chapter 1: the dry bones speak human origins in myth and history early myths “myth” is an...
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Chapter 1: The Dry Bones Speak
Human Origins in Myth and HistoryEarly Myths
• “Myth” is an interpretative story with a moral message that cannot be verified historically
• One of earliest myths is Enuma Elish (Mesopotamia), dating to approximately 2000 B.C.E.
• Rigveda (India) dates to 1000 B.C.E.• Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible• All define creation and the role of people
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Human Origins in Myth and HistoryThe Evolutionary Explanation
• Drawn from direct observations from the 18th century
• Relied on the scientific method
• The most influential theorists were Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace
• Rejected the simultaneous creation of all species in favor of the cumulative creation of species, which reflected natural selection
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
The Evolutionary ExplanationThe New Challenges
• Changes in species not the result of a grand teleological design with ethical goals but that reflected improved ability to survive and reproduce
• Newer organisms that were simply “fit” to survive• These organisms evolved from earlier forms of life rather
than as the result of a separate creation• Darwin’s The Descent of Man cements evolutionary
explanation in 1871
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil HuntersThe Puzzling Neanderthals
• Found in 1856, they were identified as the missing link between humans and ape ancestors
• Research suggests Neanderthals made tools and adapted to changing climates
• May also have been cannibals
• More discoveries showed that Neanderthals were not the missing link
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil HuntersHomo Erectus: A Worldwide Wanderer
• Earliest discoveries of this species were in Java and China
• Similarities among archaeological finds led to the designation of homo erectus
• Few initial ideas of the relationship among the finds led early experts to regard each find as a separate species
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil HuntersThe Search Shifts to Africa
• Louis Leakey made a major breakthrough in understanding based on skeletal findings in the Olduvai Gorge in East Africa (after 1959)
• Studies now involve paleoanthropology, the study of the tools, species and plants included in the locale of each find
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil HuntersHomo habilis
• Name means “handy person”
• Existed 1.5 million to 2.5 million years ago
• Possessed opposable thumbs
• Walked in upright position
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil HuntersAustralopithecus afarensis was discovered in 1974 by Donald Johnson; the first find was named “Lucy” and dates to 3.2 million years ago
Ardipithecus ramidus was discovered in 1994; the skeleton dates to 4.4 million years ago
Recent discovery of “Toumai” moves date of earliest hominid to 6-7 million years ago.
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil HuntersDebate Over African Origins
• Multiregionalists argue that Homo sapiens evolved after emigration of Homo erectus out of Africa
• Out-of-Africa proponents believe Homo sapiens evolved in Africa and then migrated to rest of world
• Both sides agree that racial differences are simply adaptations to climate and are superficial
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil HuntersReading the Genetic Record
• Study of genetics rather than fossils largely supports Out-of-Africa theorists
• Genetic dating suggests that humans, gorillas and chimpanzees shared common ancestors until 5-7 million years ago
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil HuntersThe Theory of Scientific Revolution
• Thomas Kuhn’s theory of normal science and paradigm shift fits well with developing understanding of evolution
• The paradigm shift was Darwin’s theory of evolution
• Subsequent paleoanthropological findings represent additions achieved through “normal science”
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create CultureBiological Evolution and Cultural Creativity
• Homo habilis began cultural adaptations by developing simple tools
• Additional developments of tools, rituals, art, language, settlements and concepts mean that today culture is more important than biology in determining how humans cope with nature
• Cultural evolution may have been encouraged by biology due to brain development
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create CultureBiological Evolution and Cultural Creativity
• Cultural transmission tied to infant need for long-term nurturing
• Burst of creativity 100,000 years ago has led scientists to identify today’s people as Homo sapiens sapiens
• This new subspecies is distinctive for its symbolic expression that is spiritual and cultural in nature
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create CultureHow Did Humans Survive?
• Three explanations for success of Homo sapiens sapiens success over other hominids
– Aggression, warfare and murder
– Mating and reproduction
– Success in competition for ecological niches
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create CultureGlobal Migration
• Modern humans spread out from Africa to Europe and Asia between 90,000 and 120,000 years ago
• Migrations were stimulated by climate change
• Ice ages lowered water levels and made migration easier
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create CultureIncreased Population and New Settlements
• Early groups competed with one another for ecological niches
• Hunter-gatherer tribes probably averaged five hundred, divided into nineteen bands
• Each band needed 7-8 square miles of fertile or 77 square miles of unfertile land
• Movement to small settlements took advantage of water resources
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create CultureLanguage and Communication
• No physical evidence for language development• Language began as soon as brain was large enough?• Brain had to be reorganized for language?• Language is both a biological and cultural development• Language promoted development of concepts and
reflective thought
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create CultureAgriculture: From Hunter-Gatherer to Farmer
• Began as experimentation with plants near settlements• Humans had ability to farm 12,000-17,000 years ago• Permanent sources of food were crucial to decision to
farm• Population pressure may have added to impetus• Actual use of extensive agriculture began 10,000 years
ago
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1. The Dry Bones Speak
Prehistory: What Difference Does It Make?Myth and Science are partners in this analysis
Analysis is an example of “normal science” in action
Legacies of this period include a) migration; b) tools; c) formation of ever larger groups; d) communication through language; e) self-expression through art; and f) shifting between acceptance and attempted control of nature