chapter 1 ppp
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 1
Introduction and Research Methods
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What is Psychology?
The science of behavior and mental processesBehavior—observable actions of a person or animal
Mind—thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives and other subjective experiences
Science—an objective way to answer questions based on observable facts/data and well-described methods
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Philosophical Developments
• A Question: How are mind and body related?
• René Descartes (1596–1650)—Interactive dualism
• The mind and body interact to produce conscious experience
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Philosophical Developments
• Another Question: Nature vs. Nurture
• Are abilities determined by our genes or our experiences?
• What are the interactions between genetics and environment?
• What effect does it have on behavior?
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Foundations of Modern Psychology
• Separated from philosophy in 19th century– influences from physiology remain
• Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)– Leipzig, Germany
– wrote the first psychology textbook
– applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind
– structuralism—identify “atoms” of the mind• focused on basic sensory and perceptual processes
• measured reaction times
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Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)
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Other Pioneers• Edward Titchener (1867–1927)
– Wundt’s student, professor at Cornell University
• William James (1842–1910)– started psychology at Harvard in 1870s– opposed Wundt and Titchener’s approach– functionalism – influenced by Darwin
• Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)– Student of James– First woman president of APA
• G. Stanley Hall– Received first PhD in psychology in US– First president of APA
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E. B. Titchener (1867–1927)
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William James (1842–1910)
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Other Pioneers
• Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)– Austrian physician that focused on illness– psychoanalytic theory of mental disorders
• John B. Watson (1878–1958)– psychologists should study overt behavior
• B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)– American psychologist at Harvard– studied learning and effect of reinforcement– behaviorism
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John B. Watson (1878–1958)
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B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
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Humanistic Psychology
• Carl Rogers– focus on self-determination and free will
– more positive view of basic forces than Freud’s
• Abraham Maslow – behavior reflects innate “actualization”
– theory of motivation emphasizing psychological growth
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Carl Rogers (1902–1987) Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
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Perspectives
• Perspective is a way of viewing phenomena
• Psychology has multiple perspectives– Biological
– Psychodynamic
– Behavioral
– Humanistic
– Cognitive
– Cross Cultural
– Evolutionary
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Biological Perspective
• Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior
• Focus may be at various levels– individual neurons
– areas of the brain
– specific functions like eating, emotion, or learning
• Interest in behavior distinguishes biological psychology from many other biological sciences
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Psychodynamic Perspective
• View of behavior based on experience treating patients
• Psychoanalytic approach (Sigmund Freud)– both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind
– behavior reflects combinations of conscious and unconscious influences
– drives and urges within the unconscious component of mind influence thought and behavior
– early childhood experiences shape unconscious motivations
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Behavioral Perspective
• View of behavior based on experience or learning
– Classical conditioning
– Operant conditioning
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Humanistic Perspective
• Focus on motivation of people to grow psychologically
• Influence of interpersonal relationships on self concept
• Importance of choice and self-direction to reach potential
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Cognitive Perspective
• How is knowledge acquired, organized, remembered, and used to guide behavior?
• Influences include– Piaget – studied intellectual development– Chomsky – studied language– Cybernetics – science of information processing
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Cross-Cultural Perspective
• The study of psychological differences among people living in different cultural groups
• How are people’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior influenced by their culture?
• What are the common elements across culture? Are these innate?
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Evolutionary Perspective• Influenced by Darwin and the emphasis on
innate, adaptive behavior patterns
• Application of principles of evolution to explain behavior and psychological processes
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The Profession of Psychology
• American Psychological Association had 52 divisions in 1998
• Some represent areas of training and specialization (e.g., developmental, clinical)
• Some are applied (i.e., teaching in psychology, psychology and the law)
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Review
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Psychology should study how behavior and mental processes allow organisms to adapt to their environments
School/Approach Evolutionary perspective
Founder Charles Darwin
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Psychology should emphasize people’s unique potential for psychological growth
School/Approach Humanistic
Founder Maslow
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Psychology should only study observable behavior
School/Approach Behaviorism
Founder Watson/Skinner
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Goals of Psychology
• Describe
• Explain
• Predict
• Control
behavior and mental processes
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Scientific Skepticism
• Science helps build explanations that are consistent and predictive rather than conflicting and postdictive (hindsight)
• Science is based on– knowledge of facts– developing theories – testing hypotheses– public and repeatable procedures
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Scientific Method• Formulate testable questions
– Develop hypotheses
• Design study to collect data– Experimental – Descriptive
• Analyze data to arrive at conclusions– Use of statistical procedures– Use of meta-analysis
• Report results– Publication– Replication
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What a journal reference really means
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Theory
• Tentative explanation for observed findings
• Results from accumulation of findings of individual studies
• Tool for explaining observed behavior
• Reflects self-correcting nature of scientific method.
