NOTES

Chapter 1

1. Martin Kramer, “Islam’s Sober Millennium” Jerusalem Post, 30 December 1999,http://msanews.mynet.net/Scholars/Kramer/.

2. Ali A. Mazrui, “Islam and the End of History,” Iranian Journal of International Relations,vol. 7 #1, 1995, p. 3.

3. Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fate of Nations, (New York: Norton, 1997),pp. 409–411.

4. Jeffrey Sachs, “Islam’s geopolitics as a morality tale,” The Financial Times, 28 October2001.

5. Martin Kramer, “The Muslim Middle East in the 21st Century,” 25 November 1998,Dayan Middle East Center Website.

Chapter 2

1. Steven Bruce, “Fundamentalism, Ethnicity, and Enclave,” in Martin E. Marty, and R.Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, andMilitance, vol. 3 of series (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993) p. 51.

2. For a good discussion of these issues, see Robert D. Lee, Overcoming Tradition andModernity: the Search for Islamic Authenticity (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997) pp. 1–7,184.

3. I thank Professor Daniel Brumberg at Georgetown for this thought.4. Dale F. Eickelman, and James Piscatori, Muslim Politics (Princeton: Princeton Univer-

sity Press, 1996) p. 136.5. For a good brief summary of this potential shift in political culture in Malaysia, see

Chandra Muzaffar, Ulama as Mentri: the Challenge of Transforming Malay PoliticalCulture,” 24 December 1999, International Movement for a Just World Website,http://www.jaring.my/just/.

6. Ibid.7. For a definitive treatment of this topic, see Ann Elizabeth Myers, Islam and Human

Rights (Boulder, CO: Westview Press) 1991.8. Ahmad Mousalli, “Modern Islamist Fundamentalist Discourses on Civil Society, Plu-

ralism and Democracy,” in Jillian Schwedler, ed., Toward Civil Society in the MiddleEast? (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995) pp. 35–36.

9. Serif Mardin, “Civil Society and Islam,” Summary of a paper published in Civil Society,ed., John A. Hall (New York: Polity Press, 1996).

10. George Joffe, “Maghribi Islam and Islam in the Maghrib,” in David Westerlund andEva Evers Rosander, African Islam and Islam in Africa (Athens: Ohio University Press,1997) p. 77; Olivier Roy, “Pourquoi le ‘post-islamisme,’” Revue du Monde Musulman etde la Mediterranee, #85–86, p. 9–10.

11. Nilüfer Göle, “Secularism and Islamism in Turkey: The Making of Elites and Counter-elites,” The Middle East Journal, Winter 1997, p. 57.

12. See for example Anis Abd el Fattah, “Liberating Fatma: the centrality of the need to ad-dress the rights and roles of women in Muslim societies.” Muslimedia.com is the Inter-net edition of Crescent International, Newsmagazine of the Islamic Movement,December 2001.

Chapter 3

1. John Voll, Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World, second edition (Syracuse:Syracuse University Press, 1994), pp. 21–23.

2. Voll, Islam, pp. 21–23.3. Charles Kurzman, Liberal Islam (London: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 5–6.4. I owe these insights to Laith Kubba, from an interview in April 1999 in Washington, DC.5. Kurzman, Liberal Islam.6. R. Hrair Dekmejian, Islam in Revolution (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1995),

pp. 94–95.7. Dr. Mansoor al-Jamri, “Contemporary Currents in Islamist Political Thought,” first

published in the London-based Al-Quds, 22 January 1999, a summary of which is alsoavailable on Islam 21 Website: http://islam21.org.

8. For one incisive, yet controversial discussion of this issue see Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban,ed., Against Islamic Extremism: The Writings of Muhammad Sa’id al-Ashmawy(Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998).

9. Fluehr-Lobban, p. 91, in which ‘Ashmawi refers to his own earlier work, The Roots of Is-lamic Law.

10. I borrow this turn of phrase from Professor Jon Anderson at Catholic University, Wash-ington DC.

11. ‘Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im, “Shari’a and Basic Human Rights Concerns,” in Kurz-man, Liberal Islam, op. cit. p. 236.

