chapter 1 introduction to accounting and financial reporting for governmental and not-for-profit...

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Introduction toAccounting andFinancial Reporting for Governmental andNot-for-Profit EntitiesLearning Objectives

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Identify and explain the characteristics that distinguish governmental and not-for-profit entities from for-profit entities.

2. Identify the authoritative bodies responsible for setting financial reportingstandards for (1) state and local governments, (2) the federal government, and (3) not-for-profit organizations.

3. Contrast and compare the objectives of financial reporting for (1) state andlocal governments, (2) the federal government, and (3) not-for-profitorganizations.

4. Explain the minimum requirements for general purpose external financialreporting for state and local governments and how they relate tocomprehensive annual financial reports.

5. Explain the different objectives, measurement focus, and basis of accounting of the government-wide financial statements and fund financial statements of state and local governments.

Welcome to the strange new world of accounting for governmental and not-for-profitorganizations! Initially, you may find it challenging to understand the many newterms and concepts you will need to learn. Moreover, if you are like most readers,you will question at the outset why governmental and not-for-profit organizationsfind it necessary to use accounting practices that are very different from those usedby for-profit entities.

As you read this first chapter of the text, the reasons for the marked differencesbetween governmental and not-for-profit accounting and for-profit accounting

Chapter One

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should become apparent. Specifically, governmental and not-for-profit organiza-tions serve entirely different purposes in society than do business entities. Fur-thermore, because such organizations are largely financed by taxpayers, donors,and others who do not expect benefits proportional to the resources they provide,management has a special duty to be accountable for how those resources are usedin providing services. Thus, the need to report on management’s accountability tocitizens, creditors, oversight bodies, and others has played a central role in shap-ing the accounting and reporting practices of governmental and not-for-profitorganizations.

This first chapter will give you a basic conceptual foundation for understandingthe unique characteristics of these organizations and how their accounting and finan-cial reporting concepts and practices differ from those of for-profit organizations.By the time you finish subsequent chapters assigned for your course, you shouldhave an in-depth practical knowledge of governmental and not-for-profit accountingand financial reporting.

WHAT ARE GOVERNMENTAL AND NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS?

Governmental and not-for-profit organizations are vast in number and range of ser-vices provided. In the United States, governments exist at the federal, state, andlocal levels and serve a wide variety of functions. The most recent census of gov-ernments reports 89,476 local governmental units, in addition to the federal govern-ment and 50 state governments. These 89,476 local governments consist of 3,033counties, 19,492 municipalities, 16,519 towns and townships, 13,051 independentschool districts, and 37,381 special district governments that derive their power fromstate governments.1

States, counties, municipalities (for example, cities and villages), and townshipsare general purpose governments—governments that provide many categoriesof services to their residents (such as police and fire protection; sanitation; con-struction and maintenance of streets, roads, and bridges; and health and welfare).Independent school districts, public colleges and universities, and special districtsare special purpose governments—governments that provide only a single func-tion or a limited number of functions (such as education, drainage and flood con-trol, irrigation, soil and water conservation, fire protection, and water supply).Special purpose governments have the power to levy and collect taxes and to raiserevenues from other sources as provided by state laws to finance the services theyprovide.

Not-for-profit organizations also exist in many forms and serve many differentfunctions. These include private colleges and universities, various kinds of healthcare organizations, certain libraries and museums, professional and trade associa-tions, fraternal and social organizations, and religious organizations. Currently, thereare nearly 2 million not-for-profit organizations in the U.S.2

2 Accounting for Governmental and Nonprofit Entities

1 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 2007 Census of Governments, vol. 1, no. 1(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office), p. v.2 The Independent Sector and Urban Institute estimate that there are about 1.8 million organizations inthe not-for-profit sector. (Urban Institute, The New Nonprofit Almanac & Desk Reference, Washington,D.C., 2007).

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DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF GOVERNMENTAL AND NOT-FOR-PROFIT ENTITIES

Governmental and not-for-profit organizations differ in important ways from businessorganizations. Not surprisingly then, accounting and financial reporting for govern-mental and not-for-profit organizations are markedly different from accounting andfinancial reporting for businesses. An understanding of how these organizations differfrom business organizations is essential to understanding the unique accounting andfinancial reporting principles that have evolved for governmental and not-for-profitorganizations.

In its Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 4, the Financial Account-ing Standards Board (FASB) noted the following characteristics that it felt distin-guished governmental and not-for-profit entities from business organizations:

a. Receipts of significant amounts of resources from resource providers who donot expect to receive either repayment or economic benefits proportionate tothe resources provided.

b. Operating purposes that are other than to provide goods or services at a profitor profit equivalent.

c. Absence of defined ownership interests that can be sold, transferred, orredeemed, or that convey entitlement to a share of a residual distribution ofresources in the event of liquidation of the organization.3

The Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) distinguishes gov-ernmental entities in the United States from not-for-profit entities and from businessesby stressing that governments exist in an environment in which the power ultimatelyrests in the hands of the people. Voters delegate that power to public officials throughthe election process. The power is divided among the executive, legislative, andjudicial branches of the government so that the actions, financial and otherwise, ofgovernmental executives are constrained by legislative actions, and executive and leg-islative actions are subject to judicial review. Further constraints are imposed on stateand local governments by the existence of the federal system in which higher levelsof government encourage or dictate activities by lower levels and finance the activi-ties (partially, at least) by an extensive system of intergovernmental grants and sub-sidies that require the lower levels to be accountable to the entity providing theresources, as well as to the citizenry. Revenues raised by each level of governmentcome, ultimately, from taxpayers. Taxpayers are required to serve as providers ofresources to governments even though they often have very little choice about whichgovernmental services they receive and the extent to which they receive them.4

In the GASB’s view, accounting and financial reporting standards for governmentsmust be separate and distinct from those for business organizations because the needsof users of financial reports are unique and different. This view is clear from a recent

Chapter 1 Introduction to Accounting and Financial Reporting for Governmental and Not-for-Profit Entities 3

3 Financial Accounting Standards Board, Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 4, “Objectivesof Financial Reporting by Nonbusiness Organizations” (Norwalk, CT, 1980), p. 3. In 1985 the FASBreplaced the term nonbusiness with the term not-for-profit. Other organizations use the term nonprofitas a synonym for not-for-profit. The term not-for-profit is predominantly used in this text.4 Based on discussion in GASB Concepts Statement No. 1, pars. 14–18. Governmental AccountingStandards Board, Codification of Governmental Accounting and Financial Reporting Standards as ofJune 30, 2008 (Norwalk, CT, 2008), Appendix B.

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GASB white paper which notes that “governments do not operate in a competitivemarketplace, face virtually no threat of liquidation, and do not have equity owners.”5

Consequently, governmental financial reporting focuses on a government’s steward-ship of public resources, ongoing ability to raise taxes and manage resources, andcompliance with legal spending limits, rather than on information about earnings.More specifically, the white paper states:

Governmental accounting and financial reporting standards aim to address [the] need forpublic accountability information by helping stakeholders assess how public resources areacquired and used, whether current resources were sufficient to meet current service costsor whether some costs were shifted to future taxpayers, and whether the government’sability to provide services improved or deteriorated from the previous year.6

SOURCES OF FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS

Illustration 1–1 shows the primary sources of accounting and financial reportingstandards for business and not-for-profit organizations, state and local governments,and the federal government. Specifically, the FASB sets standards for for-profit busi-ness organizations and nongovernmental not-for-profit organizations; the GASB setsstandards for state and local governments, including governmental not-for-profitorganizations; and the Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB) setsstandards for the federal government and its agencies and departments.

Authority to establish accounting and reporting standards for not-for-profit orga-nizations is split between the FASB and the GASB because a sizeable number of


5 Governmental Accounting Standards Board, White Paper “Why Governmental Accounting andFinancial Reporting Is—and Should Be—Different” (Norwalk, CT, 2006), Executive Summary, pp. 1–2.6 Ibid.

Financial

Accounting

Foundation

Financial Accounting

Standards Board

(FASB)

Business

(for-profit)

organizations

Nongovernmental

not-for-profit

organizations

State and local

governmental

organizations

Governmental

not-for-profit

organizations

Federal government

and its agencies

and departments

Governmental

Accounting Standards

Board (GASB)

Federal Accounting

Standards Advisory Board

(FASAB)

• Comptroller General

• Director of the Office of

Management and Budget

• Secretary of the Treasury

ILLUSTRATION 1–1 Primary Sources of Accounting and Financial Reporting Standards for Businesses,

Governments, and Not-for-Profit Organizations

Source: Statement on Auditing Standards (SAS) 69, amended by SAS 91, April 2000, AICPA Professional Standards, as of June 1, 2008, v.1, Au Sec. 411.

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not-for-profit organizations are governmentally owned, particularly public collegesand universities and government hospitals. The FASB is responsible for settingaccounting and reporting standards for the great majority of not-for-profit organiza-tions, those that are independent of governments. Governmental not-for-profit orga-nizations follow standards established by the GASB.