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Research Strategies• Descriptive—strategies for observing and
describing behavior– Naturalistic observation– Case studies– Surveys– Correlational methods
• Experimental—strategies for inferring cause and effect relationships among variables
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Descriptive Study• Describes a set of facts
• Does not look for relationships between facts
• Does not predict what may influence the facts
• May or may not include numerical data
• Example: measure the percentage of new students from out-of-state each year since 1980
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Naturalistic Observation
Researchers directly observe and record behavior rather than relying on subject descriptions. In naturalistic observation researcher records behavior as it occurs naturally.
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Case Study Method
• Highly detailed description of a single individual
• Generally used to investigate rare, unusual, or extreme conditions
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Survey MethodsDesigned to investigate opinions,
behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group. Usually in self-report form.
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Samples and Sampling• Population—large (potentially infinite)
group represented by the sample. Findings are generalized to this group.
• Sample—selected segment of the population
• Representative sample—closely parallels the population on relevant characteristics
• Random selection—every member of larger group has equal change of being selected for the study sample
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Correlational Study• Collects a set of facts organized into two or
more categories– measure time spent playing video games
– measure other personality characteristics
• Examines the relationship between categories
• Correlation reveals relationships among facts
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Coefficient of Correlation
Numerical indication of magnitude and direction of the relationship between two variables
– Positive correlation—two variables vary systematically in the SAME direction
– Negative correlation—two variables vary systematically in OPPOSITE directions
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Correlational Study
• Correlation cannot prove causation– Does playing video games cause a decline in
academic achievement?– Does playing video games cause more aggressive
behavior?
• May be an unmeasured common factor – e.g., maybe more aggressive people are attracted
to video games.
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Experiments
• Direct way to test a hypothesis about a cause-effect relationship between factors
• Factors are called variables
• One variable is controlled by the experimenter– e.g., type of video game--violent vs. non-violent
• The other is observed and measured– e.g., aggressive behavior
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Definitions
• Hypothesis—tentative statement about the relationship between variables
• Variables—factors that can vary in ways that can be observed, measured, and verified
• Operational definition—precise description of how the variables will be measured
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Experimental Variables
• Independent variable (IV)– the controlled factor in an experiment – hypothesized to cause an effect on another
variable
• Dependent variable (DV)– the measured facts – hypothesized to be affected
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Independent Variable
• Must have at least two levels– categories – male vs. female– numeric – ages 10, 12, 14
• Simplest is experimental vs. control group– experimental gets treatment– control does not
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Experimental Design• Random sample—every member of the
population being studied should have an equal chance of being selected for the study
• Random assignment—every subject in the study should have an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or control group
• Randomization helps avoid false results
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Variations in Design
• Placebo control group—exposed to a fake IV (placebo), the effects of which are compared to group receiving the actual IV.
• Double-blind study—technique in which neither experimenter nor participant is aware of the group to which participant is assigned
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Possible Bias
• Expectancy effects—change in DV produced by subject’s expectancy that change should happen
• Demand characteristics—subtle cues or signals by the researcher that communicate type of responses that are expected.
• Both controlled through use of double blind procedures
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Natural Experiments
• Often used to measure impact of naturally occurring events
• Used when actual experiments are impossible or unethical to create
• Example: Effects of chronic noise on stress in children
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Limitations
• Often criticized for having little to do with actual behavior because of strict laboratory conditions
• Ethical considerations in creating some more “real life” situations
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Ethical Guidelines
• Informed consent and voluntary participation
• Students as participants
• Use of deception
• Confidentiality of records
• Information about the study and debriefing
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Evaluating Media Reports
• Be skeptical of sensationalist claims
• Goal of “shock” media is ratings
• Look for original sources
• Separate opinion from data
• Consider methodology and operational definitions
• Correlation is not causality
• Skepticism is the rule is science.