12. Qaradawi as quoted in John L. Esposito, and John O. Voll, Islam and Democracy (NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1996), p 45.

13. Farish A. Noor, “Interview with Syed Hiader Farooq Muslimaudoodi,” taken from NewStraits Times (nstp.com.my), 15 April 2001, posting from Noor (korawa@hotmail.com).

14. Farish A. Noor, “UMNO, PAS and the Ulama—Challenges and Obstacles to Reform,”12 May 2000, Deputy Director of International Movement for a Just World (JUST),Kuala Lumpur, (korawa@hotmail.com).

15. One good source of materials on that topic is Charles Kurzman’s edited volume LiberalIslam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).

16. Fazlur Rahman, Islam and Modernity (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982), p. 23,italics mine.

17. Shaykh Rashid al-Ghanuchi, “Self-Criticism And Reconsideration,” Palestine Times,Issue #94, 1999. http://www.ptimes.com.

18. Dr. Mohammed Shahroor, “A Proposed Charter for Muslim Activists,” August 1999,http://islam21.org/charter.

19. Sadek J. Sulaiman, “Democracy and Rule of Law,” in Charles Kurzman, ed., LiberalIslam, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 98.

20. S. M. Zafar, “Accountability, Parliament, and Ijtihad,” in Charles Kurzman, ed., LiberalIslam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 71–72.

21. Laith Kubba, “Short words on Islam and Democracy,” http//:islam21.org.

216 THE FUTURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM

22. Laith Kubba in a personal exchange with the author, July 1999.23. Dr. Asghar Ali Engineer, “Reconstruction of Islamic Thought,” Institute of Islamic

Studies, India, http://Islam21.org.24. Cited in Dale Eickelman and James Piscatori, Muslim Politics (Princeton: Princeton

University Press, 1996), p. 34.25. Fazlur Rahman, Islam and Modernity (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982), p. 23.

Chapter 4

1. For one discussion of this concept as it relates to the Muslim world, see S. M. ShamsulAlamm, “Islam, Ideology and the State in Bangladesh,” Journal of Asian and African Stud-ies, vol. XXVIII, 1–2 (1993), p. 94, although the details of his discussion are based pri-marily on the Bangladeshi model.

2. Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War: Religious Nationalism Confronts the SecularState (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), pp. 1–8.

3. See Graham E. Fuller, “The Next Ideology,” in Foreign Policy, Spring 1995.4. David E. Sanger, “Shipwreck in Seattle,” New York Times, 4 December 1999.5. For an excellent discussion of the problems of globalization, see John Gray, False Dawn:

The Delusions of Global Capitalism (New York: The New Press, 1998), pp.209–235.6. Gray, p. 192.7. Gray, p. 191.8. Gray, p. 193.9. Craig R. Whitney, “Keeping French Fears of US Dominance at Bay,” New York Times,

1 December 1999.10. Robert Kaplan, “The Coming Anarchy,” The Atlantic Monthly, February 1994.11. Kaplan, op. cit.12. David Ownsby, “China’s War Against Itself,” New York Times 15 February 2001.13. Peter L. Berger, “Four Faces of Global Culture,” The National Interest, Fall 1997, pp.

27–28.

Chapter 5

1. I am grateful to Professor Augustus Richard Norton, Boston University for this definition.2. For a provocative and thought-provoking discussion of terrorism, see Eqbal Ahmed,

“Terrorism: Theirs and Ours,” A Presentation at the University of Colorado, Boulder,October 12 1998 as reproduced in Turkistan Newsletter, 1 Oct 2001.