The GASB and the FASB are parallel bodies under the oversight of the FinancialAccounting Foundation. The foundation appoints the members of the two boards andsupports the boards’ operations. The federal Sarbanes-Oxley Act greatly enhanced finan-cial support for the FASB by mandating an assessed fee on corporate security offerings.The GASB, on the other hand, relies mainly on contributions from state and local gov-ernment organizations and sales of publications for financial support of its operations.

Because of the breadth of support and the lack of ties to any single organizationor governmental unit, the GASB and the FASB are referred to as “independentstandards-setting boards in the private sector.” Before the creation of the GASB andthe FASB, financial reporting standards were set by groups sponsored by profes-sional organizations: The forerunners of the GASB (formed in 1984) were theNational Council on Governmental Accounting (1973–84), the National Committeeon Governmental Accounting (1948–73), and the National Committee on MunicipalAccounting (1934–41). The forerunners of the FASB (formed in 1973) were theAccounting Principles Board (1959–73) and the Committee on Accounting Procedure(1938–59) of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants.

Federal statutes assign responsibility for establishing and maintaining a soundfinancial structure for the federal government to three officials: the Comptroller Gen-eral, the Director of the Office of Management and Budget, and the Secretary of theTreasury. In 1990, these three officials created the Federal Accounting StandardsAdvisory Board (FASAB) to recommend accounting principles and standards forthe federal government and its agencies. It is understood that, to the maximum extentpossible, federal accounting and financial reporting standards should be consistentwith those established by the GASB and, where applicable, by the FASB.

In Rule 203 of its Code of Professional Conduct, the American Institute of Cer-tified Public Accountants (AICPA) has formally designated the GASB, the FASAB,and the FASB as the authoritative bodies to establish generally accepted accountingprinciples (GAAP) for state and local governments, the federal government, andbusiness organizations and nongovernmental not-for-profit organizations, respectively.“Authority to establish accounting principles” is interpreted in practice to mean“authority to establish accounting and financial reporting standards.”7

Determining Whether a Not-for-Profit Organization Is GovernmentalIllustration 1–1 suggests that the kinds of organizations for which the FASB and GASBare responsible for setting standards are clearcut. Unfortunately, this is sometimes notthe case. In practice, it may be difficult to determine whether some not-for-profits aregovernmental in nature or not, and thus which standards-setting body to look to forauthoritative guidance.


7 Statement on Auditing Standards (SAS) 69, as amended by SAS 91, April 2000, specifically establishesthe FASB, the GASB, and the FASAB as the bodies to establish GAAP for their respective organizations.Other literature, such as AICPA Audit and Accounting Guides, are afforded secondary status as sourcesof authoritative guidance. These sources are discussed more fully in the “GAAP Hierarchy” section ofChapter 12.

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The U.S. Bureau of the Census defines a government as:

An organized entity which, in addition to having governmental character, has sufficientdiscretion in the management of its own affairs to distinguish it as separate from theadministrative structure of any other governmental unit.8

This definition, though helpful, provides insufficient guidance because it fails toexplain the meaning of “having governmental character.” In order to provide addi-tional guidance for auditors on this issue, two audit and accounting guides of theAICPA, with the tacit approval of both the FASB and the GASB, state:

Public corporations and bodies corporate and politic are governmental organizations.Other organizations are governmental organizations if they have one or more of thefollowing characteristics:

a. Popular election of officers or appointment (or approval) of a controlling majorityof the members of the organization’s governing body by officials of one or morestate or local governments,

b. the potential for unilateral dissolution by a government with the net assets revertingto a government, or

c. the power to enact and enforce a tax levy.9

Furthermore, organizations are presumed to be governmental if they have theability to issue directly (rather than through a state or municipal authority) debt thatpays interest exempt from federal taxation. However, organizations possessing onlythat ability (to issue tax-exempt debt) and none of the other governmental charac-teristics may rebut the presumption that they are governmental if their determinationis supported by compelling, relevant evidence. Colleges and universities, hospitals,museums, and social service agencies are examples of organizations that may beeither governmental or nongovernmental.

OBJECTIVES OF FINANCIAL REPORTING

GASB Concepts Statement No. 1, “Objectives of Financial Reporting,” states that“Accountability is the cornerstone of all financial reporting in government. . . .Accountability requires governments to answer to the citizenry—to justify the rais-ing of public resources and the purposes for which they are used.”10 The boardelaborated:

Governmental accountability is based on the belief that the citizenry has a “right toknow,” a right to receive openly declared facts that may lead to public debate by thecitizens and their elected representatives. Financial reporting plays a major role infulfilling government’s duty to be publicly accountable in a democratic society.11

Illustration 1–2 shows several ways that state and local governmental financialreporting is used in making economic, social, and political decisions and assessingaccountability. Closely related to the concept of accountability as the cornerstone of


8 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 2007 Census of Governments, p. ix.9 American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, Audit and Accounting Guide, Health CareOrganizations (New York, 2007), par. 1.02c; and American Institute of Certified Public Accountants,Audit and Accounting Guide, Not-for-Profit Organizations (New York, 2008), par. 1.03.10 GASB, Codification, Appendix B, Concepts Statement No. 1, par. 56.11 Ibid.

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governmental financial reporting is the concept the GASB refers to as interperiodequity. The concept and its importance are explained as follows:

The Board believes that interperiod equity is a significant part of accountability and isfundamental to public administration. It therefore needs to be considered whenestablishing financial reporting objectives. In short, financial reporting should helpusers assess whether current-year revenues are sufficient to pay for services providedthat year and whether future taxpayers will be required to assume burdens for servicespreviously provided. (Emphasis added.)12

Accountability is also the foundation for the financial reporting objectives theFASAB has established for the federal government. The FASAB’s Statement ofAccounting and Reporting Concepts Statement No. 1 identifies four objectives offederal financial reporting (see Illustration 1–2) focused on evaluating budgetaryintegrity, operating performance, stewardship, and adequacy of systems and controls.

Unlike the FASB and the GASB, which focus their standards on external financialreporting, the FASAB and its sponsors in the federal government are concerned withboth internal and external financial reporting. Accordingly, the FASAB has identi-fied four major groups of users of federal financial reports: citizens, Congress, exec-utives, and program managers. Given the broad role the FASAB has been assigned,its standards focus on cost accounting and service efforts and accomplishment mea-sures, as well as on financial accounting and reporting.

Financial reports of not-for-profit organizations—voluntary health and welfareorganizations, private colleges and universities, private health care institutions, religiousorganizations, and others—have similar uses. However, as Illustration 1–2 shows, thereporting objectives for not-for-profit organizations emphasize decision usefulnessover financial accountability needs, presumably reflecting the fact that the financialoperations of not-for-profit organizations—as compared to those of governments—are generally subject to less detailed legal restrictions.


12 Ibid., par. 61.

ILLUSTRATION 1–2 Comparison of Financial Reporting Objectives—State and Local Governments, Federal

Government, and Not-for-Profit Organizations

aSource: GASB Concepts Statement No. 1, par. 32.bSource: FASAB Statement of Federal Accounting Concepts No. 1, par. 134.cSource: FASB Concepts Statement No. 4, pp. 19–23.

State and Local Governmentsa

Financial reporting is used in makingeconomic, social, and political decisionsand in assessing accountability primarily by:

• Comparing actual financial resultswith the legally adopted budget.

• Assessing financial condition andresults of operations.

• Assisting in determining compliancewith finance-related laws, rules,and regulations.

• Assisting in evaluating efficiencyand effectiveness.

Federal Governmentb

Financial reporting should help toachieve accountability and is intendedto assist report users in evaluating:

• Budgetary integrity.• Operating performance.• Stewardship.• Adequacy of systems and controls.

Not-for-Profit Organizationsc

Financial reporting should provideinformation useful in:

• Making resource allocation decisions.• Assessing services and ability to

provide services.• Assessing management stewardship

and performance.• Assessing economic resources,

obligations, net resources, andchanges in them.

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Note that the objectives of financial reporting for governments and not-for-profitentities stress the need for the public to understand and evaluate the financial activitiesand management of these organizations. Readers will recognize the impact on theirlives, and on their bank accounts, of the activities of the layers of government theyare obligated to support and of the not-for-profit organizations they voluntarily sup-port. Since each of us is significantly affected, it is important that we be able to readintelligently the financial reports of governmental and not-for-profit entities. In orderto make informed decisions as citizens, taxpayers, creditors, and donors, readersshould make the effort to learn the accounting and financial reporting standardsdeveloped by the authoritative bodies. The standards are further explained and illus-trated throughout the remainder of the text.

FINANCIAL REPORTING OF STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS

Like the FASB, the GASB continues to develop concepts statements that communi-cate the framework within which the Board strives to establish consistent financialreporting standards for entities within its jurisdiction. The GASB, as well as theFASB, is concerned with establishing standards for financial reporting to externalusers—those who lack the authority to prescribe the information they want and whomust rely on the information management communicates to them. The Board doesnot intend to set standards for reporting to managers and administrators or othersdeemed to have the ability to enforce their demands for information.

