f Ob j e c t Number " Weight

Late Ming BW p l a t e f o o t r i n g s h e r d 1 63 gm Sawankhalok brownware tempayan base 1 (2 sherds) 323 gm Earthenware sherds ( j a r s and bowls) 9 735 gm Fragments o f o l d r e d b r i c k 18 ? V o l c a n i c s t o n e w i t h rough i n c i s e d l i n e 1 230 gm Flaked q u a r t z i t e p ebble 1 136 gm Flak e o f b a s a l t 1 6 gm Large r l a t e r i t i c p ebbles 21 ? Smaller l a t e r i t i c p e b b l e s 3 350 gm Slabs o f s l a t e 2 s m a l l e r i s 220 gm Limestone pebbles 2 686 gm Other s e d i m e n t a r y pebbles 2 174 gm Quartz pebbles 9 ? Other pebbles ( l a r g e ) 15 ? Other pebbles ( s m a l l ) , = 72 ?

N.B. The f l a k e d q u a r t z i t e p ebble and b a s a l t f l a k e a r e o n l y p r o b a b l y p r o d u c t s o f i n t e n t i o n a l f l a k i n g and even t h e n need not be p r e h i s t o r i c . Only c o l l e c t e d o b j e c t s were weighed. The l a t e Ming BW p i e c e i s i n c l u d e d i n Bayoa's t o t a l t r a d e w a r e s p r o f i l e b u t n o t i n t h e empang o r " s o u t h o f f o o t p a t h " p r o f i l e s ( F i g u r e 11-21).

t h e d a t a b l e a r t e f a c t s f a l l i n t h e 1 6 t h - 1 7 t h c e n t u r i e s . One p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e range o f non-ceramic o b j e c t s would be t h e i r i n c l u s i o n as s u p p o r t m a t e r i a l s i n t h e base o f an e a r t h e n w a l l . Hence I t e n t a t i v e l y i n f e r t h a t an e a r t h f o r t had been b u i l t a t Bayoa, p o s s i b l y c o n f i n e d t o t h e t r i a n g u l a r area between zones 20, 34 and 25. Such a f o r t would resemble Benteng G a r a s s i k i n h a v i n g been b u i l t b e h i n d t h e c o a s t a l w a l l a t a major f o c u s o f c o a s t a l o c c u p a t i o n . ^ ^

Bayoa 1 can be c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d as a main s e t t l e m e n t o f Gowa's Bajau (Bayo) p o p u l a t i o n whose m a r i t i m e s e r v i c e s t o Gowa a r e r e p o r t e d by Speelman ( R e i d , 1983a:126). The s i t e ' s t o t a l t r a d e w a r e s p r o f i l e s u g gests o c c u p a t i o n by t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s p r e c e d i n g t h e main phase whi c h spanned t h e 15 t h and 16th c e n t u r i e s ( F i g u r e 11-21). Even b e t t e r t h a n Benteng G a r a s s i k ' s t r a d e w a r e p r o f i l e , Bayoa's c o r r e l a t e s w i t h what we can deduce o f G a r a s s i k ' s h i s t o r y , i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e Bajau p l a y e d a major r d l e i n G a r a s s i k ' s r i s e ( c f . R e i d , 1983a: 128-129). The Bajau's c o n t i n u e d importance t i l l t h e

-"•̂ There i s no c l e a r r e c o r d o f a Bayoa f o r t , b ut t h e 1650 European s k e t c h o f Makassar does m i s l a b e l Benteng Barombong as "Bayoa F o r t " . , , , ,

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l a t e 1 7th c e n t u r y i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e t r a d e w a r e p r o f i l e and t h e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e s i t e had been f o r t i f i e d .

11.5.3 Paknakkukang-Pattukangang (OP2) r =

The dominant l a n d f o r m a t t h i s s i t e ( F i g u r e 11-19), a c u r v e d body o f b r o w n i s h g r e y sands, appears t o be a c h e n i e r d e p o s i t e d by a p r o t o h i s t o r i c a l a n c e s t o r o f t h e G a r a s s i k ( 1 1 . 1 ) . The c h e n i e r ' s n o r t h boundary used t o be t h e Banda mouth; as shown by t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y land-use maps, Paknakkukang's main s e t t l e m e n t (UP.2.1) o c c u p i e d an i s l a n d i n t h e mouth. I n 1977 t h e Jeknekberang f o r g e d a new s o u t h o u t l e t i m m e d i a t e l y n o r t h o f Paknakkukang. The s t o n e r o a d a l o n g t h e west base o f t h e c h e n i e r marks t h e pre-1977 s h o r e l i n e , b u t s i n c e 1977 a sandy s t r i p s e v e r a l hundred metres wide has been d e p o s i t e d f u r t h e r westward. Nonetheless t h e s m a l l channel which r u n s t h r o u g h Paknakkukang, and t h e backswamp c o n v e r t e d t o f i s h ponds b e h i n d t h e c h e n i e r , do n o t appear t o have changed much, even i f t h e y used t o a r t i c u l a t e w i t h t h e Banda and not w i t h t h e Jeknekberang. The backswamp may even have e x i s t e d by 1660 i f t h e 1660 s k e t c h (Boxer, 1967:Plate I I I ) can be b e l i e v e d .

The most o b v i o u s remnant f o r t i f i c a t i o n , a mounded l i n e o f b r i c k w a l l w h i c h a c t u a l l y c r o s s e s Paknakkukang's s m a l l channel (Photo 11-41; F i g u r e 11-3b), has p r e v i o u s l y been i n t e r p r e t e d as a w a l l o f Benteng Paknakkukang (Nurhadi e t a l . , 1983:10-11; K a l l u p a , 1985:151-152). But t h e r e a r e no t r a c e s o f c o n n e c t i n g b r i c k w a l l , r a t h e r t h e w a l l p e t e r s o u t a t one o f t h e sandy mounds i n t h e bamboo gro v e which screens t h e w a l l f r o m t h e r o a d . However, t h e r e i s a low heaped l i n e w h ich c o n n e c t s t h e mounds, and i t shows t h a t Paknakkukang was an e a r t h e n f o r t w i t h f i v e mounded b a s t i o n f e a t u r e s ( F i g u r e 11-19; Photo 11-42).^^ T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e f r e e s t h e b r i c k w a l l f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as p a r t o f t h e c o a s t a l w a l l between Paknakkukang and Ujung Tana.

- * • • - . -

D e t e c t i o n o f t h e f o r t r e s s w a l l i s d i f f i c u l t because t h e bamboos obscure a h o l i s t i c view o f t h e s i t e ' s r e l i e f and because p r i o r e x p e c t a t i o n s i n v o l v e d a b r i c k f o r t r a t h e r t h a n an e a r t h e n one. I t t o o k me p e r s o n a l l y f o u r v i s i t s and a l o t o f p u z z l i n g b e f o r e I c o u l d make t h e mental s w i t c h .

A f t e r s u r v e y i n g t h e w a l l l i n e , I met Paknakkukang's tokoh raasyarakat ( s o c i a l exemplar) who e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h r e e o f t h e mounds had been pakbenderang ( f l a g s t a n d s ) , i n c l u d i n g t h e Maccinik Sombala ( P l a c e t o Watch f o r S a i l s ) a t t h e n o r t h w e s t where t h e saukang now s t a n d s . I a l s o observed some s t r a y l o o t e r ' s h o l e s which showed t h a t b r i c k r u b b l e and c o r a l b l o c k s had o c c a s i o n a l l y been i n c l u d e d t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e packed sandy m a t r i x o f t h e w a l l s and b a s t i o n s (Photo 11-43). * The f o r t d i s p l a y s s u r p r i s i n g l y i n s u b s t a n t i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n i n view o f i t s s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n a t t h e G a r a s s i k mouth ( F i g u r e 11-1) a l t h o u g h , t o be s u r e , t h e Dutch o c c u p i e d Paknakkukang i n 1660 w i t h ease (Andaya, 1981:49). F u r t h e r , t h e c o a s t a l w a l l b e h i n d Paknakkxikang might have h i n d e r e d g r e a t e r Gowa's defence o f t h e f o r t j u s t as i t a p p a r e n t l y h e l p e d c u r t a i l any Dutch movement i n l a n d .

The most e l e v a t e d p a r t o f t h e e x t a n t f o r t r e s s o c c u r s a t t h e s o u t h . Here t h e w a l l l i n e c u r v e s beneath and around t h e I s l a m i c cemetery which s e r v e s Paknakkukang and Pattukangang. There a r e two tombs r e p o r t e d l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e a r l y 1 7th c e n t u r y f o u n d e r s o f Paknakkukang's l i n e o f to k o h masyarakat.