3. Khaled Abou El Fadl, “ Terrorism Is at Odds With Islamic Tradition,” Los Angeles Times,22 August 2001; professor at the UCLA School of Law and author of “Rebellion andPolitical Violence in Islamic Law,” Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Chapter 6

1. Timothy Carney and Mansoor Ijaz, “Intelligence Failure? Let’s Go Back to Sudan,” TheWashington Post, 30 June 2002.

2. See Kalim Siddiqui, Stages of Islamic Revolution (London: The Open Press, 1996).3. One of the best portrayals of failing Islamist ideology in daily life in Iran is available in

Farhad Khosrokhavar, and Olivier Roy, Comment Sortir d’une Revolution Religieuse(Paris: Editions de Seuil, 1999).

NOTES 217

4. Peter K. Bechtold, “More Turbulence in Sudan,” in Sudan: State and Society in Crisis,ed., John Voll (Boulder: Westview, 1991), p. 1.

5. Martha Wenger, “Sudan Politics and Society,” Middle East Report, September-October1991, p. 3.

6. See Mohamed Elhachmi Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader: Conver-sations With Hasan Al-Turabi (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1999).

7. Timothy Carney and Mansoor Ijaz, “Intelligence Failure? Let’s Go Back to Sudan.”8. Williams, Brian, “The Continuing Decline of Afghan Statistics,” Reuters, 3 August

1997.9. Bailey, op. cit.

10. Kathy Gannon, “Afghanistan Exiles Fear Taleban,” Associated Press, 17 February 1999.

Chapter 7

1. Seyyed Veli Reza Nasr, The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution (Los Angeles: Universityof California Press, 1994), p. 15.

2. Mumtaz Ahmad, “The Tablighi-Jamaat,” in Martin E. Marty and Scott Appleby, eds.,Fundamentalisms Considered (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp.510–524.

3. Zeki Saritoprak, “The Nur School of Turkey and Political Islam: A Comparative Dis-cussion,” in manuscript form, 1999.

4. “Vast extent of the ‘Gülen Empire’,” Briefing Ankara, 28 June 1999.5. For further details, also see Hakan Yavuz, “Toward an Islamic Liberalism? The Nurcu

Movement and Fethullah Gülen in Turkey,” The Middle East Journal, Autumn, 1999;Bülent Aras, “Turkish Islam’s Moderate Face,” Middle East Quarterly, September 1998;and the definitive book on the founding of the movement, Serif Mardin, Religion andSocial Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bediüzzaman Said Nursi (Albany: StateUniversity of New York Press, 1989).

6. See a fascinating discussion of this rivalry in London in Tayfun Atay, “Bir NaksibendiSöyleminde Vahhabilik” (Wahhabism in a Naqshbendi Discourse), in Kimlik Tar-tismalari ve Etnik Mesele (Identity Debates and the Ethnic Issue), Türkiye Günlügü,Ankara, April 1995.

7. S. V. R. Nasr, “The Rise of Sunni Militancy in Pakistan: The Changing Role of Islamismand the Ulama in Society and Politics,” Modern Asian Studies, 34, 1 (2000), p. 149.

8. Seyyed Veli Reza Nasr, The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution, p. 149.9. Rashid Ghannushi, “Islamic Movements: Self-Criticism And Reconsideration,” Pales-

tine Times, No. 94 (April 1999).10. Jillian Schwedler, “A Paradox of Democracy? Islamist Participation in Elections,” Mid-

dle East Report, Winter 1998, p. 27.11. Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994),

pp. 75–77.12. Rashid Ghannushi, “Islamic Movements.”

Chapter 8

1. Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976), pp.92–93, 178–179.

218 THE FUTURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM

2. Muslim Public Affairs Council, MPACnews, 19 November 2001, quoting Grahamfrom remarks on “NBC Nightly News” on 16 November 2001, (broadcast@lists.mpac-news.org).

3. Maulana Muhammad Masoud Azhar, “Fundamentalism,” no date, Taliban Website,(http://www.ummah.net/taliban/) downloaded 24 January 2000. The above passagesare my own summary of the message.