Illustration 1–3 displays the minimum requirements for general purpose externalfinancial reporting under the governmental financial reporting model specified byGASB Statement No. 34 (GASBS 34).13 Central to the model is the management’sdiscussion and analysis (MD&A). The MD&A is required supplementaryinformation (RSI) designed to communicate in narrative, easily readable form thepurpose of the basic financial statements and the government’s current financialposition and results of financial activities compared with those of the prior year.

As shown in Illustration 1–3, GASBS 34 prescribes two categories of basic finan-cial statements, government-wide and fund. Government-wide financial state-ments are intended to provide an aggregated overview of a government’s net assets andchanges in net assets. The government-wide financial statements report on the govern-ment as a whole and assist in assessing operational accountability—whether the gov-ernment has used its resources efficiently and effectively in meeting operating objectives.The GASB concluded that reporting on operational accountability is best achieved byusing essentially the same basis of accounting and measurement focus used by businessorganizations: the accrual basis and flow of economic resources measurement focus.

Fund financial statements, the other category of basic financial statements,assist in assessing whether the government has raised and spent financial resourcesin accordance with budget plans and in compliance with pertinent laws and regula-tions. Certain funds, referred to as governmental funds, focus on the short-term flowof current financial resources or fiscal accountability, rather than on the flow ofeconomic resources.14 Other funds, referred to as proprietary and fiduciary funds,


13 GASB Statement No. 34, “Basic Financial Statements—and Management’s Discussion and Analysis—for State and Local Governments” (Norwalk, CT, 1999). Hereafter, Statement No. 34 is abbreviated asGASBS 34.14 The definition of fund is given in Chapter 2. For now, you can view a fund as a separate set ofaccounts used to account for resources segregated for particular purposes.

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account for the business-type and certain fiduciary activities of the government.These funds follow accounting and reporting principles similar to those of businessorganizations, although a number of GASB standards applicable to these fundsdiffer substantially from FASB standards applicable to business organizations.These differences will be discussed in later chapters.

As shown in Illustration 1–3, the notes to the financial statements are consideredintegral to the financial statements. In addition, governments are required to disclosecertain RSI other than MD&A. These additional information disclosures are discussedin several of the following chapters.

Illustrative Financial Statements—City and County of DenverAs mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, governmental financial reporting hasevolved to meet the unique needs of citizens and other financial statement users. Itshould not be surprising that these financial statements are quite different from thoseprepared by business organizations. Real-world examples of local government finan-cial statements—the basic financial statements of the combined City and Countygovernment of Denver, Colorado—are provided as Illustrations A1–1 through A1–11in the appendix to this chapter. These statements should be referred to frequentlywhile studying Chapters 1 through 9 of the text.15 Denver’s basic financial statementsare those specified by GASBS 34 and consist of:

Government-wide Financial Statements

1. Statement of net assets (see Illustration A1–1).2. Statement of activities (see Illustration A1–2).


15 The City and County of Denver’s financial statements provided in Chapter 1, and various required andother supplementary information that are presented in later chapters, are intended for illustrative educa-tional purposes only. Omitted in this text are the auditor’s report on the financial statements, the notes tothe financial statements, and other required supplementary information. Moreover, depending on the timesince this text was released, more current financial statements may be available. Those who have a needfor financial information for credit analysis or other evaluative or decision purposes should refer to theCity and County of Denver’s audited financial statements in the comprehensive annual financial report.

ILLUSTRATION 1–3 Minimum Requirements for General Purpose External FinancialReporting—GASB Statement No. 34 Reporting Model

Source: GASB Codification, Sec. 2200.103.

Management's discussion

and analysis

Notes to the financial statements

Required supplementary information

(other than MD&A)

Government-wide

financial statements

Fund financial

statements

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Fund Financial Statements

1. Balance sheet—governmental funds (see Illustration A1–3).2. Statement of revenues, expenditures, and changes in fund balances—governmental

funds (see Illustration A1–5).3. Statement of net assets—proprietary funds (see Illustration A1–7).4. Statement of revenues, expenses, and changes in fund net assets—proprietary funds

(see Illustration A1–8).5. Statement of cash flows—proprietary funds (see Illustration A1–9).6. Statement of fiduciary net assets (see Illustration A1–10).7. Statement of changes in fiduciary net assets (see Illustration A1–11).

Government-wide Financial Statements

Denver’s government-wide financial statements (see Illustrations A1–1 and A1–2)follow the GASBS 34 recommended formats; financial information is presented inseparate columns for governmental activities and business-type activities of theprimary government and its discretely presented component units (i.e., legally separateorganizations for which the City and County of Denver is deemed financiallyaccountable). Governmental and business-type activities are discussed in Chapter 2.Essentially, governmental activities encompass the executive, legislative, and judicialfunctions of the government as well as major service functions such as public safety,public works, parks and recreation, health and human services, and cultural activities.Business-type activities are largely self-supporting activities of a government thatprovide services to the public for a fee. Typical examples are electric, sewer, andwater utilities; transportation systems; airports; toll roads and bridges; and parkingfacilities.

Because the financial statements display information in multiple columns, theyare not fully consolidated in the manner of corporate financial statements. Receiv-ables and payables between activities reported in the same activities column orbetween component units are eliminated in preparing the financial statements.However, receivables/payables between activities reported in different columns arenot eliminated. For example, Denver’s statement of net assets shows a receivableof $23,625 under the line item internal balances in the Governmental Activitiescolumn with an equal contra-asset (payable) in the Business-type Activities col-umn. These two amounts represent the net receivables and payables between thesetwo activity categories.

As mentioned earlier and discussed more fully in Chapter 2, the two government-wide financial statements are intended to report on the government’s operationalaccountability. As such, the government-wide financial statements are prepared usingessentially the same basis of accounting and measurement focus that are used inbusiness accounting—that is, the accrual basis of accounting and measurement oftotal economic resources.

Fund Financial Statements

By contrast, governmental fund financial statements (see Illustrations A1–3 andA1–5) report on fiscal accountability. Therefore, these statements report onlyinformation that is useful in assessing whether financial resources were raised andexpended in compliance with budgetary and other legal provisions. Thus, govern-mental fund statements focus on the flow of current financial resources—cash and


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near-cash resources that are available for expenditure. Since long-term obligationsdo not have to be paid in the current budgetary period, nor do noncurrent assets suchas land, buildings, and equipment provide resources to pay current period obligations,neither is reported in the governmental funds. Both are reported in the GovernmentalActivities column of the government-wide statement of net assets, however, as shownin Illustration A1–1.

Modified accrual is the basis of accounting that has evolved for governmentalfunds. Under this basis, revenues are recorded only if they are measurable and avail-able for paying current period obligations. Expenditures are generally recognizedwhen incurred. As shown in Illustration A1–5, the governmental fund statement ofrevenues, expenditures, and changes in fund balances reports expenditures, sinceoutlays to acquire goods or services are more relevant than expenses in measuringthe outflow of current financial resources. Expenses, however, are more relevant atthe government-wide level, as they measure the cost of services provided. Conse-quently, expenses, classified by program or function, are reported for both govern-mental and business-type activities, as shown in Denver’s statement of activities (seeIllustration A1–2).

Illustration 1–4 summarizes key aspects of the dual roles that governmentalfinancial statements serve. Readers may be confused by the fact that the sameunderlying financial information for governmental activities is reported in two dif-ferent ways: (1) using accrual basis accounting with an economic resources mea-surement focus in the government-wide financial statements and (2) usingmodified accrual basis accounting with a current financial resources focus in thefund statements. To ensure integration of these statements, GASB standards requirethat the total fund balances reported on the balance sheet—governmental funds(Illustration A1–3) be reconciled to total governmental activities net assets reportedin the statement of net assets (Illustration A1–1). The reconciliation can be dis-played on the face of the balance sheet—governmental funds or, as Denver hasdone, separately as a stand-alone schedule (see Illustration A1–4). Similarly, GASBrequires that operating (change) statement results be reconciled for governmentalactivities. Accordingly, Denver presents a reconciliation (see Illustration A1–6) ofthe net changes in fund balances—total governmental funds reported on its state-ment of revenues, expenditures, and changes in fund balances—governmental


ILLUSTRATION 1–4 Dual Roles of Governmental Financial Statements in Assessing Accountability

Statements

Measurement focus

Basis of accounting

Operational Accountability

Government-wide financial statements(governmental and business-type activi-ties) and those of proprietary fundsand fiduciary funds

Flow of economic resources

Accrual basis (revenues and expensesare recognized when exchange ofeconomic resources occurs or perGASB recognition rules for nonex-change transactions, such as taxes,contributions, and grants)

Fiscal Accountability

Governmental fund financial statements

Flow of current financial resources

Modified accrual basis (revenues arerecognized when resources are measurable and available for currentspending; expenditures are recognizedwhen an obligation to spend currentfinancial resources is incurred)

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funds (Illustration A1–5) to the change in net assets of governmental activitiesreported on its statement of activities (Illustration A1–2). For now, it is sufficientto just be aware that such reconciliations are required; you will learn to preparereconciliations later in the text.