These a r e t h e "man from London" (Photo 11-40), who can be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a renegade Englishman who c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m b e f o r e d y i n g i n 1637,^"* and h i s w i f e . A s i m i l a r s h e l t e r e d grave on t h e southwest b a s t i o n was a s c r i b e d t o a former Paknakkukang "owner" o f unremembered name ( T a b l e F-8b).^'

We counted 63 l o o t e r ' s h o l e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e cemetery and heard t h a t l o t s o f b l u e - a n d - w h i t e , merah and brownwares had been r e c o v e r e d . Wares s t i l l u n s o l d from t h e l o o t i n g comprised t h r e e Ming w h i t e w a r e s , two Ming BW bowls, t h r e e Ming Swatow, one Wanli BW, one T r a n s i t i o n a l BW and t h r e e Swatow p i e c e s (Photos 11-45 and 11-46). These d a t e between t h e 1 5 t h and

34 The p r e s e n t tokoh masyarakat, who i d e n t i f i e d h i m s e l f as t e n t h i n t h e l i n e , gave q u i t e a d e t a i l e d account. The "man from London" c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m and t h e n m a r r i e d i n t o t h e Paknakkukang community. H i s son Abdul S a i d was tokoh masyarakat when t h e Dutch o c c u p i e d t h e s i t e . These d e t a i l s match t h e European r e c o r d s o f an E n g l i s h c o n s t a b l e who j o i n e d up w i t h Gowa as t h e c h i e f a d v i s e r on f i r e a r m s . He c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m b e f o r e d y i n g i n 1637 (de Crucq, 1941:95). ^= T h i s "owner" might be i d e n t i f i a b l e w i t h Kg Paknakkukang (PKK1), a Sanrabone p r i n c e s s who m a r r i e d T a l l o k ' s S u l t a n Mudhaffar i n t h e e a r l y 17th c e n t u r y ( F i g u r e 4-10).

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17th c e n t u r i e s , and hence l i n k c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y with the I s l a m i c cemetery's 17th century to modern graves. As the f o r t ' s south w a l l s n e a t l y enclose the b u r i a l area, i t would appear to have served as an a x i a l point when Abdullah planned the f o r t ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n .

The c h e n i e r d i r e c t l y south of Paknakkukang, shown as Pattukangang kampung on the Dutch land-use maps, c o n t a i n s what I c a l l the Pattukangang w a l l . I t s t r a c e s begin 50 metres south of Benteng Pattukangang and follow a southward course before c r o s s i n g the stone road (Photo 11-40) and j o i n i n g the Barombong c o a s t a l w a l l ( F i g u r e 11-2). As the Pattukangang w a l l does not connect with Paknakkukang's f o r t i f i c a t i o n s ( F i g u r e 11-17), and appears to have been b u i l t of anomalously t h i c k b r i c k s ( E . 2 . 3 ) , i t was probably a d i s t i n c t c o n s t r u c t i o n event. My reading of the r e c o r d s dates i t to the 1660s, 30 y e a r s a f t e r Paknakkukang's works ( 1 1 . 1 ) .

"Ming" p i e c e s were widely i f t h i n l y d i s p e r s e d along the che n i e r ( F i g u r e 11-20). The comparatively strong d e n s i t y of "Ming" p i e c e s i n s i d e Benteng Paknakkukang r e f l e c t s some examples found i n l o o t e r ' s h o l e s ; elsewhere bamboo leaves comprehensively l i t t e r e d the ground. But there i s no c l e a r evidence that the f o r t i f i c a t i o n s ever protected a l o c a l s ettlement, even i f Benteng Paknakkukang protected the b u r i a l ground. Paknakkukang's occupation by over 500 Dutch s o l d i e r s for s e v e r a l months i n 1660 (Andaya, 1981:49-56), might be a s s o c i a t e d with the s t r o n g d e n s i t y of "Qing BW" p i e c e s i n zone 2 at the f o r t ' s northeast w a l l . ^ * The marked absence of " r e c e n t " p i e c e s i n the c e n t r e of the s i t e could correspond to i t s former use as a f i r i n g range by the Dutch, as reported by the tokoh masyarakat.^"'

The tradeware p r o f i l e s suggest that Pattukangang had been occupied by the 15th century ( F i g u r e 11-21). While

^® i . e . the s o l d i e r s had spent more time around Benteng Paknakkukang than a c t u a l l y i n s i d e i t . 500 people i n the f o r t r e s s would be a r e a l squeeze. From Andaya's account i t i s not q u i t e c l e a r how many months of Dutch occupation were involved.

The report i s confirmed by Sonny Wibisono's recovery of a corroded b u l l e t near zone 13. I should a l s o acknowledge Wibisono's involvement i n the s i t e ' s i n i t i a l survey, e s p e c i a l l y that he f i r s t n o t i c e d the point where the Pattukangang b r i c k w a l l s t a r t e d .

Paknakkukang's sherdage does n o t d a t e b e f o r e t h e 16th c e n t u r y , t h i s p a r t o f t h e s i t e i n c l u d e s t h e p r e - I s l a m i c b u r i a l ground where wares as o l d as t h e 15 t h c e n t u r y have been fo u n d . Pattukangang (PTK) r e c u r s as a k a r a e n g s h i p t h r o u g h t h e 15th and 17 t h c e n t u r i e s , i n c l u d i n g an i n i t i a l a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h G a r a s s i k ( e . g . F i g u r e 4 - 6 ) . The r a r i t y o f the toponym removes t h e l a s t c o n c e i v a b l e o b s t a c l e t o i d e n t i f y i n g t h e s i t e w i t h h i s t o r i c a l Pattukangang. As t h e e a r l i e s t o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e toponym Paknakkukang d a t e s t o t h e • e a r l y 17th c e n t u r y , i t seems l i k e l y t h a t Paknakkukang e i t h e r budded o f f o r was g r a f t e d o n t o Pattukangang a t t h i s j u n c t u r e , p o s s i b l y i n response t o t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f new h a b i t a b l e l a n d * at t h e G a r a s s i k ' s s o u t h o u t l e t .

11.5.4 Mamampang (Ujung Pandang 5) and o v e r v i e w

Mamampang appears on t h e Dutch land-use maps, b u t not on t h e , I n d o n e s i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s , as a t i n y kampung on t h e s o u t h b o r d e r o f t h e e x t e n s i v e backswamp between Pattukangang and Kacc i a . We surv e y e d i t as a p o s s i b l e match t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l toponym Mamampang; n o t because o f r e p o r t e d l o o t i n g o r o l d I s l a m i c graves which were as absent as h o u s i n g a t t h i s abandoned kampung. The t h i n s c a t t e r o f s u r f a c e sherdage i n c l u d e d a few " c o l o n i a l " p i e c e s and, a t one p a r t i c u l a r l o c a l i t y (Photo 11-47), a few "Ming" p i e c e s ( F i g u r e 11-22). Given t h e t h o r o u g h geomorphic r e w o r k i n g o f t h i s g e n e r a l area, t h e "Ming" p i e c e s would c o n s t i t u t e an adequate b a s i s t o i d e n t i f y t h e s i t e w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l toponym, except f o r t h e d i r e c t e v i d e n c e l i n k i n g h i s t o r i c a l Mamampang w i t h Makan Manyampang ( 8 . 5 . 1 ) . . ,

Mamampang f i n i s h e s o ur d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e BGPM s i t e s . T h e i r combined c h r o n o l o g i c a l histograun shows a presence o f p i e c e s , a f t e r s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n , as pronounced i n t h e 15th c e n t u r y as a t any l a t e r j u n c t u r e ( F i g u r e 11-21). I i n t e r p r e t t h i s as t h e p e r i o d when t h e a n c e s t r a l G a r a s s i k r i v e r had d e p o s i t e d t h e Paknakkukang-Pattukangang c h e n i e r and was debouching, v i a a n o r t h e a s t c u r v i n g o u t l e t , a t Bayoa and Ga r a s s i k . A quantum l e a p i n t r a d e between t h e communities a l o n g t h e Ga r a s s i k d e l t a and Java a p p a r e n t l y a l s o o c c u r r e d a t t h i s s t a g e , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e s m a l l

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p o r t - p o l i t y o f G a r a s s i k . The area e n c l o s e d by t h e BGPM s i t e s ( F i g u r e 11-5a) p o s s i b l y a p p r o x i m a t e s o l d G a r a s s i k ' s p o l i t i c a l h e a r t . The new o u t l e t s l i g h t l y t o t h e n o r t h , which t h e G a r a s s i k r i v e r a p p a r e n t l y f o r g e d by t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y , c o u l d be r e l a t e d t o Somba Opu's subsequent ascendancy.

11.6 The GMTB Group

Gotong (OPS) i s a s m a l l r a i s e d area o f s i l t y f i e l d s (Photo 11-48) w i t h 103 l o o t e r ' s h o l e s . The main a n t i q u e s r e p o r t e d were b l u e - a n d - w h i t e c e r a m i c s , a l o n g w i t h some Sawankhalok and cel a d o n s . The s m a l l sample o f "Ming" p i e c e s found on s i t e p o s s i b l y s u g g e s t s a m a i n l y 1 5 t h c e n t u r y b u r i a l ground ( F i g u r e 11-23). The i n d i c a t i o n s o f a d e c l i n e i n t o t h e 16th c e n t u r y a r e s u p p o r t e d by t h e absence o f I s l a m i c marked gr a v e s . The more r e c e n t t r a d e w a r e s suggest s p o r a d i c o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e s i t e a f t e r t h e l a t e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y .

