Chapter 10 – Launching the Nation

-After the Constitution was ratified, one of the first tasks before the American people was to elect the Congress and the new President. -The first President of the United States under the Constitution was George Washington. Washington was a beloved figure throughout the country. He was the hero of the American Revolution. He was known to be honest, brave, and a patriot. He was well-liked throughout the country, in both the North and the South. -The President is elected not by popular vote, but through the electoral college, a group of specially elected representatives whose job it is to vote for President. The number of electors for each state was equal to that state’s representation in Congress. Generally electors followed the will of the people, but if they felt the people made a mistake in their voting, the electors could vote for someone else. In this case, the electoral college voted unanimously to make Washington President, and John Adams, the second place finisher in popular voting, became Vice-President. Washington and Adams were sworn into office in 1789 in the new capital of the United States, New York City. -Washington’s wife, Martha Washington, became the first First Lady of the United States, or the wife of the President. She set a standard for the duties of a President’s wife. In addition to being in charge of the President’s household, she organized parties and other social events. Her example would be followed in later years by other First Ladies, whose duties have expanded over time. -Americans were primarily concerned with the growth of the new United States economically and socially. Most Americans were farmers at the time, and wanted to see fair taxation of their property and the ability to expand into western lands such as the Northwest Territory. Those living in cities, such as merchants and manufacturers, were interested in trade laws that protected their interests and helped them grow, such as tariffs. -In 1789, the largest cities in the United States were New York City and Philadelphia with populations of over 25,000 residents. -Since the American government was new, inexperienced, and essentially the world’s first self-governing democracy, most of the government’s actions during this period were the first of their kind. Every action set a precedent, or example to be followed in the future.

Laying the Foundations of Government

First Actions of the Government -As stated previously, every action of the American government under the Constitution was new and unprecedented. And although the Constitution gave a broad outline for the powers of the new government, dividing it into three branches, what powers each branch had, etc., it included little in the “nitty-gritty” details of how the government would be organized. Most of the small details would be left up to Congress. -Congress first established various executive departments, each headed by a secretary. Each department was responsible for its own area of decision and policy-making. The first executive departments included the Department of War (now known as the Department of Defense), headed by Henry Knox (Secretary of War), the Department of State, headed by Thomas Jefferson (Secretary of State), the Department of the Treasury, headed by Alexander Hamilton (Secretary of the Treasury), the Department of Justice, headed by Edmund Randoph (the Attorney General). These department heads became the President’s cabinet, or close group of department heads and advisors to the President. They were responsible for carrying out the policies of the President and enforcing the laws of the United States. Congress created these departments and positions, although the President was responsible for nominating and filling them with Congressional approval. In 1789, there were far fewer executive departments than exist today. As the nation’s needs grew, so did the number of executive departments. -Although the Constitution provided for a federal court system with the Supreme Court as the highest court in the United States, it included no details on exactly how this court system was to be organized. To that end, Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789, which established a national court system with federal district (trial) courts, and various courts of appeal, with the final court of appeal being the Supreme Court, which had six judges originally (today there are nine). Again, the President filled these positions with people he nominated, and those were approved by Congress. Washington nominated John Jay to become the first Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Washington wanted the judiciary, or court system, to be very independent and make decisions without political bias or partisanship.

National Finances -Perhaps the biggest challenge facing the new country was that of its finances, specifically the amount of debt held by both the federal (national) and state governments. Most of this debt was money borrowed during the American Revolution. People differed on exactly how this debt should be repaid. The total amount of money owed by the government is called the national debt. Alexander Hamilton, the nation’s first Secretary of the Treasury, would be primarily responsible for coming up with a plan to pay the national debt. -Some of this debt was owed to foreign countries such as France, and some of this debt was owed to the American people themselves in the form of bonds, or certificates that represent money owed. During the Revolution, people purchased bonds from the government, with the promise that their bonds would be repaid with interest after a certain amount of time. However, the cash-poor government would have trouble paying these bonds, at least initially. Many people who owned the bonds needed money now, so they sold their bonds for less than they were actually worth to speculators, or those who believed that, in time, they would make a profit by cashing in the bonds for full value. -Hamilton felt it was extremely important to stabilize the nation’s finances, first focusing on pay the national debt. He proposed paying debts to foreign countries immediately and paying off bonds over time. Many of Hamilton’s opponents, including Thomas Jefferson, said paying the full value of the bonds was unfair to those who sold their bonds to speculators and it cheated honest people out of money that should rightfully be theirs, especially farmers. Hamilton said that no one forced these people to sell their bonds, and since the speculators took the financial risk of buying the bonds, they should reap the rewards. This growing disagreement between Hamilton and Jefferson would become a major issue in Washington’s cabinet. -The national debt was divided between the federal and state governments, both of which issued bonds during the Revolutionary War. Hamilton wanted assume, or take over, much of the state debts to pay them off faster. Until all debts were paid, the economy of the nation would not improve, he argued. Hamilton also believed that this assumption of debts would increase American support for the federal government. The states would then have more funds to spend on education, infrastructure, etc. People like Jefferson, however, argued that this was a ploy to help the federal government gain power over the states. Some, like Patrick Henry of Virginia, argued that the Constitution did not even give the federal government the power to assume state debts in the first place. Some states, like Virginia, did not feel it even needed federal help, as it was not as deep in debt as other states were.