Proprietary fund financial statements present financial information for enterprisefunds and internal service funds. Both types of funds operate essentially as self-sup-porting entities and, therefore, follow accounting and reporting practices similar tothose of business organizations. Enterprise funds and internal service funds aredistinguished primarily by the kinds of customers they serve. Enterprise funds providegoods or services to the public, whereas internal service funds mainly serve depart-ments of the same government. For most governments, the information reported inthe Business-type Activities column of the government-wide statements is simplythe total of all enterprise funds information. Because internal service funds predom-inantly serve governmental activities, financial information for internal servicefunds is typically reported in the Governmental Activities column at the govern-ment-wide level.

As required by GASB standards, the City and County of Denver reports pro-prietary funds financial information in three financial statements: a statement ofnet assets—proprietary funds (Illustration A1–7), a statement of revenues,expenses, and changes in fund net assets—proprietary funds (Illustration A1–8),and a statement of cash flows—proprietary funds (Illustration A1–9). An astutereader will note that these are very similar to the three financial statementsrequired for business organizations, although there are important differences, aswill be discussed in later chapters.

The final two required financial statements are those for the fiduciary funds. Bydefinition, fiduciary funds account for resources that the government is holding ormanaging for an external party, that is, an individual, organization, or other govern-ment. Because these resources may not be used to support the government’s ownprograms, GASB standards require that financial information about fiduciary activ-ities be omitted from the government-wide financial statements; however, the infor-mation must be reported in two fund financial statements: a statement of fiduciarynet assets—fiduciary funds and a statement of changes in fiduciary net assets—fidu-ciary funds. Both statements are prepared using accrual accounting with the eco-nomic resources measurement focus. These two statements for the City and Countyof Denver are presented in Illustrations A1–10 and A1–11.

Major FundsBoth governmental funds and proprietary funds financial statements must provideseparate columns for each major fund (see Chapter 2 for the definition of a majorfund). The aggregate of nonmajor governmental and enterprise funds is reported ina single column of the corresponding statements. In addition to the General Fund,which is always considered a major fund, Denver identifies its Human Services andBond Projects funds as major governmental funds (Illustration A1–3) and its Waste-water Management and Denver Airport System funds as major enterprise funds(Illustration A1–7). Major fund reporting is not applicable to internal service fundsor fiduciary funds.

Reporting by major fund meets the information needs of citizens and other reportusers having a specific interest in the financial condition and operations of a particular


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fund. To meet the needs of individuals having an interest in particular nonmajor funds,governments should provide separate combining financial statements for nonmajor gov-ernmental and proprietary funds, as well as for discretely presented component units.

Comprehensive Annual Financial ReportSerious users of governmental financial information need more detail than is foundin the MD&A, basic financial statements, and RSI (other than MD&A). For stateand local governments, much of that detail is found in the governmental reportingentity’s comprehensive annual financial report (CAFR). Although governmentsare not required to prepare a CAFR, most do so as a matter of public record and toprovide additional financial details beyond the minimum requirements shown inIllustration 1–3. As such, the GASB provides standards for the content of a CAFRin its annually updated publication Codification of Governmental Accounting andFinancial Reporting Standards. A CAFR prepared in conformity with these standardsshould contain the following sections.16

Introductory Section17

The introductory section typically includes items such as a title page and contentspage, a letter of transmittal, a description of the government, and other items deemedappropriate by management. The letter of transmittal may be literally that—a letterfrom the chief financial officer addressed to the chief executive and governing bodyof the government—or it may be a narrative over the signature of the chief executive.In either event, the letter or narrative material should cite legal and policy require-ments for the report.

Financial Section

The financial section of a comprehensive annual financial report should include(1) an auditor’s report, (2) management’s discussion and analysis (MD&A), (3) basicfinancial statements, (4) required supplementary information (other than MD&A),and (5) other supplementary information, such as combining statements and indi-vidual fund statements and schedules. Items (2), (3), and (4) represent the minimumrequirements for general purpose external financial reporting, as depicted in Illus-tration 1–3. So, it should be apparent that a CAFR provides additional supplemen-tary financial information beyond the minimum amount required by generallyaccepted accounting principles.

Laws regarding the audit of governments vary from state to state. Some stateshave laws requiring that all state agencies and all local governments be audited byan audit agency of the state government. In other states, local governments areaudited by independent public accounting firms. In still other states, some local gov-ernments are audited by the state audit agency and some by independent publicaccounting firms. In any event, the auditor’s opinion should accompany the financialstatements reproduced in the report.


16 GASB, Codification, Sec. 2200.104–193.17 For a view of the introductory section, as well as the other sections of the CAFR, you may wish tolook at the City and County of Denver, Colorado’s CAFR at http://www.denvergov.org/controller/. Clickon “Financial Reports.” Portions of Denver’s CAFR for 2007 are included for illustrative purposes invarious places in this text.

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The financial section should contain sufficient information to disclose fully andpresent fairly the financial position and results of financial operations during thefiscal year. Laws of higher jurisdictions, actions of the legislative branch of thegovernment itself, and agreements with creditors and others impose constraintsover governments’ financial activities and create unique financial accountabilityrequirements.

Statistical Section

In addition to the introductory and financial sections of the CAFR, which were justdescribed, a CAFR should contain a statistical section. The statistical section typi-cally presents tables and charts showing demographic and economic data, financialtrends, fiscal capacity, and operating information of the government in the detailneeded by readers who are more than casually interested in the activities of thegovernment. The GASB Codification suggests the content of the statistical tablesusually considered necessary for inclusion in a CAFR. The statistical section isdiscussed at greater length in Chapter 9 of this text.

EXPANDING THE SCOPE OF ACCOUNTABILITY REPORTING

Some governments publish highly condensed popular reports. These reports usuallycontain selected data from the audited financial statements, statistical data, graphicdisplays, and narrative explanations, but the reports themselves are not audited. Inaddition, many state and local governments have begun to identify and report non-financial performance measures. For more than a decade, the GASB has encouragedstate and local governments to experiment with reporting service efforts andaccomplishments (SEA) measures to provide more complete information about agovernmental entity’s performance than can be provided by basic financial state-ments, budgetary comparison statements, and schedules. Indicators of service effortsinclude inputs of nonmonetary resources as well as inputs of dollars. Indicators ofservice accomplishments include both outputs and outcomes; outputs are quantita-tive measures of work done, such as the number of juvenile cases handled, and out-comes are the impacts of outputs on program objectives, such as a reduction in thehigh school dropout rate or incidence of juvenile crime. Chapter 13 provides addi-tional discussion of SEA measures.

OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS 2 THROUGH 17GASB Principles, Standards, andFinancial ReportingPart 1 of the text (Chapters 2–10) focuses on state and local governments. The prin-ciples that underlie GASB accounting and reporting standards are presented in Chap-ter 2. Chapters 3 through 8 provide detailed illustrations of the effect of financialtransactions on the funds and government-wide statements. Financial reporting forstate and local governments, as seen in the City and County of Denver, Colorado’sstatements presented in the appendix to this chapter, is described in detail in Chap-ter 9. Analysis of the financial performance of state and local governments based onfinancial and other information is described in Chapter 10.


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Accountability for Public FundsPart II of the text includes three chapters that describe ways that public financialmanagers provide accountability over funds entrusted to them. Chapter 11 focuseson the federal government, the largest provider of public funds, and introduces federaloffices that interact with state and local governments and not-for-profit organizationsin a variety of ways; for example, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) andthe Office of Management and Budget (OMB). Auditing techniques designed toassure the public that funds are properly accounted for and spent efficiently andeffectively are described in Chapter 12, with special attention devoted to areas ofauditing that are unique to federal funds, such as single audits. Chapter 13 coverstools important to managers in demonstrating accountability for funds, such as bud-geting, costing, and performance measurement.

Not-for-Profit OrganizationsPart III is a set of four chapters covering the unique accounting and financial report-ing issues facing entities in the not-for-profit sector. Chapter 14 provides detailedillustrations of the effect of financial transactions on the financial statements of not-for-profit organizations, much like Chapter 3 through 8 does for state and local gov-ernments. The governance and regulatory issues that a not-for-profit organizationfaces from the time of its incorporation through merger or dissolution, if any, arepresented in Chapter 15. Chapters 16 and 17 present industry-specific accountingand financial reporting requirements for colleges and universities and health careorganizations, respectively.