S h o r t l y a f t e r I s 1 a m i s a t i o n t h e Gotong people might have moved t h e i r b u r i a l ground t o Timbuseng. My n o t e s d e s c r i b e Makam Timbuseng as an o l d t o modern g r a v e y a r d which had never been l o o t e d .

S t r o n g e r e v i d e n c e o f 1 7 t h c e n t u r y I s l a m i c b u r i a l s o c c u r r e d some 80 metres t o t h e s o u t h where we r e c o r d e d two s h e l t e r e d g raves w i t h f i n e l y c a r v e d wooden n i s a n on a p l a t f o r m o f o l d - l o o k i n g b r i c k s (Photo 11-49; Ta b l e F-8b). We were t o l d t h a t t h e s e were t h e o l d e s t g r a v e s i n Timbuseng, p l u s t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . The two gr a v e s were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Karaeng Papok, a m u b a i i g ( I s l a m i c p r e a c h e r ) from Pangkep, and h i s companion. They d i d n o t s t a n d i n an a n c e s t r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e Timbuseng v i l l a g e r s . However, people from t h e Pangkep i s l a n d s o f t e n came t o pay homage.

200 metres f u r t h e r s o u t h we r e c o r d e d a Swatow p i e c e i n a ladang ("Timbuseng" i n F i g u r e 11-4a; 0.9.1 i n Appendix D). The o t h e r t r a d e w a r e s h e r e and a t Makam Kg Papok (0.9.2) were a l l Qing t o r e c e n t ( F i g u r e 11-23).

B i l a y a Lama (Gowa 11) i s a s m a l l r a i s e d area w i t h around 50 t o 100 marked I s l a m i c g r a v e s which appear v e r y o l d t o modern ( T a b l e F-8b). The s i t e ' s s h e l t e r e d g r a v e (Photo 11-50) i s a s c r i b e d t o a Gowa karaeng whose name was n o t r e c a l l e d . 11 h o l e s s t i l l d o t t e d t h e cemetery from t h e l o o t i n g which had

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reportedly occurred 20 y e a r s beforehand. The antiques, mostly blue-and-white but a l s o some celadons, merah, brownwares and Sawankhalok, were r e p o r t e d l y found four to f i v e metres below ground. T h i s b u r i a l ground appears to have been i n continuous use from at l e a s t the 16th century t i l l the present, even though the only tradeware sherdage at the s i t e was Qing to ^ recent { F i g u r e 11-23).

The tradewares p r o f i l e of the GMTB s i t e s combined suggests occupation of the area by at l e a s t the 15th century. The apparent e a r l y 17th century n a d i r { F i g u r e 11-23) could be the r e s u l t of inadequate sampling. The s i t e s are so unimpressive that they would seem to mark the s o c i a l as w e l l as the s p a t i a l periphery of p r e c o l o n i a l Makassar.

11.7 The Aeng C l u s t e r

11.7.1 Barombong {Ujung Pandang 3)

Af t e r jagging a c r o s s the stone road at Pattukangang { F i g u r e 11-19), the extant w a l l l i n e meets a r i d g e of l i g h t brownish grey sands running along the west s i d e of the road to Barombong. A continuous l i n e of b r i c k rubble, studded with o c c a s i o n a l exposures of in s i t u b r i c k s , can be t r a c e d along the sand ridge for 800 metres { F i g u r e 11-1). I n August 1986 SSPHAP's team made a rough s k e t c h of the north 400 metres of the Barombong w a l l . We s t a r t e d with the s e c t i o n which t r a v e r s e s Pattukangang Baru, noted that 150 metres could not be d i r e c t l y surveyed because the Barombong naval t r a i n i n g c o l l e g e has been b u i l t over the w a l l l i n e , and observed only Qing to recent sherdage and modern I s l a m i c graves. We had a l s o sketched the remaining 400 metres, but i n t h i s case I l a t e r decided on a p l a n e - t a b l e survey and f u l l e r documentation of the q u i t e i n t e r e s t i n g a s s o c i a t e d remains. The resurvey was c a r r i e d out i n June 1987 ( F i g u r e 11-24).

At the north i s the I s l a m i c grave of "Tuan Biraeng" which looked to be of 18th century v i n t a g e . The bole of a banyan t r e e has grown r i g h t over i t and i s s t a r t i n g to envelope the corrugated i r o n s h e l t e r p r o t e c t i n g the grave. A l a t e Ming BW piece was found with other, l a t e r tradewares { F i g u r e 11-26). Further south i s Kuburan Islam Tangaya, a modern cemtery

b u i l t on the w a l l l i n e (Table F-8b), where the e a r l i e s t recorded tradewares were Swatow (F i g u r e 11-26). Also, a small looted area a c r o s s the road had r e p o r t e d l y produced approximately 40 blue-and-white, Sawankhalok and celadon p i e c e s , p l u s a ceramic b i r d f i g u r i n e . The sandy drop between the wall l i n e and the beach s t e a d i l y widens to t h i s point, and s h o r t l y southwards the longshore d e p o s i t s break away from the mainland to c r e a t e a seawater i n l e t (Photo 11-2). The i n l e t reaches as f a r north as Saukang Patanna Parasangang which abuts the s h e l t e r e d grave of Tuan Caddi. Tuan Caddi r e p o r t e d l y h a i l e d from Cikkoang i n south T a k a l a r , and thus p a i r s with Bonto L a k j a ' s Tuan S a i d (11.4.3). Even though no l o o t i n g had occurred, the wealth of s u r f a c e tradewares included two 13th-14th century p i e c e s , and 16th century and l a t e r p i e c e s otherwise ( F i g u r e 11-26). *

F u r t h e r south the w a l l l i n e c r o s s e s the road and f i n i s h e s i n s e v e r a l s c a t t e r s which seem to o u t l i n e a small polygon. Unless the shape merely r e f l e c t s chance d i s p e r s a l caused by housing developments, i t suggests a b a s t i o n . Barombong Fort had presumably e x i s t e d here at the end of the w a l l l i n e , and the absence of any f u r t h e r b r i c k rubble suggests that i t had been an earthen f o r t r e s s .

Immediately west of the p o s s i b l e b a s t i o n , a duni and some ceramics were r e p o r t e d l y looted at the i n l e t a f t e r being o r i g i n a l l y exposed by e r o s i o n (Photo 11-53). We found only Qing and l a t e r p i e c e s here,^® but p i e c e s as e a r l y as the 16th century were found around Kuburan Islam Barombong to the immediate south ( F i g u r e 11-26). The circumstances of the cemetery suggest i t should date back to the 17th century, and such a v i n t a g e could be suggested f o r Makam Salekowa which a l s o s e r v e s as a saukang (Table F-8b).

I n t o t a l i t y the Barombong p i e c e s suggest occupation of t h i s o l d longshore r i d g e by the 13th-14th c e n t u r i e s , but only s p o r a d i c a l l y u n t i l the l a t e 16th century ( F i g u r e 11-26).^' The small s i z e of the two looted a r e a s , and the reported

^® The tradeware p i e c e s from zone 3 (the looted area) and zone 4 (the p o s s i b l e b a s t i o n ) were c o l l e c t e d s e p a r a t e l y i n the f i e l d , but I mixed them up while washing them and hence they are both placed under "zone 4" i n Appendix D.

Note that the t o t a l Barombong p i e c e s include the Qing to recent p i e c e s recorded at Pattukangang Baru (U.3.8).

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f i n d s , agree w i t h such a s c e n a r i o . T h i s p r e v i o u s l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t area a c h i e v e d s t r a t e g i c s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e e a r l y 1 7 t h c e n t u r y when i t f e l l under t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f A b d u l l a h ' s s t e p b r o t h e r . Kg Mamampang G a r a s s i k Barombong x ( F i g u r e 4 - 6 ) , and when i t s f i r s t f o r t i f i c a t i o n s were b u i l t . ;

11.7.2 Bontoa (UP26) and Ujung K a s s i k (UP6)

Makam Kuno Bontoa c o v e r s around 30 metres by 20 metres and has graves which my n o t e s r e c o r d as o f 1 7 t h / 1 8 t h t o 2 0 t h c e n t u r y v i n t a g e (Photo 11-54; Ta b l e F-Bc). There a r e a few s u s p i c i o u s h o l e s i n t h e s c r u b , c o n f i r m i n g a r e p o r t t h a t some a n t i q u e s were found h e r e (S. R a s y i d A., p e r s . comm.), even though l o c a l s d e n i e d any l o o t i n g . Bontoa i s l o c a l l y renowned as t h e s i t e where t h e Bungaya T r e a t y was s i g n e d i n 1667 ( K a l l u p a , 1985:154-156; Sagimun, 1985:234). Hence Bontoa was a 'small v i l l a g e near Barombong c a l l e d Bungaya' (Andaya, 1981:98) i n 1667 and so would appear t o have s e a t e d t h e mid-17th c e n t u r y Bungaya k a r a e n g s h i p ( F i g u r e 4-17).