4. For a less traditional discussion of this problem, see Graham E. Fuller and Ian O. Lesser,“Persian Gulf Myths,” Foreign Affairs, May 1997.

5. For detailed treatment of this argument, see Graham E. Fuller, “Redrawing the World’sBorders,” in The World Policy Journal, Winter 1997.

Chapter 9

1. Ibrahim Karawan, “The Islamist Impasse,” (London: International Institute of Strate-gic Studies, 1997).

2. For an excellent discussion of this phenomenon in Egypt, see Steven Barraclough, “Al-Azhar: Between the Government and the Islamists,” The Middle East Journal, Spring1998.

3. See Dale F. Eickelman and Jon W. Anderson, “Print, Islam, and the Prospects for CivicPluralism: New Religious Writings and Their Audiences,” Journal of Islamic Studies 8:1(1997).

4. Eickelman, p. 125.5. I am grateful to Iraqi Islamist Laith Kubba for this observation.6. Nilüfer Göle, “Secularism and Islamism in Turkey: The Making of Elites and Counter-

elites,” The Middle East Journal, Winter 1997, p. 58.7. See Khosrokhavar and Olivier Roy, Iran: Comment Sortir d’une Revolution Religieuse, es-

pecially chapter 5, “Individu, Jeunesse, et Espace Publique” (Paris: Editions de Seuil,1999).

8. Isma’il al-Faruqi as quoted by John Voll in “Islamic Issues for Muslim in the UnitedStates,” in Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, ed., The Muslims of America (New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 1991), p. 212.

Chapter 10

1. Roy in a personal exchange with the author.2. Joseph Samaha, “Are the Islamists going mainstream?” Mideast Mirror, 9 June 1999.3. Fahmi Howeidi, “Why Moslems should support NATO in its punishment of the Serb

butchers,” in Mideast Mirror, 6 April 1999, citing al-Ahram; and al-Effendi, Abdelwah-hab, “Why Arab commentators should be cheering NATO,” Mideast Mirror, 20 April1999, citing al-Quds al-’Arabi.

4. Alan Richards, “The Political Economy of Economic Reform in the Middle East: TheChallenge to Governance,” from the executive summary in RAND DRR–2763053102(manuscript), The Political Economy of Economic Reform in the Middle East, prepared forRAND Project, “The Future of Middle East Security” Santa Monica, forthcoming2002.

5. “Self Doomed to Failure: A special report on Arab development,” The Economist, 6 July2002, p. 24.

NOTES 219

6. Ali A. Mazru’i, “Islam and the End of History,” Iranian Journal of International Rela-tions, vol. 7 # 1, 1995, p. 22.

7. I make this argument in greater detail in my book The Democracy Trap: Perils of thePost–Cold War World (New York: Dutton, 1992).

8. M. A. Muqtedar Khan, “Postmodernity and the Crisis of “Truth,” A Return to Enlight-enment, Volume 2, No: 1 (Jan 21, 2000).

220 THE FUTURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM

INDEX

’Abdu, Muhammad, 7, 58Abou el Fadl, Khaled, 90Abu Sayyaf, 89, 89Acton, Lord, 27Afghanistan, 6, 7, 10, 15, 16, 24, 29,

30, 38, 42, 76, 83, 87, 97, 101,113–117, 137, 154, 167, 176, 177,178, 186, 198

Africa, 12, 18, 23, 77, 107, 149, 212Ahmad, Eqbal, 94(AID) Agency for International

Development, 165AK Party (Turkey), 34, 129, 195Akbar (Moghul Emperor), 150al-Afghani, Jamal-al-din, 7al-Asad, Hafiz, 191al-Ashmawi, Muhammad Sa’id, 56, 57al-Azhar University, 168, 169, 184al-Faraj, ‘Abd-al-Salam Muhammad, 52al-Faruqi, Isma’il, 185Algeria, 10, 15, 24, 27, 28, 31, 42, 71,

