Chapter 1 The Evolution of Psychology

History What is Psychology?The science of behavior and mental processes

Behavior—observable actions of a person or animal

Mind—thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives and other subjective experiences

Science--an objective way to answer questions based on observable facts/data and well-described methods

Separated from philosophy in 19th century influences from physiology remain

Philosophical Developments

A Question: How are mind and body related?

René Descartes (1596–1650)—

Interactive dualism The mind and body interact to produce

conscious experience

Philosophical Developments

Another Question: Nature vs. Nurture

Are abilities determined by our genes or our experiences?

What are the interactions between genetics and environment?

What effect does it have on behavior?

Prior to 1879 Physiology + Philosophy = Psychology Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) University of

Leipzig, Germany Established the first laboratory for the study of

psychology in 1879 Psychology was born

Psychology: Birth of a New Science

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)

Leipzig, Germany The “father of psychology” Founder of modern

psychology Opened the first psychology

lab in 1879 wrote the first psychology

textbook applied laboratory techniques

to study of the mind

Leipzig, the place to study psychology Graduates of Wundt’s program set up

new labs across Europe and North America

G.Stanley Hall (1846-1924) Johns Hopkins University Established the first psychology

laboratory in the U.S. in 1883 Between 1883 and 1893, 24 new

laboratories in North America

Psychology Goes International

Two intellectual schools of thought regarding the science of psychologyStructrualism – led by Edward TitchenerFunctionalism – led by William James

Structuralists focused on analyzing consciousness into basic elements Introspection – careful, systematic observations

of one’s own conscious experience Functionalists focused on investigating the

function or purpose of consciousness

The Battle of the “Schools” in the U.S.: Titchener vs. James

E.B. Titchener (1867–1927)

Wundt’s student, professor at Cornell University

Analyzed the intensity, clarity and quality of the parts of consciousness

Founder of structuralism

Structuralism

Studied the basic elements (structure) of thoughts and sensations.identify ‘atoms’ of the mind

• focused on basic sensory and perceptual processes

• measured reaction times

William James (1842–1910)

First American psychologist Started psychology at

Harvard in 1870s Opposed Wundt and

Titchener’s approach Author of the first psychology

textbook Founder of Functionalism

functionalism – influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us adapt to the environment

Functionalism

Emphasized studying the function of consciousness and how consciousness helped people adapt to their environment

Most historians give the edge to James and the functionalists

Today, psychologists are not really categorized as structuralists or functionalists

Applied psychology and Behaviorism - descendants of functionalism

Behaviorism - early 1900’s The next major school of thought to influence the

development of psychology

Who Won the Battle?

John B. Watson (1878-1958): United States of AmericaFounder of Behaviorism

Psychology = scientific study of behaviorBehavior = overt or observable responses or

activities Radical reorientation of psychology as a science of

observable behavior

Behaviorism: Goodbye to Consciousness

Watson’s famous quoteNurture, not nature

Behaviorist school of thought emphasized the environment (nurture)Focus on stimulus-response relationships

S-R psychology

Doctor, Lawyer, Beggar-man, Thief: Watson and the Nature-Nurture Debate

John B. Watson (1878-1958)

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Behaviorist Russian Physiologist Studied learning

through associations in animals

Emphasized the study of observable behaviors

Behaviorism: B.F. Skinner

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990): United States of America

Environmental factors determine behaviorResponses that lead to positive outcomes

are repeatedResponses that lead to negative outcomes

are not repeated Beyond Freedom and Dignity

More controversy regarding free will

B.F. Skinner (1904–1990)

Behaviorist American psychologist

at Harvard Focused on learning

through rewards and observation

studied learning and effect of reinforcement

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): AustriaFounded Psychoanalytic school of thought

Emphasis on unconscious processes influencing behavior Unconscious = outside awareness

Freud: the Unconscious Mind

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Austrian physician that focused on illness

Founder of the psychoanalytic perspective

Believed that abnormal behavior originated from unconscious drives and conflicts

Freud’s Influence

Influence on “pop culture”