A CAVEAT

The first edition of this text was written by the late Professor R. M. Mikesell morethan 55 years ago in 1951. Some words of his bear thoughtful rereading from time totime by teachers and students in all fields, not just those concerned with accountingand financial reporting for governmental and not-for-profit entities:

Even when developed to the ultimate stage of perfection, governmental accountingcannot become a guaranty of good government. At best, it can never be more than avaluable tool for promotion of sound financial management. It does not offer a panaceafor all the ills that beset representative government; nor will it fully overcome theinfluence of disinterested, uninformed citizens. It cannot be substituted for honesty andmoral integrity on the part of public officials; it can help in resisting but cannot eliminatethe demands of selfish interests, whether in the form of individual citizens, corporations,or the pressure groups which always abound to influence government at all levels.18


18 R. M. Mikesell, Governmental Accounting, rev. ed., Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1956, p. 10.

Appendix

Illustrative Financial Statements—City and Countyof Denver

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16

CITY AND COUNTY OF DENVERStatement of Net Assets

December 31, 2007 (amounts expressed in thousands)

Primary GovernmentGovernmental Business-type Component

Activities Activities Total Units

Assets

Cash on hand $ 4,456 $ — $ 4,456 $ 54Cash and cash equivalents 442,398 160,778 603,176 52,329Investments — 302,979 302,979 210,759Receivables (net of allowances):

Taxes 300,772 — 300,772 7,414Special assessments 956 — 956 —Notes 80,571 — 80,571 —Accounts 33,839 51,467 85,306 29,687Accrued interest 2,711 5,830 8,541 61Other — — — 38,673

Due from other governments 48,853 — 48,853 —Internal balances 23,625 (23,625) — —Inventories 2,107 6,793 8,900 7,176Prepaid items and other assets 575 427 1,002 6,404Restricted assets:

Cash and cash equivalents 57,423 333,494 390,917 10,087Investments — 759,381 759,381 123,462Accrued interest — 1,092 1,092 —Other receivables — 18,361 18,361 —Prepaid items — 3,108 3,108 —Net assets held by third party — — — 200,780

Capital assets:Land and construction in progress 348,010 561,324 909,334 340,109Buildings, improvements, infrastructure, collections, 1,858,521 3,399,042 5,257,563 1,594,557

and equipment, net of accumulated depreciationLong-term receivables (net of allowances) 25,916 — 25,916 24,135Bond issue cost and other assets (net of 3,850 60,142 63,992 21,104

accumulated amortization)Assets held for disposition 6,327 14,094 20,421 —Total Assets 3,240,910 5,654,687 8,895,597 2,666,791

LiabilitiesVouchers payable 62,405 38,287 100,692 28,450Accrued liabilities 28,387 45,147 73,534 24,120Deferred revenue 247,122 37,533 284,655 10,299Advances 3,840 7,212 11,052 859Due to taxing unit 480 — 480 —Due to other governments — — — 2,768Liabilities payable from restricted assets — 84,841 84,841 —Noncurrent liabilities:

Due within one year 112,179 120,141 232,320 41,445Due in more than one year 1,226,795 3,938,069 5,164,864 1,147,764

Total Liabilities 1,681,208 4,271,230 5,952,438 1,255,705

Net AssetsInvested in capital assets, net of related debt 1,170,496 317,488 1,487,984 1,156,289Restricted for:

Capital projects 146,735 21,189 167,924 84,785Emergency use 31,240 — 31,240 210Debt service 80,008 657,498 737,506 29,575Donor restrictions:

Expendable 9,347 — 9,347 112,742Nonexpendable 3,387 — 3,387 103,913

Other purposes 3,442 — 3,442 —Unrestricted 115,047 387,282 502,329 (76,428)Total Net Assets $1,559,702 $1,383,457 $2,943,159 $1,411,086

ILLUSTRATION A1–1

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17

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wiL79603_ch01_001-034.qxd 12/12/2008 05:56 PM

CITY AND COUNTY OF DENVERBalance Sheet

Governmental Funds December 31, 2007

(amounts expressed in thousands)

Other TotalGeneral Human Bond Governmental Governmental

Fund Services Projects Funds Funds

Assets

Cash on hand $ 2 $ 398 $ — $ 4,056 $ 4,456Cash and cash equivalents 94,691 11,040 143,059 171,337 420,127Receivables (net of allowances of $71,799)

Taxes 113,616 46,336 — 140,820 300,772Special assessments — — — 956 956Notes 25 — — 80,546 80,571Accounts 14,292 18,951 — 26,004 59,247Accrued interest 1,111 — 634 878 2,623

Interfund receivable 30,977 56 — 4,311 35,344Due from other governments 289 4,728 — 43,836 48,853Prepaid items and other assets — — — 575 575Restricted assets:

Cash and cash equivalents 40,817 2,044 — 14,548 57,409Assets held for disposition — — — 6,327 6,327

Total Assets $295,820 $83,553 $143,693 $494,194 $1,017,260

Liabilities and Fund Balances

Liabilities:Vouchers payable $13,576 $8,271 $ 10,017 $29,645 $61,509Accrued liabilities 12,168 1,354 — 748 14,270Due to taxing units 2 134 — 344 480Interfund payable 2,774 5,693 395 4,641 13,503Deferred revenue 71,706 46,702 — 154,764 273,172Advances 3 406 — 3,431 3,840

Total Liabilities 100,229 62,560 10,412 193,573 366,774

Fund Balances:Reserved for:

Notes receivable — — — 80,546 80,546Prepaid items and other assets — — — 575 575Assets held for disposition — — — 6,327 6,327Emergency use 20,101 2,000 — 9,139 31,240Construction — — — 15 15Debt service:

Long-term debt 20,716 44 — 39,842 60,602Interest — — — 19,450 19,450

Unreserved:Designated for subsequent years’ expenditures, reported in:

Capital projects funds — — 121,634 58,926 180,560Undesignated, reported in:

General Fund 154,774 — — — 154,774Special revenue funds — 18,949 — 77,190 96,139Capital projects funds — — 11,647 5,224 16,871Permanent fund — — — 3,387 3,387

Total Fund Balances 195,591 20,993 133,281 300,621 650,486

Total Liabilities and Fund Balances $295,820 $83,553 $143,693 $494,194 $1,017,260

ILLUSTRATION A1–3


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ILLUSTRATION A1–4

CITY AND COUNTY OF DENVERReconciliation of the Balance Sheet—Governmental Funds

to the Statement of Net AssetsDecember 31, 2007


Amounts reported for governmental activities in the statement of net assets are different because:

Total fund balance—governmental funds. $ 650,486

Capital assets used in governmental activities, excluding internal 2,202,429service funds of $4,102, are not financial resources, and therefore,are not reported in the funds.

Accrued interest payable not included in the funds. (13,921)

Other long-term assets are not available to pay for current-period 26,050expenditures and,therefore, are deferred in the funds.

Bond issue costs, net of accumulated amortization. 3,850

Internal service funds are used by management to charge (4,219)the cost of these funds to their primary users—governmental funds. The assets and liabilities of the internal service funds are included in governmental activities in the statement of net assets.

Long-term liabilities, including bonds payable, are not due and (1,304,973)payable in the current period and therefore are not reported in the governmental funds (this excludes internal service liabilities of $34,001).

Net assets of governmental activities $1,559,702


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ILLUSTRATION A1–5

CITY AND COUNTY OF DENVERStatement of Revenues, Expenditures, and Changes in Fund Balance

Governmental FundsFor the year ended December 31, 2007


Other TotalGeneral Human Bond Governmental Governmental

Fund Services Projects Funds Funds

Revenues

Taxes:Facilities development admission $ — $ — $ — $ 10,092 $ 10,092Lodgers 13,483 — — 36,168 49,651Motor vehicle ownership fee 16,963 — — — 16,963Occupational privilege 21,376 — — 21,375 42,751Public service 18,478 2,100 — — 20,578Property 79,232 42,497 — 105,459 227,188Sales 418,177 — — 37,259 455,436Specific ownership — — — 64 64Telephone 3,231 — — 6,687 9,918

Special assessments — — — 1,370 1,370Licenses and permits 28,094 — — 1,289 29,383Intergovernmental revenues 32,861 82,644 — 95,846 211,351Charges for services 107,519 1,406 — 47,639 156,564Investment and interest income 18,717 23 8,888 12,362 39,990Fines and forfeitures 34,253 — — 2,760 37,013Contributions 3 235 — 8,430 8,668Other revenue 11,162 1,718 10 27,486 40,376

Total Revenues 803,549 130,623 8,898 414,286 1,357,356

ExpendituresCurrent:

General government 156,040 — 580,649 236,694Public safety 400,469 — — 70,509 470,978Public works 84,310 — 42 11,961 96,313Human services — 129,451 — — 129,451Health 41,783 — — 6,911 48,694Parks and recreation 47,003 — 190 12,598 59,791Cultural activities 31,386 — 260 41,328 72,974Community development 17,499 — — 36,378 53,877Economic opportunity — — — 26,122 26,122

Principal retirement 571 2,791 — 78,323 81,685Interest 2,737 1,989 — 48,661 53,387Bond issue costs — — 421 — 421Capital outlay — — 56,905 38,916 95,821

Total Expenditures 781,798 134,231 57,823 452,356 1,426,208

Excess (Deficiency) of revenues over expenditures 21,751 (3,608) (48,925) (38,070) (68,852)

Other Financing Sources (Uses)Sale of capital assets 13 — — 5,711 5,724General obligation bonds issued — — 8,861 — 8,861Insurance recoveries 1 5 — 5 11Transfers in 32,333 — — 53,013 85,346Transfers out (44,163) (32) — (38,890) (83,085)

Total Other Financing Sources (Uses) (11,816) (27) 8,861 19,839 16,857

Net change in fund balances 9,935 (3,635) (40,064) (18,231) (51,995)Fund balances—January 1 185,656 24,628 173,345 318,852 702,481