76, 84, 88, 90, 119, 125, 126, 133,138, 139, 141, 142, 154, 162, 167,176, 188, 203

al-Hayat, 196al-Haq, Zia, 131, 132‘Ali, Ben, 22al-Mahdi, Sadiq, 130al-Mawdudi, Abu al-A’la, 9, 120al-Mawdudi, Farooq, 58

al-Nahda, 23, 61, 133al-Qa’ida, 41, 83–88, 94, 100, 117, 126,

159, 191al-Sa’dawi, Nawal, 39al-Takfir wa’l Hijra, 88Anatolian Tigers, 34Anti-Americanism as ideology, 91–95,

159–160Anti-Islamic Coalition, 192Arab Socialism, 15Armed Islamic Group (GIA), 88Armenia, 41Asia, 18, 74, 77Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal, 8, 18, 119,

179Aum Shinrikyo, 89Auschwitz, 175Australia, 165Azerbaijan, 167Azhar, Maulana Masoud Muhammad,

150, 151

Baader Meinhoff Gang, 89Bahrain, 167, 212Balkans, 23, 148Baluch, 59, 176Bamyan, 101, 117Bangladesh, 10, 42, 138, 141, 168, 170Basques, 19Ba’th, 153, 187

Bediuizzaman, Said Nursi, 8Ben Bella, 119Berbers, 176Bin Ladin, Usama, 53, 60, 83–85, 87,

94,95, 100, 114, 116, 117, 186Black Muslims, 28Blasphemy, 38–40Bosnia, 10, 22, 71, 84Bourgiba, 119Bruce, Steven, 13Buddha, 117Buddhist, 3, 40Burma, 101Bush George W., 83, 85, 86, 88, 151,

157Byzantium, 3, 148

Cairo, 30, 48, 68, 169, 173, 174Caliphate, 8, 18Canada, 165Cantori, Louis, 168Carter, Jimmy, 112Catalans, 19Catholic Church, 40Caucasus, 76Central Asia, 23, 188Chechnya, 10, 22, 24, 28, 41, 68, 84,

126, 162Chiapas, 77China, 2, 12, 21, 36, 37, 40, 41, 74, 75,

78, 84, 101, 149, 181, 190–192Civil Society, 31–33Clash of Civilizations, 145, 151Clinton, Bill, 75CNN, 161Cold War, 8, 9, 15, 70, 154, 156, 162,

196Columbia, 75Congo, 75Crusades, 18, 148

Dacca, 68Dar al-Harb, 185

Dar al-Islam, new, 184–186Da’wa, 122, 123, 127, 128, 130, 135,

185, 208Democratization, 29–31Deobandi, 114Dial-a-fatwa, 57, 58Diamond, Jared, 6

East Asia, 12, 149Ecumenicism, 174“Electronic umma,” 174Egypt, 9, 10, 13, 15, 22, 23, 24, 28, 31,

34, 36, 38, 39, 42, 50, 72, 84, 90,119, 132, 133, 138, 141, 142, 153,154, 167, 168, 170, 173, 184, 187,188, 196

Eickelman, Dale, 173England, 19Engineer, Asghar Ali, 62Ethnicity and Islam, 70, 176Eurasia, 5, 67Europe, 7, 18, 40, 68European Union, 19, 46, 190Evangelical Pentacostalism, 77, 78

Fahd bin ‘Abdul ‘Aziz, (King) 22Falun Gong, 63Family Law, 195Fatwa, 71, 111, 173Fazilet Party (Turkey), 34, 130, 131,

195Fertile Crescent, 6Fethullahcilar; see also Gulen Movement,

128Feminism and Islam, 36–38Fiqh, 56, 198, 200FIS Movement (Algeria), 42, 131France, 46, 75French Revolution, 26

Germany, 73, 75Ghannushi, Shaykh Rashid, 23, 31, 61GIA (Armed Islamic Group), 88

222 THE FUTURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM

Globalization, 73–74, 183, 189Göle, Nilüfer, 35, 181Gore, Al, 197Gray, John, 74Greek Orthodox Patriarch, 149Gulen, Fethullah, 128Gulen movement, 128