Freudian slipsAnal-retentive

Influence on psychology

Psychodynamic theoryUnconscious thoughtsSignificance of childhood

experiences

Behavior is influenced by the unconscious Unconscious conflict related to sexuality plays a

central role in behaviorControversial notions caused debate/resistance

Significant influence on the field of psychology

Freud’s Ideas: Controversy and Influence

Charges that both were dehumanizingDiverse opposition groups got together to form a loose

allianceHumanism was born Led by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and Carl

Rogers (1902-1987) Emphasis on the unique qualities of humans: freedom

and personal growth

The 1950’s: Opposition to Psychoanalytic Theory and Behaviorism Develops

Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow(1902-1987) (1908-1970)

Helped to create Humanistic Psychology Stressed the study of conscious experience and an

individual’s free will Healthy individuals strive to reach their potential.

Cognition = mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge

1950’s and 60’s – Piaget, Chomsky, and Simon

Application of scientific methods to studying internal mental eventsCognitive psychology: the new

dominant perspective?

Putting the Psyche Back in Psychology: The Return of Cognition

James Olds (1956)Electrical stimulation of the brain evokes emotional

responses in animals Roger Sperry (1981)

Left and right brain specialization Biological Perspective = behavior explained in terms of

physiological processes

Biological Psychology: The Biological Basis of Behavior

Central premise: natural selection occurs for behavioral, as well as physical, characteristicsBuss, Daly & Wilson, Cosmides & Tooby –

80’s and 90’sStudied natural selection of mating

preferences, jealousy, aggression, sexual behavior, language, decision making, personality, and development

Thought provoking perspective gaining in influence, but not without criticism

Evolutionary Psychology: Functionalism Revisited

Ethnocentrism – viewing one’s own group as superior and as the standard for judgingHistorically: middle and upper class

white males studying middle and upper class white males

1980’s – increased interest in how cultural factors influence behaviorgrowing global interdependence

increased cultural diversity

Contemporary Psychology: Cultural Diversity

Psychology - the science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and it is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems.

Research : Seven major areas Applied Psychology: Four major

areas

Psychology Today: A Multifaceted Field

Themes related to psychology as a field of study: Psychology is empirical (Theme 1), theoretically

diverse (Theme 2), and it evolves in a sociohistorical context (Theme 3).

Themes related to psychology’s subject matter: Behavior is determined by multiple causes (Theme

4), shaped by cultural heritage (Theme 5), and influenced jointly by heredity and environment (Theme 6).

Finally, people’s experience of the world is highly subjective (Theme 7).

Studying Psychology: Seven Organizing Themes

Figure 1.6Leading college majors. This list shows the ten most popular undergraduate majors in the United States, based on the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded in 1992–1993. As you can see, psychology ranked second only to business administration and management in the number of degrees awarded. (Data from U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1995)

The Future 1. Business Administration and Management/Commerce 2. Psychology 3. Nursing 4. Biology/Biological Sciences 5. Education 6. English Language and Literature 7. Economics 8. Communications Studies/Speech Communication and

Rhetoric 9. Political Science and Government 10. Computer and Information Sciences 

Source: Princeton Review Jan. 2011

Figure 1.7Employment of psychologists by setting. The work settings in which psychologists are employed have become quite diverse. Survey data on the primary employment setting of APA members indicate that one-third are in private practice (compared to 12% in 1976) and only 27% work in colleges and universities (compared to 47% in 1976). These data may slightly underestimate the percentage of psychologists in academia, given the new competition between APA and APS to represent research psychologists. (Data based on 1997 APA)

Figure 1.8Major research areas in contemporary psychology. Most research psychologists specialize in one of the seven broad areas described here. The figures in the pie chart reflect the percentage of academic and research psychologists belonging to APA who identify each area as their primary interest. (Data based on 1997 APA Directory Survey)

Figure 1.9Principal professional specialties in contemporary psychology. Most psychologists who deliver professional services to the public specialize in one of the four areas described here. The figures in the pie chart reflect the percentage APA members delivering professional services who identify each area as their chief specialty. (Data based on 1997 APA Directory Survey)