Ujung K a s s i k i s a s m a l l kampung a l o n g t h e Aeng i n l e t s o u t h of where i t meets t h e sea a t Kuburan I s l a m Barombong. An o l d I s l a m i c marked grave s i t s on a mound grown over by a s u c c u l e n t (Photo 11-55). R e p o r t e d l y people had found many a n t i q u e s - l o t s o f b l u e - a n d - w h i t e , b u t a l s o merah, ce l a d o n s , i r o n ( i n c l u d i n g a k r i s ) and bronze - n e x t t o t h e grave i n l a n d now c o v e r e d by t h e i n l e t . The o n l y t r a d e w a r e sherds which we r e c o r d e d here (UP.6.1) and on t h e a d j a c e n t beach (UP.6.2) were Qing and European ( F i g u r e 11-26).

11-7.3 Aengtoa, Jonggoa Batu-Batu and Karama

Aengtoa (Teikalar 2) o c c u p i e s a bend o f t h e Aeng r i v e r , s t i l l t i d a l a t t h i s p o i n t , s o u t h o f Ujung K a s s i k . The s i t e ' s d e p o s i t s c o n s i s t o f a s i l t y c l a y w i t h some sand and g r i t , r a n g i n g i n c o l o u r from l i g h t b r o w n i s h g r e y a t t h e n o r t h t o r e d d i s h brown a t t h e s o u t h . E l e v a t i o n v a r i e s between seven metres a s l a t t h e n o r t h and f o u r metres a s l a t t h e s o u t h .

Aengtoa appears t o have c o n t a i n e d a s u b s t a n t i a l p o p u l a t i o n from p r e - I s l a m i c t i m e s . R e p o r t e d l y c e r a m i c s which were g e n e r a l l y b l u e - a n d - w h i t e , b u t a l s o merah and c e l a d o n s , were

394

r e c o v e r e d from s i x d i s c r e t e areas e i t h e r f u l l o f l o o t e r ' s h o l e s o r i n d i c a t e d as p r o d u c t i v e a r e a s . Two l o o t e d areas are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " o l d " I s l a m i c g r a v e y a r d s , w h i l e t h e s i t e a l s o c o n t a i n s an i s o l a t e d b r i c k s e p u l c h r e and a "new" g r a v e y a r d (Table F-8c). The main cemetery c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l groups o f " o l d " g r a v e s a t d i s t i n c t o r i e n t a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g one group whose graves v a r y between 125° and 145° from n o r t h ( F i g u r e 11-25). S u r f a c e t r a d e w a r e s range between t h e 1 5 t h and 2 0 t h c e n t u r i e s , a l t h o u g h w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f an e a r l y 17th c e n t u r y d i p ( F i g u r e 11-26). Non-ceramic f i n d s a t t h e s i t e i n c l u d e d a s t o n e p e s t l e (T. 2 .4.1 1 ) .

A kampung s t r u n g a l o n g a r a i s e d beach r i d g e , c a l l e d Jonggoa on t h e Dutch land-use maps, i s now d i v i d e d i n t o Jonggoa a t t h e n o r t h and Batu-Batu a t t h e s o u t h . At t h e kampung b o r d e r l i e s t h e I s l a m i c cemetery o f Jonggoa Batu-Batu ( T a k a l a r 5 ) . The marked g r a v e s would appear t o have o r i g i n a t e d by t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y , g i v e n t h e presence o f an east-west o r i e n t e d s t o n e arrangement and a t l e a s t 100 masonry markers l a c k i n g n i s a n (Photo 11-56; Ta b l e F-8c). The s m a l l sample o f t r a d e w a r e s a t t h e cemetery was a l l Qing and l a t e r ( F i g u r e 11-27), w h i l e an a n t i q u e r e p o r t e d l y r e c o v e r e d from t h e s i t e l o o k s l i k e a Qing brownware j a r (Photo 11-51). The s i t e can be matched w i t h t h e m i d - 1 7 t h c e n t u r y Batu-Batu k a r a e n g s h i p ( F i g u r e 4 - 6 ) , ^ ^ p a r t i c u l a r l y as i t i s t h e o n l y Batu-Batu I can f i n d on t h e 1693 map ( F i g u r e 5 - 5 ) . However, t h e l a t e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y Batu-Batu k a r a e n g s h i p , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a T a l l o k p r i n c e s s who m a r r i e d T u n i j a l l o k ( F i g u r e 4-8), would e i t h e r r e f e r t o t h i s a rea i n a more g e n e r a l sense, o r r e f e r t o some o t h e r u n i d e n t i f e d p l a c e .

Karama ( T a k a l a r 34) l i e s a c r o s s t h e Aeng r i v e r from Aengtoa, near a backswamp e x t e n d i n g b e h i n d t h e beach r i d g e which c o n t a i n s Jonggoa Batu-Batu ( F i g u r e 1 1-4). My a d m i t t e d l y s parse n o t e s document i t as a SSPHAP h i s t o r i c a l s i t e . I t s o l d e r cemetery c o n t a i n s masonry markers l a c k i n g n i s a n (Table

The p e s t l e i s a water-rounded pebble o f h a r d metamorphic s t o n e . I t i s n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d a t one end, and abraded and s l i g h t l y f l a t t e n e d and g l o s s e d a t t h e o t h e r . I t i s 105 mm l o n g and 42 by 30 mm i n c r o s s - s e c t i o n , and weighs around 250 grams. ^' T h i s Kg Batu-Batu l o s t h i s l i f e i n 1660 def e n d i n g : j ^ . j ^ ^ , . Paknakkukang a g a i n s t t h e Dutch (LB:123).

F ^ c ) , w h i l e l o o t i n g a t Karama has y i e l d e d a n t i q u e s (A. Rasyid S. , p e r s . comm.). At a l a t e r s t a g e I was shown a -̂ r c o l l e c t i o n o f a n t i q u e s r e p o r t e d l y r e c o v e r e d by t h e "Aeng" i n h a b i t a n t s when t h e y dug an empang. Given t h e l o c a l land-use p a t t e r n s and o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e are a , t h i s had o c c u r r e d a t Aengtoa o r Karama. As t h e c o l l e c t i o n spans t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h t o t h e 19th c e n t u r i e s (Photo 11-52), i t may not a l l be from j one l o c a l i t y . -̂ r-.̂

11.7.4 Pangkajeknek, Summanak and Pakkala Toa A -

Kompleks Makam Pangkajeknek ( T a k a l a r 3) l i e s a l o n g t h e Kaba l l o k a n g - t h e name o f t h e Aeng r i v e r i n l a n d from Aengtoa - i n an area o f sawah and empang ( F i g u r e 1 1-4). The cemetery covers around 50 metres square and i n c o r p o r a t e s two s h e l t e r e d g r aves, i n c l u d i n g t h a t o f "Majiyaurang Dg Gassing" which i s r e p o r t e d l y t h e o l d e s t . A s m a l l area o f around 15 l o o t e r ' s h o l e s was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a few Qing and l a t e r s u r f a c e tradewares ( F i g u r e 11-27). Even though we d a t e d t h e o l d e s t marked graves t o t h e 18 t h c e n t u r y , t h e s i t e has produced a n t i q u e s (A. Rasyid S., p e r s . comm.) and so proba±>ly has a t l e a s t 17th c e n t u r y o r i g i n s .

A s h o r t d i s t a n c e n o r t h l i e K a t i n t i n g and Summanak, b o t h synonymous w i t h 1 7 t h c e n t u r y k a r a e n g s h i p s . K a t i n t i n g , now a d e s e r t e d kampung, can be r e j e c t e d as an o l d toponym. I t c o n t a i n s no s i g n s o f any b u r i a l remains; t h e observed sherdage (T.31.1 i n Appendix D) i s a l l Qing t o r e c e n t ; and Kg K a t i n t i n g h i m s e l f i s b u r i e d a t T a l l o k ( 1 4 . 2 . 4 ) . The ci r c u m s t a n c e s o f Summanak ( T a k a l a r 3 3 ) , however, a r e a l l p o s i t i v e . I t s cemetery i n c l u d e s o l d as w e l l as modern s t y l e s ( T able F-8c; Photo 11-57); a few a n t i q u e s have been found here (A. Rasyid S., p e r s . comm.); t h e s i t e i s d e p i c t e d on t h e 1693 map ( F i g u r e 5 - 5 ) ; and Kg Summanak was a son o f Kg Mamampang G a r a s s i k Barombong ( 1 1 . 7 . 1 ) . D e s p i t e t h e s i t e ' s u n s p e c t a c u l a r q u a l i t i e s , i t can be i d e n t i f i e d as t h e ka r a e n g s h i p o f an i m p o r t a n t T a l l o k n o b l e who v i e d w i t h Kg Karunrung f o r t h e regency a f t e r Mahmud's d e a t h ( 3 . 5 . 1 ) .