Hadith, 38, 48, 58, 64Hamas, 53, 133, 138Hashemites, 40Hajj, 17Hazaras, 176Hindus, 3, 40Hindu Revivalist Party, 70Hizballah, 88Hudud punishments, 200Huntington, Samuel, 145, 151Hussein, Saddam, 40, 90, 100, 163,

167, 187, 191, 197

Ibrahim, Anwar, 197Ijtihad, 50, 56, 63, 104–112, 128, 184Iman, 4IMF (International Monetary Fund), 73,

111, 142India, 2, 10, 12, 36, 37, 40, 68, 74, 84,

149, 157, 191Indonesia, 3, 10, 23, 28, 31, 36, 50, 62,

68, 72, 76, 125, 126, 133, 136,138, 139, 167, 168, 173, 187, 188

Internet, 10, 40, 164Iran, 10, 15, 21, 26, 30, 31, 34, 41, 43,

57, 71, 97–99, 101, 102–107, 111,116, 118, 119, 131, 137, 139, 140,154, 158, 157, 176, 177, 183, 184,187, 188, 196, 197, 198

Iraq, 10, 21, 68, 83, 86, 90, 102, 126,132, 153, 154, 157, 158, 167, 176,189, 197

Iran-Iraq War, 107Islam and History, 1–4Islam and identity, 17–18

Islam and Nationalism, 21–22Islam and National Liberation

Movements, 22–23Islam and Shari’a, 198–201Islam and the West, 145, 146, 160–162,

201–203Islamic Economies, 26, 141Islamic Human Rights Commission, 30Islamic Action Front, 136, 138Islamic Jihad, 88Islamic law; see Shari’aIslamism and Geopolitics, 67–81Islamism as Ideology, 193Islamist Femininist Movement, 37Islamization, 35, 131Israel, 8, 9, 40, 84, 93, 148, 152–154,

157, 164Istanbul, 68, 173Italy, 72, 74

Jahiliyya, 52Jaish-e Mohammad, 150Jama’at-i Islami, 7, 20, 42, 53, 131Jama’at-i ‘Ulama-i Islami, (JUI) 23, 116Japan, 46, 74Java, 3Jihad, 10, 149, 150Jinnah, Mohammad Ali, 119Joffee, George, 33Jordan, 9, 10, 12, 36, 40, 138, 141,

142, 168, 176, 187, 212Judeo-Christian, 148Jundallah, 88Justice and Development Party (Turkey);

see AK Party

Kadivar, Abdol Muhsin, 184Kafir, 48, 52Kaplan, Robert, 76Karachi, 68Karawan, Ibrahim, 168Kashmir, 22, 71, 84, 126, 150, 162,

163, 191, 195

INDEX 223

Kazakstan, 167Kemalism, 35, 139Khan, Muqtedar, 208Khartoum, 112, 113Khomeini, Ayatollah, 105, 156, 182Korea, 74Kramer, Martin, 1Kubba, Laith, 61–63Kufr, 135, 150Kurds, 71, 176Kuwait, 10, 29, 31, 39, 125, 133, 138,

139, 141, 167, 195–197, 212

Laicisme, 176Latin America, 12, 36, 74Left and Islam, 196Leninist tactics, 21, 98, 123Levant states, 9Leviathan, 32Liberalism in Islam, 54–56Lebanon, 9, 31, 138, 177Libya, 126, 132, 154, 167, 187, 188,

189London, 30, 61, 104

Madrasas, 132Magna Carta, 25Maghreb, 189; see also North AfricaMahfouz, Naguib, 39Malaysia, 10, 23, 27, 28, 31, 36, 72,

84, 138, 167, 168, 170,172, 176,212

Marja al-Taqlid, 63Marx, 8, 17, 34, 80Maslaha, Islamic concept of, 32, 98Materialism and Islam, 181–183Mazlumder (Turkey), 30Mazru’i, Ali, 4, 205Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, 42Mecca, 17, 18, 147Mesopotamia, 135Mexico, 77Minority Rights, 175