Fund Balances—December 31 $195,591 $ 20,993 $133,281 $300,621 $ 650,486


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ILLUSTRATION A1–6

CITY AND COUNTY OF DENVERReconciliation of the Statement of Revenues,

Expenditures, and Changes in Fund Balance—Governmental Funds to the Statement of Activities

For the year ended December 31, 2007 (amounts expressed in thousands)

Amounts reported for governmental activities in the statement of activities are different because:

Net change in fund balances—total governmental funds $ (51,995)

Governmental funds report capital outlays as expenditures. However, in the statement of activities the cost of those assets is allocated over their estimated useful lives and reported as depreciation expense. This is the amount by which capital outlay exceeded depreciation expense in the current period:

Capital outlay, including sale of assets 163,643Depreciation expense (109,953)

Revenues in the statement of activities that do not provide current financial resources are not reported as revenue in the funds:

Change in revenues in fund statements previously recognized in Statement of Activities (5,932)Donations of capital assets 17,610

The issuance of long-term debt and other obligations (e.g., bonds, certificates of participation, and capital leases) provides current financial resources to governmental funds, while the repayment of the principal of long-term debt consumes the current financial resources of governmental funds. Neither transaction, however has any effect on change in net assets. Also, governmental funds report the effect of issuance cost, premiums, discounts, and similar items when debt is first issued, whereas these amounts are deferred and amortized in the statement of activities. These differences in the treatment of long-term debt and related items consist of:

General obligation bonds issued (8,861)Principal retirement on bonds 68,265Issuance costs, premium, discounts and deferred gain (loss) on refunding 4,425Capital lease principal payments 13,420

Some expenses reported in the statement of activities do not require the use of current financial resources and, therefore, are not reported as expenditures in governmental funds:

Compensated absences (excluding internal service) (6,392)Accrued interest payable (1,205)Legal liability 980Note payable 2,044Line of credit payable 4,474

Internal service funds are used by management to charge their cost to individual funds. The net 3,644expense of certain activities of internal service funds is reported within governmental activities.

Change in net assets of governmental activities $ 94,167


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22 ILLUSTRATION A1–7

CITY AND COUNTY OF DENVERStatement of Net Assets

Proprietary FundsDecember 31, 2007


Business-type Activities—Enterprise Funds GovernmentalOther Total Activities—

Wastewater Denver Enterprise Enterprise Internal ServiceManagement Airport System Funds Funds Funds

Assets

Current assets:Cash and cash equivalents $ 6,834 $ 133,419 $20,525 $ 160,778 $22,271Investments 45,991 135,544 181,535 —Receivables (net of allowance for uncollectibles of $1,651):

Accounts 10,753 39,225 1,489 51,467 508Accrued interest 453 5,248 129 5,830 88

Interfund receivable 791 415 1,206 3,193Inventories 6,658 135 6,793 2,107Prepaid items and other assets 320 107 427 —Restricted assets:

Cash and cash equivalents — 331,500 1,994 333,494 14Investments — 217,789 217,789 —Accrued interest receivable — 1,076 16 1,092 —Other receivables — 17,772 589 18,361 —Prepaid items — 3,108 3,108 —

Total Current Assets 65,142 891,861 24,877 981,880 28,181

Noncurrent assets:Investments—unrestricted — 121,443 — 121,443 —Investments—restricted — 541,593 — 541,593 —Capital assets:

Land and construction in progress 86,069 466,016 9,239 561,324 —Buildings and improvements 14,207 1,972,606 9,128 1,995,941 4,107Improvements other than buildings 555,257 2,014,224 8,693 2,578,174 82Machinery and equipment 13,087 603,385 4,200 620,672 8,162Accumulated depreciation (197,030) (1,583,993) (14,722) (1,795,745) (8,249)

Net Capital Assets 471,590 4,135,274 16,538 4,623,402 4,102

Bond issue costs and other assets, net 294 59,633 215 60,142 —Assets held for disposition — 14,094 14,094 —

Total Noncurrent Assets 471,884 4,209,001 16,753 4,697,638 4,102

Total Assets $537,026 $5,100,862 $41,630 $5,679,518 $32,283

continued

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23

ILLUSTRATION A1–7 (Continued )

Liabilities

Current liabilities:Vouchers payable $ 1,564 $ 32,441 $ 2,282 $ 36,287 $ 896Revenue bonds payable 1,180 — 370 1,550 —Accrued liabilities 665 44,839 75 45,579 211Interfund payable 5,677 18,241 1,283 25,201 1,039Capital lease obligations — — — — 151Compensated absences 539 1,914 169 2,622 244Deferred revenue 13,665 45 13,710 —Claims reserve — — 11,690Construction payable 7,212 — 7,212 —Unearned revenue — 23,822 — 23,822 —

Current liabilities (payable from restricted assets):Vouchers payable — 24,755 1,994 26,749 —Retainages payable — 24,436 — 24,436 —Notes payable — 12,139 — 12,139 —Accrued interest and other liabilities — 21,517 — 21,517 —Other accrued liabilities — 13,708 — 13,708 —Revenue bonds payable — 103,830 — 103,830 —

Total Current Liabilities 30,502 321,642 6,218 358,362 14,231

Noncurrent liabilitiesNotes payable — 49,532 — 49,532 —Revenue bonds payable 24,323 4,095,020 6,110 4,125,453 —Deferred loss on refunding — (303,121) — (303,121) —Unamortized premium (discounts) — 58,422 59 58,481 —Capital lease obligations — — — — 317Other accrued liabilities 1,732 5,377 615 7,724 778Claims reserve — — — — 20,806

Total Noncurrent Liabilities 26,055 3,905,230 6,784 3,938,069 21,901

Total Liabilities 56,557 4,226,872 13,002 4,296,431 36,132

Net AssetsInvested in capital assets, net of related debt 439,169 (131,740) 10,058 317,487 3,634Restricted for:

Capital projects — 18,773 — 18,773 —Debt service — 657,498 — 657,498 —

Unrestricted 41,300 329,459 18,570 389,329 (7,483)

Total Net Assets (Deficit) $480,469 $ 873,990 $28,628 1,383,087 $(3,849)

Adjustment to reflect consolidation of internal service fund activitiesrelated to enterprise funds 370

Net assets of business-type activities $1,383,457

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24 ILLUSTRATION A1–8

CITY AND COUNTY OF DENVERStatement of Revenues, Expenses, and Changes in Fund Net Assets

Proprietary FundsFor the year ended December 31, 2007




Operating Revenues

Charges for services $ 75,750 $518,229 $15,899 $ 609,878 $46,316Other revenue — 11,922 874 12,796 488

Total Operating Revenues 75,750 530,151 16,773 622,674 46,804

Operating ExpensesPersonnel services 18,924 104,321 6,416 129,661 9,031Contractual services 15,382 165,044 9,362 189,788 493Supplies and materials 1,919 21,408 807 24,134 16,370Depreciation and amortization 11,197 159,309 678 171,184 828Metropolitan Wastewater Reclamation District 28,777 — — 28,777 —Claims payments — — — — 8,648Change in claims reserve — — — — 1,238Other operating expenses — — 1,285 1,285 6,857Total Operating Expenses 76,199 450,082 18,548 544,829 43,465

Operating income (loss) (449) 80,069 (1,775) 77,845 3,339

Nonoperating Revenues (Expenses)Investment and interest income 4,240 82,249 1,396 87,885 689Passenger facility charges — 97,191 — 97,191 —Disposition of assets 33 — — 33 (2)Grants — 324 — 324 —Interest expense 5 (220,064) (312) (220,371) (12)Passenger facility charge — (8,827) — (8,827) —Total Nonoperating Revenues (Expenses) 4,278 (49,127) 1,084 (43,765) 675

Income before contributions and transfers 3,829 30,942 (691) 34,080 —Capital grants and contributions 9,906 2,426 — 12,332 —Transfers out (11) — (2,250) (2,261) —

Change in net assets 13,724 33,368 (2,941) 44,151 4,014

Net assets—January 1, as previously reported 466,745 702,769 31,569 1,201,083 (7,863)Restatement for correction of error — 137,853 — 137,853 —Net assets—January 1, as restated — 840,622 — 1,338,936 —

Net Assets (Deficit)—December 31 $480,469 $873,990 $28,628 $1,383,087 $(3,849)

Change in net assets of enterprise funds $44,151Adjustment to reflect consolidation of internal service fund activities (182)

related to enterprise fundsChange in net assets of business-type activities $43,969

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25

ILLUSTRATION A1–9

CITY AND COUNTY OF DENVERStatement of Cash Flows

Proprietary FundsFor the year ended December 31, 2007




Cash Flows from Operating Activities

Receipts from customers $ 77,607 $ 524,011 $16,316 $ 617,934 $ 43,790Payments to suppliers (32,286) (172,191) (6,493) (210,970) (23,158)Payments to employees (18,649) (103,726) (6,374) (128,749) (9,030)Other receipts (payments) — — — — 426Interfund activity (10,437) (13,418) — (23,855) —Sale of salvage — — — — 56Claims paid — — — — (8,648)Other payments — — (1,125) (1,125) —