Pakkala Toa ( T a k a l a r 4 ) , an area o f l i g h t brown c l a y s , comprises two s i t e a reas. Pakkala Toa B a r a t s t r a d d l e s t h e road which runs n o r t h w a r d s a l o n g t h e east s i d e o f t h e

396

K a b a l l o k a n g ( F i g u r e 11-4). West o f t h e ro a d i s a cemetery (zone 5) w i t h around 40 marked graves which a r e e i t h e r o l d masonry s t y l e s , o r modern wooden s t y l e s where c h i l d r e n a r e b u r i e d ( T a b l e F - 8 c ) . Many o f t h e masonry gra v e s have been l a r g e l y b u r i e d i n d e p o s i t s , n o t a b l y one east-west d i r e c t e d s l a b b e d marker (Photo 11-58). Two o f t h e a b u t t i n g f i e l d s (zones 3 and 6) were bare o f t r a d e w a r e s , b u t one ploughed f i e l d t o t h e e a s t (zone 2) c o n t a i n e d " e a r l y " and "Ming" p i e c e s . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 180 metres t o t h e east l i e s Pakkala Toa Timur. A Swatow p i e c e was fo u n d i n a f i e l d (zone 4 ) , 100 metres from a v e n e r a t e d g r a v e c o n s i s t i n g o f two st o n e s 1.6 metres a p a r t a l o n g an eas t - w e s t a x i s ( i n zone 1 ) . There were no s i g n s o f l o o t i n g and l o c a l s d e n i e d i t had o c c u r r e d , a l t h o u g h Pakkala i s known t o have produced a few a n t i q u e s (A. Rasyid S., p e r s . comm.). I n any case t h e s m a l l t r a d e w a r e s sample c o v e r s a v e r y l o n g p e r i o d ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 2 7 ) , and t h e I s l a m i c b u r i a l s , a t l e a s t , would d a t e from t h e 17t h c e n t u r y .

11 .7.5 Overview *

As t h e s t o r y has i t , Gowa's le g e n d a r y second r u l e r b o r n o f t h e Tomanurung, Massalangga Barayang, had ascended ( d i s a p p e a r e d ) on t h e n o r t h s i d e o f Jonggoa (SG:12; F i g u r e 2 - 2 ) . ^ ^ Jonggoa mentioned above i s t h e o n l y i n s t a n c e a t a l l near Gowa, and I was d i s a p p o i n t e d by t h e l a c k o f evidence t o i d e n t i f y i t as a v e r y o l d toponym. On r e f l e c t i o n , I see t h e s t o r y i n v o k e s Jonggoa ( U j u n g Gowa) t o say t h a t Massalangga Barayang ascended a t " t h e e n d - p o i n t o f Gowa" r a t h e r t h a n t o i d e n t i f y some p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e where t h i s o c c u r r e d .

I n one sense, th o u g h , t h e Aeng c l u s t e r marks t h e e n d - p o i n t o f Gowa. I t i n c l u d e s Makassar's southernmost f o r t i f i c a t i o n s a t Barombong; t h e p l a c e where t h e Bungaya t r e a t y was s i g n e d ; A e n g ( t o a ) , where g r e a t e r Gowa p r e p a r e d a major d e f e n s i v e post unbreached d u r i n g t h e 1667 Makassar War (LB:133; Andaya, 1981:90-97 p a s s . ) ; and Batu- B a t u , which t h e o f f e n s i v e f o r c e s o c c u p i e d (LB:134). I t i n c l u d e s two k a r a e n g s h i p s a s s o c i a t e d

''̂ As might be expected of a f i g u r e of Massalangga Barayang's prowess, h i s ascent was marked by an appropriate d i s p l a y from the firmaments, i n t h i s case a crack of l i g h t n i n g and a downpour of hot r a i n . : •

w i t h i m p o r t a n t T a l l o k n o b l e s (Barombong and Summanak) and two ka r a e n g s h i p s , a p p a r e n t l y o u t s i d e t h e major l i n e a g e groups, v mentioned i n t h e mid- 1 7 t h c e n t u r y g e n e a l o g i c a l r e c o r d s ^ ^ (Bungaya and B a t u - B a t u ) . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , Aeng(toa) i s absent from t h e g e n e a l o g i c a l r e c o r d s , even though i t was c l e a r l y t h e c l u s t e r ' s c e n t r a l p l a c e . I t i s t e m p t i n g t o l i n k t h e e a r l y 17th c e n t u r y gap i n Aengtoa's t r a d e w a r e s p r o f i l e ( F i g u r e 11-24) w i t h an e m i g r a t i o n t o s u r r o u n d i n g kampungs, e s p e c i a l l y Barombong, i n response t o g r e a t e r Gowa's h e i g h t e n e d i n t e r e s t i n t h e area .

I n r e t u r n , Aeng's e l i t e members would appear t o have m a i n t a i n e d a r e s i l i e n t independence d u r i n g t h e j u n c t u r e . P r o b a b l y t h e i r p r i d e s t i l l d w e l t i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t when Aeng e i t h e r r u l e d a l i t t l e p o l i t y a l o n g t h e Aeng-Kaballokang r i v e r , o r e n j o y e d t h e s t a t u s o f b e i n g o l d G a r a s s i k ' s j u n i o r p a r t n e r . -v-,?

11.8 The A n t i q u i t y o f "Makassar"

The s i t e s i n c l u d e d i n Speelman's p r e c o l o n i a l Makassar t o g e t h e r show a tr a d e w a r e s p r o f i l e w hich sweeps upwards from t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s , peaks i n t h e 16t h and e a r l y 1 7th c e n t u r i e s , and drop s s h a r p l y t h e r e a f t e r ( F i g u r e 11-23). The e a r l y 16th c e n t u r y appears as t h e s p e c i f i c apogee; a l t h o u g h t h i s i s p a r t l y an a r t e f a c t o f analysis,'•'* i t does c o r r e s p o n d t o when p o w e r f u l n e i g h b o u r i n g kingdoms - Gowa, T a l l o k and Siang - t o o k a sh a r p i n t e r e s t i n t h e G a r a s s i k d e l t a ( F i g u r e 4-7). The c o n v e r s i o n o f 15th c e n t u r y G a r a s s i k i n t o a major p o r t by t h e e a r l y 1 6 t h c e n t u r y i s a l s o c l e a r from Paiva's 1544 d e s c r i p t i o n .

The evidence s t r o n g l y i n d i c a t e s c o n s i d e r a b l e t r a d i n g a c t i v i t y h ere by t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s . On t o p o f t h e e a r l y p i e c e s a t t h e "Makassar" s i t e s themselves ( F i g u r e 11-23), t h e area s u r e l y s e r v e d as t h e s e a f r o n t f o r t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f t h e f a r g r e a t e r share o f e a r l y c e r a m i c s a t s i t e s a l o n g t h e mi d d l e Jeknekberang (Chapters 6 t o 9 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , r e c h a n n e l i n g o f

Not o n l y t h e s i t e c o n s i s t e n t l y c l o s e t o t h e c l u s t e r ' s s p a t i a l c e n t r e ( F i g u r e 11-5), but a l s o t h e l a r g e s t s i t e i n t h e c l u s t e r and a complex b u r i a l ground ( F i g u r e 11-23).

See f o o t n o t e s 16 and 17.

398

t h e Garassik-Jeknekberang d e l t a has d e s t r o y e d many s i t e s . The o l d e r a s i t e , t h e g r e a t e r t h e chance o f i t s d e s t r u c t i o n , and so t h e o l d e s t phases o f Makassar's t r a d e w a r e p r o f i l e c o u l d w e l l be s y s t e m a t i c a l l y u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d .

The Javanese poem Desawarnana (Nagarakertagama) o f 1365 c i t e s "Makasar", a l o n g w i t h S e l a y a r , among t h e " i s l a n d s " known t o t h e e a s t (Pigeaud, 1960:16-17). However, b o t h P e l r a s (1981:154) and, more f o r c e f u l l y , R eid (1983a) argue t h a t t h i s Makasar was n o t t h e same p l a c e as 1 7 t h c e n t u r y Makassar. I n Reid's view, t r a d e t o t h e Makassar area b e f o r e c.1500 was almost e n t i r e l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e s o u t h c o a s t , and e a r l i e r r e f e r e n c e s t o "Makassar" i n v o l v e d t h e Bajau i n h a b i t i n g t h e southwest c o a s t ' s o f f s h o r e i s l a n d s . Reid's f i r s t p o i n t i s d i s p r o v e d by t h e c e r a m i c s e v i d e n c e ( a l t h o u g h I cannot comment on whether o r n o t t h e s o u t h c o a s t e n j o y e d more o f t h e e a r l y t r a d e ) . Reid's second p o i n t needs a d a p t i n g : s e v e r a l l i n e s of e v i d e n c e suggest t h a t t h e Bajau p l a y e d a major p a r t i n r e g u l a r i s i n g South S u l a w e s i ' s e a r l y l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e l i n k s , b u t t h e s e were Baj a u based a t r i v e r m o u t h p o r t s r a t h e r t h a n on i s l a n d s (11.5.2; 1 3 . 1 ) .