Modernist Islam, 49Modernization, 68–69Mohammad, Mahatir, 197Morocco, 3, 10, 12, 28, 40, 71, 168,

176, 212Moscow, 154Mossad, 84Mossadegh, 100Mubarak, Husni, 22Mughal Dynasty, 172Muhammadiya (Indonesia), 23, 52, 131,

136, 138, 199Muhsin, Salahaddin, 39Mujahidin, 29, 42, 85, 87, 88, 100,

114–116Mukhabarat, 126, 128, 192Munharif (Deviant from Islam), 117Muslim Brotherhood, 20, 42, 52, 53,

169, 170, 187, 195Muslim Brotherhood of Egypt, 108,

120Muslim Brotherhood of Kuwait, 39Muslim seafarers, 5“Muslim Space,” 33Muslim Student Association, 161Mu’tazilite, 50Muzaffar, Chandra, 27

Nahdatul ulama (NU-Indonesia), 23,131, 138

Na’im, Abdullah Ahmad, 5,Nakshibendi Brotherhood, 130, 136Nasir, Vali, 131Nasr, Abu Zayd, 39Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 13, 119, 191National Islamic Front (NIF-Sudan),

108–109, 111–113, 132,NATO, 197Neo-Islamist, 49Nietzsche, 207Nigeria, 75, 162Non-governmental Organizations

(NGO), 28, 122, 140

224 THE FUTURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM

Noor, Farish, 59North Africa, 11, 188Northern Ireland 13, 78North Korea, 85Nubians, 176Nur Movement, 11, 34, 129, 130, 171,

195, 205; see also Gulen Movement,Fethullacilar

Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said, 128, 129

Old Testament, 146, 172, 181Ottoman Empire, 6, 8, 148

Pakistan, 9, 10, 24, 26, 31, 34, 39, 42,71, 76, 87, 115–117, 119, 120,125, 127, 131, 132, 134,138–142, 154, 157, 168, 170,176, 177, 178, 184, 187, 188,195, 196, 198

Palestine, 10, 22, 53, 68, 84, 125, 126,162, 163

Pan-Arabism, 155Panch Sila, (Five Principals) 139Pan-Islamism, 41–42PAS Party of Malaysia, 23, 131, 170,

172Pashtuns, 115, 176Persia, see IranPhilippines, 10, 22, 40, 68, 85, 89,

126Political Islam, definitions, xiPolitical Islam, its uses, 13–46Pluralism, 71–72, 170Pope John Paul II, 78, 149Post-Modernism and Islam, 206–211Prophet Muhammad, 4, 50, 147Protestant, 40Protestant Reformation, 60Protestantism, 36, 37Punjab, 176

Qadhafi, Mu’ammar, 156, 191Qatar, 12, 24, 173

Qaradawi, Shaykh Yusif, 24, 57, 173Qur’an, 4, 48, 55, 56, 58, 63, 89–90,

147, 171, 172, 200, 209Qutb, Sayyid, 52

Radicalism in Islam, 51Rahman, Fazlur, 60, 63Renaissance, 6Reza Shah Pahlevi, 119Richards, Alan, 203Ridha, Rashid, 7, 58Rohatyn, Felix, 75Rome, 7, 91Roy, Olivier, 33, 185, 194Ruiz, Samuel, 77Rumi, 50Rushdie, Salman, 111Russia, 23, 40, 41, 75, 85, 115, 190,

192

Saadet Party, (Turkey), 34Sachs, Jeffrey, 6Sadat, Anwar, 108Salafis, Salafiyya, 38, 48, 49, 172Samaha, Joseph, 196Saudi Arabia, 10, 22, 24, 38, 41, 85, 90,