Net Cash Provided by Operating Activities 16,235 234,676 2,324 253,235 3,436

Cash Flows from Noncapital Financing ActivitiesTransfers out (11) — (2,250) (2,261) —Operating grants — 383 — 383 —

Net Cash Provided (Used) by Noncapital Financing Activities (11) 383 (2,250) (1,878) —

Cash Flows from Capital and Related Financing ActivitiesProceeds from capital debt — 480,150 — 480,150 —Bond issue costs — (2,498) 25 (2,473) —Principal payments (1,135) (172,149) (360) (173,644) (143)Passenger facility charges — 98,242 — 98,242 —Payments on capital assets acquired through construction payables (13,466) (39,670) — (53,136) —Acquisition and construction of capital assets (57,369) (133,132) (6,649) (197,150) (1,211)Sale of capital assets 33 503 — 536 (2)Interest paid (1,323) (199,416) (312) (201,051) (12)Contributions and advances 6,257 8,260 — 14,517 —Payments to escrow for current refunding of debt — (12,307) — (12,307) —

Net Cash Provided (Used) by Capital and Related (67,003) 27,983 (7,296) (46,316) (1,368)Financing Activities

Cash Flows from Investing ActivitiesPurchases of investments (11,923) (7,397,239) — (7,409,162) —Proceeds from sale of investments 65,971 7,216,181 — 7,282,152 —Sale of assets held for disposition; payments to maintain assets held — (24,474) — (24,474) —Insurance proceeds from Stapelton remediation — 30,248 — 30,248 —Interest received 3,565 66,324 1,384 71,273 675

Net Cash Provided (Used) by Investing Activities 57,613 (108,960) 1,384 (49,963) 675

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26 ILLUSTRATION A1–9 (Continued )



Net increase (decrease) in cash and cash equivalents 6,834 154,082 (5,838) 155,078 2,743Cash and cash equivalents—January 1 - 310,837 28,357 339,194 19,542

Cash and Cash Equivalents—December 31 $ 6,834 $464,919 $22,519 $494,272 $22,285

Reconciliation of Operating Income (Loss) to Net Cash Provided by Operating Activities

Operating income (loss) $ (449) $ 80,069 $ (1,775) $ 77,845 $ 3,339Adjustments to reconcile operating income (loss) to net cash

provided by operating activities:Depreciation and amortization 11,197 159,309 678 171,184 828Miscellaneous revenue — 6,750 — 6,750 —Accounts receivable, net of allowance 1,669 (12,336) (503) (11,170) (379)Interfund receivable (225) — (225) 361Inventories — (1,121) 12 (1,109) (201)Prepaid items — 580 — 580 —Vouchers payable 155 1,269 3,808 5,232 (874)Unearned revenue 413 16,609 46 17,068 —Accrued and other liabilities (336) (17,507) 43 (17,800) 1Interfund payable 3,811 1,054 15 4,880 (877)Claims reserve — — — — 1,238

Net Cash Provided by Operating Activities $16,235 $234,676 $ 2,324 $253,235 $ 3,436

Noncash ActivitiesAssets acquired through capital contributions $ 3,650 $ — $ — $ 3,650 $ —Unrealized gain (loss) on investments 650 18,732 — 19,382 —Capital assets acquired through accounts payable 7,212 36,720 — 43,932 —Amortization of bond premiums, deferred losses on bond — 17,920 — 17,920 —

refundings and bond costs

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ILLUSTRATION A1–10

CITY AND COUNTY OF DENVERStatement of Fiduciary Net Assets

Fiduciary Funds December 31, 2007


Pension and OtherEmployee Benefit Private-Purpose Agency

Trust Funds Trust Funds Funds

Assets

Cash on hand $ — $ 782 $ 4,028Cash and cash equivalents 40,536 573 12,960Securities lending collateral 279,711 — —Receivables (net of allowance for

uncollectibles of $5,987):Taxes — — 485,093Accounts 812 — 26Accrued interest 6,477 — —

Investments, at fair value:U.S. Government obligations 158,693 — —Domestic stocks and bonds 1,245,363 — —International stocks 364,619 — —Annuity 428,056 — —Mutual funds 49,751 — —Real estate 238,387 — —Other 100,656 — —

Total Investments 2,585,525 — —

Capital assets, net of accumulated depreciation 1,044 — —

Total Assets 2,914,105 1,355 502,107

LiabilitiesVouchers payable 7,879 316 326Securities lending obligation 279,711 — —Other accrued liabilities — — 4,213Due to taxing units — 782 497,568

Total Liabilities 287,590 1,098 502,107

Net Assets

Held in trust for pension benefits $2,626,515 $ 257 $ —and other purposes

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ILLUSTRATION A1–11

CITY AND COUNTY OF DENVERStatement of Changes in Fiduciary Net Assets

Fiduciary FundsFor the year ended December 31, 2007


Pension and OtherEmployee Benefit Private-Purpose

Trust Funds Trust Funds

AdditionsContributions:

City and County of Denver $ 38,862 $ —Denver Health and Hospital Authority 6,598 —Plan members 47,287 —

Total Contributions 92,747 —

Investment income:Net appreciation in fair value of investments 156,156 —Interest and dividends 101,988 —

Total Investment Income 258,144 —

Less investment expense (9,453) —

Net Income from Investments 248,691 —

Securities lending income 14,404 —Securities lending expenses:

Borrower rebates (12,899) —Agent fees (376) —

Net Income from Securities Lending 1,129 —

Total net investment income 249,820 —

Other additions — 36

Total Additions 342,567 36

DeductionsBenefits 146,538 —Refunds of contributions 410 —Administrative expenses 2,604 —

Total Deductions 149,552 —

Change in net assets 193,015 36Net assets—January 1 2,433,500 221

Net assets—December 31 $2,626,515 $257

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1–1. Explain how general purpose governments differ from special purpose governments and give a few examples of each type of government.

1–2. “Governmental and not-for-profit organizations do not differ significantlyfrom for-profit organizations and therefore should follow for-profit accountingand reporting standards.” Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Whyor why not?

1–3. Which standard-setting bodies have responsibility for establishing accountingand reporting standards for (1) state and local governments, (2) business orga-nizations, (3) not-for-profit organizations, and (4) the federal government andits agencies and departments?

1–4. How should one determine whether FASB or GASB standards should befollowed by any particular not-for-profit organization?

1–5. Distinguish between accountability and interperiod equity.1–6. “GASB financial reporting standards assist users in assessing the operational

accountability of a government’s business-type activities and the fiscalaccountability of its governmental activities.” Do you agree or disagree withthis statement? Why or why not?

1–7. Why do governmental fund financial statements use a different basis ofaccounting and measurement focus than the Governmental Activities columnof the government-wide financial statements? Also, which basis of account-ing and which measurement focus applies to each?

1–8. How does the modified accrual basis of accounting differ from the accrualbasis?

1–9. What are the three sections of a comprehensive annual financial report(CAFR)? What information is contained in each section? How do the minimumrequirements for general purpose external financial reporting relate in scope tothe CAFR?

1–10. Why does the GASB encourage state and local governments to report serviceefforts and accomplishments information in addition to a CAFR?

Questions

Key Terms* Accountability, 6Basic financial

statements, 8Comprehensive annual

financial report(CAFR), 13

Federal Accounting Standards AdvisoryBoard (FASAB), 5

Financial AccountingStandards Board(FASB), 3

Fiscal accountability, 8

Fund financialstatements, 8

General purpose governments, 2

Generally acceptedaccounting principles(GAAP), 5

Governmental AccountingStandards Board(GASB), 3

Government-wide finan-cial statements, 8

Interperiod equity, 7

Major fund, 12Management’s

discussion and analysis (MD&A), 8

Operational accountability, 8

Required supplementaryinformation (RSI), 8

Service efforts andaccomplishments(SEA), 14

Special purpose governments, 2

* See the glossary at the back of the text for a definition of each term and concept.

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1–1 Internet Case—FASB. Go to the Financial Accounting Standards Board’sWeb site at www.fasb.org. List by number and name all FASB statements thatspecifically provide accounting and reporting guidance for not-for-profitorganizations. Can you obtain a copy of the full text of these statements fromthis Web site? Does the FASB charge for its statements, or are they providedfree of charge?

1–2 Internet Case—GASB. Examine the Governmental Accounting StandardsBoard’s Web site (www.gasb.org) and prepare a brief report about its missionand structure and the representative organizations on its advisory council. Canyou get a copy of the full text of a GASB statement from this Web site? If not,how would you obtain a copy of GASB Statement No. 34, for example? Whatis the cost to purchase a statement?

1–3 Internet Case—FASAB. Examine the Federal Accounting Standards AdvisoryBoard’s Web site at www.fasab.gov and prepare a brief report about its missionand structure and compile a list of organizations represented on its Account-ing and Auditing Policy Committee. Can you obtain a copy of the full text ofFASAB statements from this Web site? If not, how would you obtain a copyof a statement pertinent to federal agencies? What is the cost to purchase astatement?