Makassar i s a v e r y r a r e toponym. N o r m a l l y , r a r i t y o f a toponym i n c r e a s e s our c o n f i d e n c e i n making t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , b u t n o t i n t h i s case. Makassar o c c u r s so r a r e l y p r e c i s e l y because i t was a name used o n l y by o u t s i d e r s . To my knowledge, t h e Makassar t e x t s always r e f e r t o 1 6 t h - 1 7 t h c e n t u r y Makassar by a n o t h e r name, u s u a l l y Somba Opu. I n c o n t r a s t Makassar t o t h e Portuguese was v i r t u a l l y synonymous w i t h South S u l a w e s i . I n c.1515 P i r e s d e s c r i b e d 'Maca^ar' as a l a r g e c o v m t r y w i t h numerous i s l a n d s (Cortesao, 1944), and t h e m i d - 1 6 t h c e n t u r y Portuguese r e c o r d s used Makassar t o mean t h e B u g i s c o a s t l i n e between Siang and Suppak, whose r u l e r s P a i v a had b a p t i s e d (Jacobs, 1966:272-277). Hence "Makasar" as c i t e d i n t h e Desawarnana was p r o b a b l y a l s o a g e n e r a l placename.

The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e , n o t t h e " i d e n t i t y " o f t h e toponym, pr o v e s t h a t Gowa and i t s e n v i r o n s e n j o y e d r e g u l a r t r a d e l i n k s w i t h t h e w i d e r a r c h i p e l a g o by t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s .

P R O B A B L E D R O W N E D

R I V E R 3 E D S

S U N G A I

J E K N E K B E R A N G

F I G U R E 11-1A. \ L A T E P L E I S T O C E N E

(AFTER WHITTEN ET AL,1987 19)

• BONE-BONE MARINE SHELL SAMPLE

B E N T E N G T U A ( A N U - 5 9 2 5 )

y-FIVE METRE CONTOUR LINE

M O D E R N COASTLINE

F I G U R E 11-1B. M I D - H O L O C E N E

T R A N S G R E S S I O N , - C . 4 3 0 0 B P

4 UJUNG PANDANG CHENIERS

• S A N R A B O N E

0 10 S U N G A I

J E K N E K B E R A N G

FIGURE 11-lC. LATE PREHISTORY

(LATE H O L O C E N E )

F I G U R E 11-10. CIRCA 15TH CENTURY

FIGURE 11-1E.17TH CENTURY

T O N A S A FORMATION

L I M E S T O N E

E O C E N E TO MIDDLE M I O C E N E

C A M B A F O R M A T I O N

M A R I N E S E D I M E N T A R Y ROCKS/

VOLCANICS EARLY TO MID MIOCENE

B A T U R A P E - C I N D A K O

V O L C A N I C S

LATE P L I O C E N E

C O A S T A L A L L U V I A L

DEPOSITS

H O L O C E N E

SUNGAI M A R O S ,

F I G U R E 1-1F. M O D E R N S I T U A T I O N

F I G U R E 1 1 - 1 . S I L K 3 C 3 E S T E 3 D P T n r - y i r j s j - 1 - w r K r i - T r u M O F " T H E C 3 E X 3 M O F J J P H O I L / Z X 3 1 C l f V L

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F I C S O R E 1 1 - 2 . t S A R A S S I K ( M A K A S S A R ) FXDRTIF-ICZATIOCSIS AND AVE3RAC5E: B R I C K S I Z E S

In siru Q 2 '̂''̂ collapsed rubble i i i -inroctwoll

FIGURE 11-3A. BENTENG GARASSIK, ZONE 7

FJOXiB 11-3B. PAKNAKKUKANG SECTION HXPOSBD BY L C O T E R ' S HOLE

F I G O R E 1 1 — 3 . C 3 Q A S T A I L . W A X J L . S E S Z T T I C D N S

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F I G U R E 1 1 — 5 . CXXJSTE3?INC3 F>ATTE3?JNS O W T H E G A R A S S I K S I T l

l ^ - e . NORTH POLOMBANGKENG STTE CLUSTERS

Kompung

Brown corrpocted cloys (10YR5/3) With o scuffed

sondy surfoce

Sowofi

FIGURE 11-7. KACCIA LAMA

20

metres

0 hioles two metres oport (looted north-X south oriented buriol'')

Sowoh

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Reportedly looted orea ' •

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F I M E C L A S S E S - J L - B R O A D C L A S S E S -

F IGUR i : 1 1 - 8 . STANDARD ISED C H R O N O l OGICAL H ISTOGRAMS - AREAS OF SOMBA O P U

Soil Test 5 JEKNEKBERANGS PRE-1977 C H A N N E L

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C.-QING BW" PIECES

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FIGURE 11-10- IRADEIARE CX)UNTS AND DENSITIES AT SGtfiA OFU

f Wer rice

% Bom boos

/ f Moize

Loorer's holes 0

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F I G U R E 1 1 — 1 1 -

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K A C C I & SOOTB N a R T H E A S T HORTHHEST - — BOMTQ L A K J A PATTOMG BA?OA 2 ^^^^ L

PIIJES, P . i c E S , P I E C E S , P I E C E S ,

F ICURt : 1 1 - 1 2 . STANDARDISED CI IRONOLOGICAL

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SOHBA OPO & P E R I P H E R I E S

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HIS rOGRAMS ( r i N E CLASSES) - S0ME3A OPU 'S PERIPHERIES

120Q

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1 4 0 0

1 5 0 0

1 6 0 0

1 7 0 0

1 8 0 0

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I 2 H P I E C E S I M 5 6 P I E C E S I I I 3 b l P I E C E S ]

FIGURE 1 1 - 1 3 . STANDARDISED CHRONOEOGICAL I I IS IOGRAMS (BROAD GEASSES) - SOML^A OPU 'S P r R I P M I R I l S

S U N G A I J E K N E K B E R A N G I B A L A N G B E R U l

M A T U R E V E G E T A B L E S (VERY P O O R EXPOSURE!• •

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B E L O W D U N I

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D E P O S I T S

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+ SPOT D E P T H S B E L O W D A T U M

9 T R I D A C N A S H E L L S

B. D E T A I L S O F I N N E R E M P A N G

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S O U T H - S O U T H - 0_

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J . N O R T H ­

E A S T

FIGURE 11-17. DETAILS OF BAYOA 1 EMPANG

^ — v w v S U N G A I J E K N E K B E R A N G

Former Brick Woll Line

Raised Sand Feotures

^ Boundary of Chenier

Inundored Land

Grossed

O Trees

^ Bamboos

Loorer's holes

Sheltered Groves

100 Zi

metres

FIGURE 11-13. PAKNAKKUKANG-PATTUKANGANG

1200

1300

1 4 0 0

iSoo

i6oo

noo

IftOO

190 0

1"»8 6 OX 2X 4X

BEHTEMG G A R A S S I K o u i s i o c a p p a n E n i F O R I ( z o n e s

7 1 0 1 2 t i r i - 1 2 P I E C E S

r ox I X ox I X ox I X OX 2X

SOOTB OF HORTH OF EHPANG FOOTPATH FOOTPATH "•"OT*'-

BATOA 1 i n S I O E n P P H H E H I F O R I ( Z O N E S

1 1 0 (, 1 3 10 1 6 1 • ( 1 1 P I E C E S

1 4 0 I 2 S 4

P I E C E S I P I E C E S I ( 4 0 6 P I E C E S I

OX I X

PAKMAK-KDKANG

( 1 7 ?

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OX I X OX 2X

P A T T U - PAKMAKKOKAHG/ KAHGAMG PATTUKANGANG

8X

( 1 7 6

P I E C E S I ( 3 5 3 P I E C E S I (7 P I E C E S )

G A R A S S I K HEARTLAND

( 1 3 3 1 P I E C E S )

FIGURE 1 1 - 2 1 . STANDARDISED GHRONOEOGICAL HISTOGRAMS (FINE GEASSES) - GARASSIK HEART IAND SITES

1 2 0 0

1 3 0 0

1 4 0 0

1 5 0 0

1 6 0 0

1 7 0 0

1 8 0 0

1 9 0 0

1 9 8 6 OX 2X 4X

BENTENG G A R A S S I K l o u i s i O E a p p n n E m F O H I I Z O H E S

7 1 0 1 2 t 1 7 ) - 12 P I E C E S

I I N S I O E P P P P R E N I F O R I I Z O N E S

1 1 0 i, 1 3 1 0 1 6 1 - S l l P I E C E S

OX I X ox I X ox I X ox 2X

ENPAHG SOUTH OF FOOTPATH

NORTH OF FOOTPATH T O T A L

ox I X OX I X OX 1" OX I X OX

PAKNAK- P A T T O - PAKNAKKUKANG/ KOKANG KAHGANG PATTUKANGANG A^P**"^

BATOA 1 I 4 0

P I E C E S I

1 2 5 4

PI E C E S )