99–101, 106, 107, 111, 113, 126,131, 132, 137, 141, 167, 168, 187,190, 198

Scotland, 19Secularism, 33, 42, 60–63, 69,

179–181Seddiqui, Kalim, 104Sepah-e-sahaba, 88Serbia, 40, 197Shahrur, Muhammad, 61Shari’ a, 4, 28, 45, 55, 56–57, 59, 62,

63, 76, 106, 113, 175,194, 198,200

Shariati, ‘Ali, 141Sharon, Ariel, 85Shi’a, 5, 59, 90, 177Shinto, 40

INDEX 225

Shura, 61Sindhis, 71Sisters in Islam in Malaysia, 38Somalia, 10, 85Soroush, Abdol Karim, 184South Africa, 149, 152Soviet Union, 10, 12, 15, 77, 181, 212;

see also RussiaSpain, 19Sri Lanka, 78Sudan, 10, 15, 16, 23, 30, 34, 41, 43,

75, 97–101, 107–113, 116, 118,167, 176, 186, 198; see alsoNational Islamic Front, HasanTurabi

Sufi, 3, 50Suharto, 133, 136, 139Sulaiman, Sadek, 61Sunni, 5, 18, 59, 177Supreme Leader of Iran (Rahbar), 102,

103Suttee, 37Switzerland, 37Syria, 9, 101, 126, 132, 153, 154, 167,

188, 189

Tablighi Jama’at, 11, 127, 128Taiwan, 75Tajiks, 41, 176Takfir, 52Taleban, 11, 42, 83, 87, 98, 100,

113–115, 117, 118, 178, 186,197, 198; see also Afghanistan

Tajdid, concept of 23, 49Tajikistan, 41Tanzania, 83Tasawwuf, 51; see also SufiTaymiyya Ibn, 52Tehran, 68, 104, 190; see also IranTerrorism, and Islam, 83–95Third world, 9, 15, 57, 68, 69Tolerance, 171–174Traditionalists, 47

Tunisia, 22, 30, 31, 42, 90, 132, 167;see also Rashid

Tunisian National Council for Liberties,30

Turabi, Hasan, 31, 108, 109, 111–113,123

Turkey, 11, 18, 23, 24, 27, 28, 30, 31,33, 34, 35, 36, 50, 57, 71, 107,119, 123, 125, 128, 129, 131, 136,138–142, 154, 157, 167, 168, 170,171, 173, 176, 177, 187, 189, 195,202, 205, 212

Turkmenistan, 167

’ulama, 23, 24, 26, 33, 58–60, 63, 112,131, 198

Umma, 20, 53, 58, 59, 150, 185; andnational identity, 19–20

United Arab Emirates (UAE), 167United Kingdom, 19Universalism and Islam, 204UNDP, 204United Nations, 114United States, 28, 37, 40, 45, 51, 71,

73, 75, 80, 83, 84, 86, 88, 94, 98,100–102, 111, 157, 158, 163, 164,175, 192

U.S. Constitution, 55U.S. Supreme Court, 93Urdu, 173Usulis, 50Uygurs, 41; see also XinjiangUzbekistan, 10, 24, 90, 101, 115, 132,

167, 176

Vakif, 129“Virtual Umma,” 174Virtue Party (Turkey); see Fazilet PartyVoll, John, 48

Wahhabi, 40, 41, 48, 172, 195Wahid, Abdurrahman, 23Wales, 19

226 THE FUTURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM

War Against Terrorism, 10, 18, 29, 83, 85–87, 94, 95, 110, 165, 168,192, 197, 211, 212

Welfare Party, 129; see also RefahWorld Trade Center, 83, 84, 88, 197World Trade Organization (WTO), 73, 75World War II, 8, 37

Xinjiang, 22

Yasin, Shaykh Ahmad, 23Yemen, 10, 15, 31, 85, 125, 138, 139,

154, 167, 187, 212

Zafar, M. S., 61Zakat, 63Zapatista, 77Zionism, 153Zoroastrian, 3

INDEX 227