1–4 Research Case—Governmental or Not-for-Profit Entity? In partnership withJefferson County and the Mound City Visitor’s Bureau, Mound City recentlyestablished a Native American Heritage Center and Museum, organized as atax-exempt not-for-profit organization. Although the facility does not chargeadmission, signs at the information desk in the entry lobby encourage gifts of$3.00 for adults and $1.00 for children, 12 and under. Many visitors make therecommended contribution, some contribute larger amounts, and some do notcontribute at all. Such contributions comprise 40 percent of the museum’s totalannual revenues, with net proceeds from fund-raising events and governmentalgrants comprising the remaining 60 percent. The center operates from a city-ownedbuilding for which it pays a nominal $1 per year in rent. Except for a full-timeexecutive director and a part-time assistant, the center is staffed by unpaidvolunteers. The center is governed by a seven-member board of directors, eachappointed for a three-year term. Four of the directors are appointed by theMound City Council, two by the Jefferson County Commission, and one by theMound City Visitor’s Bureau. Should the center cease to operate, its charter pro-vides that 60 percent of its net assets will revert to the city, 25 percent to thecounty, and 15 percent to the Visitor’s Bureau.

At the end of its first year of operation, the board of directors decided toengage a local CPA to conduct an audit of the center’s financial statements. Theboard expects to receive an unqualified (clean) audit opinion stating that itsfinancial statements are presented fairly in conformity with generally acceptedaccounting principles.

Required

Assume you are the CPA who has been engaged to conduct this audit. To whichstandards-setting body (or bodies) would you look for accounting and financialreporting standards to assist you in determining whether the center’s financialstatements are in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles?Explain how you arrived at this conclusion.

Cases

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1–1 Examine the CAFR. Download a copy of the most recent comprehensiveannual financial report (CAFR) for the City and County of Denver from its Website: http://www.denvergov.org/controller (click on “Financial Reports”), or thatof another city or county if you wish.∗ Familiarize yourself with the organiza-tion by scanning the report and reread the section in this chapter entitled “Finan-cial Reporting of State and Local Governments.” Be prepared to discuss in classthe items suggested below.a. Introductory Section.

Read the letter of transmittal or any narrative that accompanies the financialstatements. Does this material define the governmental reporting entity andname the primary government and all related component units included in thereport? (Note: The reporting entity may be discussed in the notes to the finan-cial statements rather than in the transmittal letter.) Does the introductory sec-tion discuss the financial condition of the reporting entity at the balance sheetdate? Does it discuss the most significant changes in financial condition thatoccurred during the year? Does it alert the reader to forthcoming changes infinancial condition that are not as yet reflected in the financial statements? Dothe amounts reported in the letter of transmittal or other narrative agree withamounts in the statements and schedules in the financial section? Does the intro-ductory section include a list of principal officials? An organization chart? Areproduction of a Certificate of Achievement for Excellence in FinancialReporting from the Government Finance Officers Association (GFOA)? Assum-ing the government follows GASBS 34, compare the information in the letterof transmittal with that in the management discussion & analysis (MD&A).

b. Financial Section.(1) Audit Report. Are the financial statements in the report audited by an

independent CPA, state auditors, or auditors employed by the governmentbeing audited? Does the auditor indicate who is responsible for prepar-ing the financial statements? Does the auditor express an opinion thatthe statements are “in accordance with generally accepted accountingprinciples applicable to governmental entities in the United States” orsome other phrase? Is the opinion qualified in some manner, disclaimed,or adverse? Does the auditor indicate that the opinion covers the basicfinancial statements or that plus combining statements?

(2) Basic Financial Statements. Does the CAFR contain the two government-wide financial statements and seven fund statements and required recon-ciliation?

(3) Notes to the Financial Statements. How many notes follow the requiredbasic financial statements? Is there a phrase at the bottom of the basicfinancial statements indicating that the notes are an integral part of thefinancial statements?

* GASB’s Web site, http://www.gasb.org provides a sizeable list of local governments that voluntarilyreport to the GASB and indicates whether their CAFRs can be downloaded. You can usually obtain ahard copy of the CAFR of any city by sending an e-mail request to the city’s director of finance (orother appropriate title of the chief financial officer). Be sure to mention that you are a student andneed the CAFR for a class project. Contact information for the finance director can usually be obtainedby doing a search on “City of (name)” and looking for a link to the city’s departments. At that link,select Finance Department or a department with a similar function, such as Accounting and Budgeting.Before you request a CAFR by e-mail, check to see if one is accessible at the department’s Web site.

Exercises andProblems

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(4) Individual Fund and Combining Statements. Following the notes to thefinancial statements, does the CAFR provide combining and individualfund statements? Do these combining statements aggregate all the fundsof a given fund type or all the nonmajor funds?

(5) Management’s Discussion and Analysis (MD&A). Does the CAFR containan MD&A? If so, where is it located and what type of information doesit contain?

c. Statistical Tables.Examine these tables so that you can refer to them in discussions accompa-nying subsequent chapters. For example, is multiyear information providedabout financial trends, revenue capacity, debt capacity, demographic andeconomic trends, and operating activities?

1–2 Multiple Choice. Choose the best answer.

1. Special purpose governments differ from general purpose governments inthat special purpose governments:a. Provide a single function or limited range of functions.b. Do not have the power to levy taxes.c. Derive their power from state governments.d. All of the above.

2. Which of the following is a true statement about accounting standard-setting bodies?a. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) sets accounting and

reporting standards for all not-for-profit organizations, but the Govern-mental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) may also prescribe standardsfor governmental not-for-profit organizations provided they do not con-flict with FASB standards.

b. The GASB sets accounting and reporting standards for all governmentalorganizations; the FASB sets standards for all business and not-for-profitorganizations.

c. Only the FASB and GASB enjoy AICPA Ethics Rule 203 coverage asrecognized standard-setting authoritative bodies, not the FASAB.

d. The FASB and GASB are administratively supported by the FinancialAccounting Foundation; the FASAB draws its support from the federalgovernment.

3. A distinguishing difference between governments and not-for-profit organiza-tions is:a. Lack of a profit motive.b. Absence of owners.c. Taxation as a significant source of funding.d. Receipt of significant amounts of funding through nonexchange transac-

tions (i.e., resource providers do not get proportional benefits for whatthey pay to the organization).

4. Which of the following organizations would most likely meet the criteriato be classified as a governmental not-for-profit organization?a. A religion-affiliated university.b. A privately founded museum.

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c. A public school district.d. A city-administered community service agency.

5. The concept of interperiod equity refers to whether:a. Revenues equaled or exceeded expenditures for the year.b. Current year revenues were sufficient to pay for current year services.c. Total assets (current and noncurrent) were sufficient to cover total liabili-

ties (current and noncurrent).d. Future taxpayers can expect to receive the same or higher level of ser-

vices as current taxpayers.

6. Which of the following is (are) included in the minimum requirements forgeneral purpose external financial reporting of a government?a. Comprehensive Annual Financial Report.b. Management’s Discussion and Analysis (MD&A) and basic financial

statements.c. Combining fund financial statements.d. Statistical section.

7. The basic financial statements of a state or local government include all ofthe following except:a. An MD&A.b. Government-wide financial statements.c. Fund financial statements.d. Notes to the financial statements.

8. The modified accrual basis of accounting is used to account for revenuesand expenditures reported in the financial statements of:a. Governmental activities at the government-wide level.b. Business-type activities at the government-wide level.c. Governmental funds.d. Proprietary funds.

9. Separate columns for individual major funds should be provided in whichof the following financial statements?a. Statement of net assets—government-wide; balance sheet—governmental

funds; statement of net assets—proprietary funds.b. Statement of net assets—government-wide; balance sheet—governmental

funds; statement of fiduciary net assets—fiduciary funds.c. Statement of net assets—government-wide; statement of net assets—

proprietary funds; statement of fiduciary net assets—fiduciary funds.d. Balance sheet—governmental funds; statement of net assets—proprietary

funds.

10. Under GASBS 34, financial information related to fiduciary activities isreported in which financial statements?

Government-wide FundFinancial Statements Financial Statements

a. No Yesb. Yes Noc. Yes Yesd. No No

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1–3. Matching. Place the abbreviations corresponding to the appropriate reporting attribute(s) in the spacesprovided for each financial statement. Include all that apply.

Activities or Funds Basis of AccountingGovernmental activities—GA Accrual—ABusiness-type activities—BTA Modified accrual—MAGovernmental funds—GFProprietary funds—PF Measurement FocusFiduciary funds—FF Economic resources—ER

Current financial resources—CFR

Financial Activities or Basis of Measurement Statements Funds Reported Accounting Focus

Statement of net assets—government-wide

Statement of activities—government-wide

Balance sheet—governmental funds

Statement of revenues, expenditures, and changes in fund balances—governmental funds

Statement of net assets—proprietary funds

Statement of revenues, expenses, and changes in fund net assets—proprietary funds

Statement of cash flows—proprietary funds

Statement of fiduciary net assets

Statement of changes in fiduciary net assets

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chapter 1 introduction to accounting and financial reporting for governmental and not-for-profit...

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