I 1 1 1

P I E C E S I I 4 0 S P I E C E S I

1 1 7 3

P I E C E S I

( 1 7 S

P I E C E S ) (3 5 3 P I E C E S I (7 P I E C E S )

2X 4X 6X

G A R A S S I K HEARTLAND

( 1 3 9 1 P I E C E S I

8 X

F IGURE 1 1 - 2 2 . S T A N D A R D I S E D C H R O N O L O G I C A E H ISTOGRAMS ( B R O A D G E A S S E S ) - - GARASS IK I I E A R I E A N D

1200

1300

1400

1 5 0 0

1 6 0 0

1 7 0 0

1 8 0 0

1 9 0 0

I

: : > ••••

1 9 8 6 OX .5X

GOTOHG

I 2 7

P I E C C S I

OX .5X OX .5X

HAtCAH T I B -KG PAPOK BOSEHG

( 16

p i e c E s i

( 2 6

P I E C E S 1

OX .5X OX I X

B I L A Y A LAHA

( 2 3

P I E C E S )

GHTB S I T E S

( 32

P I E C E S I

OX l O X 20X 25X

P R E C O L O N I A L MAKASSAR

( 3 4 4 4 P I E C E S I

OX .5X OX .5X OX .5X OX .5X OX .5X O X l O X 20X 25X MAKAN T I M - B I L A Y A GMTB

GOTONG KG PAPOK BOSENG LAMA S I T E S P R E C O L O N I A L MAKASSAR

( 2 7

P I E C E S )

( 1 6

P I E C E S I

( 2 6

P I E C E S I

( 2 3 ( 3 2

P I E C E S I P I E C E S I ( 3 4 4 4 P I E C E S )

• F I N E C L A S S E S - BROAD C L A S S E S •

I IGURE 1 1 - 2 3 . STANDARDISED GHRONOLOGIGAL HISTOGRAMS - GMTB SUES &c TOTAL MAKASSAR GEUS ILR

M A K A M /

T U A N B I R A E N G T - ^ ^

\

\

Z O N E 5

I S T A T I O N I V

% MAPPED BRICK RUBBLE

\3SHELTET?ED GRAVE

BAMBOOS

BANANAS

C . 2 0 0 M E T R B T O

F I G U R E 11-2A..

B A R O M B O N G WA'

^ E M P A N G

A E N G M O U T H

« PASTURE/GRASSED

($ W E E D Y

BAVIBOOS

LOOIER'S HOLES

rn SHELlERED/ENCLOSEa '—̂ GRAVES

SUNKEN FIELDS

N E W CEMETERY C/ •!> O C ^

F I G U R E 1 1 - 2 5 . A E N G T O A

1200

1 3 0 0

1 4 0 0

1 5 0 0

1 6 0 0

1 7 0 0

1 8 0 0

1 9 0 0

1 9 8 6

054 OX I X UX I X

HAKAH SAUKAMG TOAM TAMKAYA PARA-

B I R A E M G SAHGANG I b 1 1 5 4 [ 1 8 3

P I E C E S I P I E C E S I P I E C E S I

OX I X

BAROKBONG

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1 3 4 5 P I E C E S I ( 6 5 8 P I E C E S )

• c u r - T n . PAHGKA- PAKKALA K A S S I K J E K H E K TOA B*TO- AEMG C L U S T E R T O T A L G A R A S S I K S D P E R C L U S T E H

BATU ( 1 3 ( 3 1 6 17 ( 1 6 1 1 3

P I E C E S I P I E C E S I P I E C E ' , ) P I E C E S ) P I E C E S ) ( 1 1 0 2 P I E C E S I ( 4 5 4 t P I E C E S )

I ICUI?E 1 1 - 2 6 . S T A N I : ) A F ? D I S I : D C H R O N O L O G I C A I I I I S IOGRAMS ( F I N E CLASSES) - A E N G CI USTEf^ & A L L C H . I l

F I G U R E 1 1 - 2 7 . S T A N D A R D I S E D G E I R O N O L O G I G A I H I S T O G R A M S ( B R O A D G L A S S E S ) - A E N G G L U S T E R & C H . 1 1

Photo 11-1. F e r r y c r o s s i n g t h e s o u t h o u t l e t o f t h e Jeknekberang

c r e a t e d d u r i n g t h e 1977 f l o o d , l o c a l l y known as Balang Beru ("New Swamp"). The e a s t e r n par:

o f Benteng Somba Opu i s b e h i n d t h e t r e e s a t r e a r .

Photo 11-2. The view n o r t h f r o m t h e beach a t Kuburan I s l a m Barombong, showing t h e i n l e t between t h e o l d sand r i d g e a l o n g which

t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y Barombong w a l l was b u i l t a t r i g h t , and t h e r e c e n t l o n g s h o r e bar a t l e f t .

The l a t t e r does n o t appear on t h e e a r l y 2 0 t h c e n t u r y Dutch land-use maps, n o r even on t h e I n d o n e s i a n 1969 land-use map.

Photo 11-3. P l a n o f Benteng Sonba Opu and e x c a v a t i o n s made by Suaka

Pe n i n g g a l a n S e j a r a h dan P u r b a k a l a Sulawesi S e l a t a n . The l i n e o f squares from west t o e a s t suggests t h a t these

e x c a v a t i o n s were f o l l o w i n g t h e f o r t ' s n o r t h w a l l .

Photo: I a n C a l d w e l l .

Photo 11-4. Benteng Somba Opu, example o f a b r i c k w a l l base excavated a t some p o i n t a l o n g t h e f o o t p a t h a t t h e n o r t h o f t h e s i t e .

P hoto: P e t e r S p i l l e t t Daeng M a k u l l e .

Photo 11-5. Benteng Sonba Opu, showing Suaka's e x c a v a t i o n o f t h e s t i l l

p a r t l y i n t a c t west w a l l . The p i c t u r e g i v e s an idea o f i t s massive c o n s t r u c t i o n .

Photo: P e t e r S p i l l e t t Daeng M a k u l l e .

Photo 11-6. Suaka's e x c a v a t i o n o f t h e southwest b a s t i o n o r

M a c c i n i k Sombala ("Watch f o r t h e S a i l s " ) , Benteng Somba Opu.

Photo: P e t e r S p i l l e t t Daeng M a k u l l e .

Photo 11-7. N a r i a n g polong ( " f r a g m e n t a r y cannon") and t h e a s s o c i a t e d tomb

a t t h e s o u t h o f Benteng Somba Opu.

Photo: P e t e r S p i l l e t t Daeng M a k u l l e .

Photo 11-8. Apparent i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s i n s i d e

Benteng Somba Opu's west w a l l . C i r c u l a r mound, p o s s i b l y a f l a g s t a n d , a t v e r y f r o n t . Mounded r i d g e , p o s s i b l y an i n t e r n a l w a l l , a t r e a r .

Photo 11-9. Ol d keramat ( h o l y ) masonry I s l a m i c s e p u l c h r e ,

S a p i r e a , Benteng Somba Opu.

Photo 11-10. S h e l t e r e d g r a v e s a t t h e I s l a m i c cemetery a t Pattung.

Sonny Wibisono, o f P u s l i t a r k e n a s , a t r i g h t .

Photo 11-11. Swatow B l u e - a n d - w h i t e p l a t e r e p o r t e d l y found a t Pattung, f e a t u r i n g "Ducks i n a L o t u s Pond 1" ( H a r r i s s o n , 1979).

Reverse has p a r t l y g l a z e d base and d i r t y f o o t .

Photo 11-12. Ming bowls r e p o r t e d l y e x c a v a t e d a t Ka c c i a Lama.

L e f t : BW bowl w i t h l o t u s s c r o l l on r e v e r s e and undecorated i n t e r i o r . 1 5 t h c e n t u r y t o judge from t h e unglazed base.

R i g h t : "Redware" w i t h r e d and green enamels making a f l o r a l s p r a y . I n s i d e c e n t r e has a c a l l i g r a p h i c m o t i f i n r e d enamels.

Photo 11-13. L i o n f i g u r i n e , c a r v e d f r o m a s i l i c e o u s s e m i - p r e c i o u s stone,

r e p o r t e d l y e x c a v a t e d a t K a c c i a Lama.

Photos 11-14 and 11-15. The two f i n e l y decorated masonry grave markers at the south

I s l a m i c cemetery, K a c c i a Lama. The example at top f e a t u r e s Arabic s c r i p t .

Photo 11-16. Bayoa 2. The l i n e of t r e e s at r e a r

marks the course of the Sungai Banda.

I

P hoto 11-17. Bonto L a k j a S e l a t a n ,

w i t h t h e r a n g i n g p o l e i n d i c a t i n g t h e s p o t where t h e f i v e tempayan (stoneware j a r s ) were r e p o r t e d l y found.

Photo 11-18. Bonto L a k j a B a r a t Daya, showing t h e s h e l t e r e d g r a v e o f "Tuan

S a i d " and t h e b r i c k p l a t f o r m beneath i t .

P hoto 11-19. Bonto L a k j a B a r a t , w i t h zone 13 i n t h e c e n t r e o f t h e photo.

The l i n e o f t r e e s a t r e a r marks t h e c o u r s e o f t h e Sungai Banda.

I

Photos 11-20 t o 11-22. The brownware tempayan f o u n d a t Bonto L a k j a S e l a t a n .

J a r s 1 t o 3 f r o m t o p t o b o t t o m .

Photo 11-23. J a r 4 o r t h e s p o u t e d j a r ( l e f t ) , and J a r 5 o r t h e blakcware

j a r ( r i g h t ) , f o u n d a t Bonto L a k j a S e l a t a n .

Photo 11-24. The Ming merah b u J u - b u l i (Ming j a r l e t w i t h o v e r g l a z e enamels) r e p o r t e d l y dug up a t Bonto L a k j a Timur Daya. Base unglazed.

Photo 11-25. G.5.1.2, b a s a l s h e r d t o a bowl found a t Benteng Garassik. Note t h e s o l a r m o t i f i n c e n t r e and u n g l a z e d s t a c k i n g r i n g . Base u n g l a z e d . A p p a r e n t l y A Vietnamese i r o n - p a i n t e d ware.

Photo 11-26. The h o l e a t Benteng G a r a s s i k e x p o s i n g

t h e a p parent i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e c o a s t a l w a l l ( w h i c h c o n t i n u e s i n f r o n t o f t h e p h o t o graph) and t h e short

l i n e o f b r i c k s t r i k i n g westwards.

Photo 11-27. The masonry p o s t - s u p p o r t seen i n t h e n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r of

Benteng G a r a s s i k , a p p a r e n t l y one o f f i v e f o u n d a t t h e s i t e .

Photo 11-28. Bayoa Empang, n o r t h f a c e , zone 1.

Karaeng Demmanari i s shown crouched, r e c o r d i n g t h e a r t e f a c t u a l c o n t e n t s .

Photo 11-29. The f i v e f r a g m e n t s o f bronze l e a f c o l l e c t e d from Bayoa

Empang. T h i c k n e s s v a r i e s between 0.5 mm and 2 mm. T o t a l w e i g h t 1.5 gm. O x i d i s e d ; s u r f a c e c o l o u r i s greener f t h a n M u n s e l l g l e y 5G 5/2.

Photos 11-30 and 11-31. The Bayoa Empang d u n i , as f i r s t seen ( l e f t ) and a f t e r i t

e x c a v a t i o n by Suaka ( r i g h t ) . Note t h e complete and semi-complete T r i d a c n a s h e l l s near t h e d u n i ( l e f t ) .

P hotographs l o o k s o u t h - e a s t - e a s t .

Photo 11-32. Bone f r a g m e n t s found a l o n g t h e west f a c e o f Bayoa Empang.

None l o o k s human, and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s u n c l e a r .

Photo 11-33. One o f t h e e a s t - w e s t o r i e n t e d , masonry marked graves

i n t h e I s l a m i c cemetery a t Bayoa 1.

Photo 11-34. Bayoa 1, zone 34, on t h e bank o f t h e Sungai Bontorea (Banda)

where an unusual c o l l e c t i o n o f o b j e c t s was found e r o d i n g f r o m t h e bank, and i n t h e water i m m e d i a t e l y below.

Photo 11-35. Bases t o two m i n i a t u r e b l u e - a n d - w h i t e covered bowls

r e p o r t e d l y f o u n d i n t h e g e n e r a l kampung area o f Bayoa 1 .

L e f t : Swatow, e x t e r i o r d e c o r a t e d o n l y w i t h Swatow roundels.

R i g h t : I d e n t i f i e d as "Ming Swatow". A complete specimen of t h e p i e c e , G.62.13.71, from Bonto L a k j a B a r a t .

Photo 11-36. A t h i r d base t o a m i n i a t u r e b l u e - a n d - w h i t e c o v e r e d bowl found a t Bayoa 1 kampung

P r o b a b l y l a t e Ming.

Photo 11-37. Bayoa 1 f o o t p a t h a t t h e .

southwest o f t h e s i t e , one of t h e c l e a r e r segments showing t h e l i n e o f b r i c k r u b b l e .

Photo 11-38. Fragments o f o l d r e d b r i c k s f o u n d a t zone 34, Bayoa 1.

Photo 11-39. Some o f t h e r o c k s f o u n d a t zone 34, Bayoa 1,

i n c l u d i n g two l i m e s t o n e p e b b l e s a. q u a r t z pebble ( r i g h t ) a t t h e f r o n t .

Photo 11-40. The exposed l i n e o f i n s i t u b r i c k w a l l a t Pattukangang where

i t c r o s s e s t h e r o a d t o j o i n t h e Barombong w a l l .

Photo 1 Hole e x p o s i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n s

w a l l where i t r u n s above Note t h e presence o f b o t h

1-41 . o f t h e Paknakkukang c o a s t a l t h e backswamp e n t r a n c e , l a r g e and s m a l l b r i c k s .

Photo 11-42. The c e n t r a l e a s t e r n b a s t i o n mound o f Benteng Paknakkukang,

l o c a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d as a pakbenderang ( f l a g s t a n d ) .

F i e l d w o r k e r s Dubel D r i w a n t o r o and Iwan Sumantri (obscured) a r e on t o p .

Photo 11-43. A l o o t e r ' s h o l e i n t h e w a l l o f Benteng Paknakkukang, showing a c o r a l b l o c k w h i c h was presumably p l a c e d t h e r e as s u p p o r t .

Photo 11-44. Paknakkukang's t o k o h masyarakat ( s o c i a l exemplar) and h i s wTfe t n s i d e ?he tomb o f t h e gra v e o f " t h e man from London .

Photos 11-45 and 11-46. A n t i q u e s r e p o r t e d l y l o o t e d f r o m t h e cemetery i n s i d e

Benteng Paknakkukang.

Photo 11-45: t o p row, l e f t t o r i g h t , Ming BW bowl and Wanli BW p l a t e ;

b o t t o m row, l e f t t o r i g h t , Ming Swatow BW bowl, Ming w h i t e w a r e t e a p o t and cup.

Photo 11-46: t o p row, l e f t t o r i g h t , Swatow c o v e r t o bowl, body t o Swatow co v e r e d b o w l , body t o Ming Swatow co v e r e d b o w l , Ming BW bowl; b o t t o m row, l e f t t o r i g h t , Swatow c o v e r t o b o w l , body t o Ming Swatow c o v e r e d b o w l , c o v e r t o Ming w h i t e w a r e covered bowl,

c o v e r t o " T r a n s i t i o n a l BW" bo w l .

Photo 11-47. Mamampang,

w i t h t h e boy crouched a t t h e s c a t t e r o f "Ming"

Photo 11-48. Gotong, t h e area l o o t e d f o r a n t i q u e s .

Photo 11-49. Makam Karaeng Papok, Timbuseng.

Photo 11-50. B i l a y a Lama, t h e s h e l t e r e d g r a v e o f a Gowa Karaeng whose name

has been f o r g o t t e n .

Photo 11-51.

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Photo 11-52. A n t i q u e s r e p o r t e d l y r e c o v e r e d d u r i n g t h e e x c a v a t i o n o f a f i s h pond by t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f e i t h e r Karama o r Aengtoa.

Font l e f t : two Wanli BW bowls. Behind them: t h r e e Qing BW p i e c e s ( c o v e r , bowl l a c k i n g cover,

spoon) and a Swatow BW bowl ( l a c k i n g c o v e r ) a t r i g h t . To t h e immediate r i g h t : two Vietnamese monochrome bowls. F r o n t r i g h t : Dehua e a r l y w h i t e w a r e bowl ( l a c k i n g c o v e r ) . Rear r i g h t : L a t e Ming brownware j a r ( g l a z e m o s t l y l o s t ) .

Photo 1 1 - 5 3 . Barombong, zone 3 , t h e r e p o r t e d l y l o o t e d a r e a . Behind i t

t h e same i n l e t shown i n Photo 1 1-1.

Photo 1 1 - 5 4 . Kanpung Bontoa, where t h e 1667 Bungaya T r e a t y was s i g n e d

Some o f t h e o l d g r a v e s a t t h e I s l a m i c cemetery.

Photo 1 1 - 5 5 . Ujung K a s s i k , showing t h e o l d I s l a m i c g rave

overgrown by a c a c t u s a t f r o n t , and t h e g e n e r a l area o f r e p o r t e d l o o t i n g b e h i n d i t .

Photo 11-56. The I s l a m i c cemetery a t Jonggoa Batu-Batu, showing some o f

t h e o l d masonry markers and t h e modern b r i c k c o r r a l a t r e a r .

Photo 11-57. Kuburan I s l a m Summanak,

showing some o f t h e o l d masonry g r a v e s .

Photo 11-58. Pakkala Toa B a r a t , showing t h e east-west d i r e c t e d l i n e o f masonry b l o c k s b u r i e d by d e p o s i t s except a t t h i s exposure,

i n t e r p r e t e d as an e a s t - w e s t o r i e n t e d I s l a m i c g r a v e .