-The argument over the federal government’s assumption of state debts was settled through compromise. Knowing he needed the support of powerful southern states like Virginia, Hamilton struck a compromise: the states would agree to allow the federal government to assume their debts if the new, purpose-built capital of the United States were built in the South. The original capital under the Constitution, New York, displeased many southerners because they felt it gave the northern states an unfair advantage and power in the national government. Thus, the site of Washington, DC, the future capital of the United States, would be built on the border of Maryland and Virginia on the Potomac River. -This compromise, however, would represent the end of agreement between Alexander Hamilton and fellow cabinet member Thomas Jefferson. They differed fundamentally over the direction of the government and the country itself.

Hamilton vs. Jefferson

Hamilton Jefferson

Government

Hamilton was a Federalist, believing in the power of a strong central government to overcome the ignorance of the “common man” in a democracy; people needed a strong hand to govern them and save them from themselves

Jefferson was an antifederalist, believing in protecting the power of the states; distrustful of powerful central governments tyranny; had more faith in the common man, rule by the people and the majority

Economy

Hamilton believed the country’s economic future lay in urban growth, manufacturing, and trade. Favored a strong relationship with Britain, America’s largest trading partner

Jefferson believed the economy should be based on agriculture; farmers were the most independent voters because they did not rely on others to make a living, unlike many who lived and worked in cities, and had a greater reason to participate in the democratic process

Tariffs (Import Taxes)

Favored strong tariffs to protect American industry and help it grow; wanted a protective tariff to raise the price of foreign goods, thus encouraging Americans to buy domestic products

Against tariffs to keep the price of imported goods low and affordable for the average American citizen; felt tariffs violated free trade

The Bank of the United

States

Wanted a national bank where the government could deposit its money, make loans to the government and businesses; to limit the power of the bank, Hamilton suggested it have a 20 year charter and Congress would then vote to keep the bank going or let it “die”; Hamilton suggested that each state have its own bank to prevent a monopoly by the national bank; Hamilton said the necessary and proper clause of the Constitution gave Congress the power to create a bank; used the idea of loose construction of the Constitution to support his idea: basically, if the Constitution does not specifically prohibit something, then it is allowed.

Jefferson felt a national bank gave the federal government too much power. Furthermore, he felt the Constitution did not give Congress the power to create a national bank. He rejected using the necessary and proper clause, stating it should be used when necessary, not merely convenient. Jefferson applied the idea of strict construction of the Constitution. In other words, the federal government can only do what the Constitution specifically says it can do.

The French Revolution -In July of 1789, French citizens angered and fed up with the corrupt French government and King Louis XVI, attacked the Bastille, a prison in Paris where political prisoners were held. The Bastille was seen as a symbol of the corruption and oppression of the French government, and the attack on the prison is generally considered the beginning of the French Revolution. Many French citizens were inspired by the American Revolution, in which the people of America overthrew their King and established a republic and a government of the people and for the people. They were also following the ideals of the Enlightenment, much of which took place in France. The French people now put the ideas of the Enlightenment and the example America provided into practice, and began the process of overthrowing the monarchy and establishing a republic. The French were encouraged by Americans like Thomas Jefferson, who served as US ambassador to France during the early days of the French Revolution. Jefferson himself helped the French write a document known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man, a document patterned after the American Declaration of Independence from Britain. -At first, the French Revolution was widely supported in America, since its goals were very similar to that of the American Revolution: liberty, preservation of rights, republican forms of government, etc. However, the French Revolution took an ugly turn as members of the French nobility were executed by the thousands during a time that became known as the Reign of Terror, in which radicals, or those with extreme views and opinions, took control of the French Revolution. These radicals believed the only way to truly establish a French Republic was to remove all traces of the monarchy, and this meant “purging” the country of the aristocracy, usually through public executions using the guillotine, a device that beheads those condemned to death. King Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were beheaded in 1793. This alarmed not only other European monarchs, but Americans as well, who were appalled by the violence of the French Revolution. After this, several European countries, including Great Britain, declared war on France, hoping to restore the monarchy there and ensure that the revolutionary tactics of France did not spill into their own countries. -The United States would be asked to take sides in this conflict. Britain wanted American support, or at least a refusal to trade with or support France. France wanted American support as well. The United States, still trying to get on its feet as a new nation, wished to remain neutral, or not become involved in this growing conflict, in which the United States could potentially be destroyed by the warring countries. President George Washington felt very strongly that America should not become involved in the affairs of other countries, as their problems could quickly become American problems. Washington issued a statement that became known as the Neutrality Proclamation, in which he stated America would not choose sides in the war between Britain and France.

-As we’ve learned, George Washington wished for the United States to remain neutral in the French Revolutionary wars. President Washington felt that becoming involved in the conflicts of foreign countries threatened the survival of the United States. -Not everyone agreed with Washington’s decision to remain neutral. Some, like Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, believed the United States should support and defend France, and questioned Washington’s ability as President to declare the United States as neutral, and claimed that decision should be left to Congress. -As Washington’s Secretary of State, Jefferson’s views caused even more division within Washington’s cabinet. The “final straw” was Jefferson’s support of the actions of Edmond Genet, the French ambassador to the United States. As ambassador, Genet attempted to gain American support for the French Revolution and its fight against Britain. Genet actively recruited privateers from America to attack British shipping. Washington argued that this would violate America’s neutrality in the conflict and ordered Genet to cease his activities. Genet refused, saying that if he could not get the support he needed from the American government, he would appeal directly to the American people for their support. Washington then decided to expel Genet from the United States. Jefferson, while supporting this decision, felt that his opinions were largely ignored in Washington’s cabinet, and he resigned over the “Citizen Genet” affair. Jefferson felt that Washington was more likely to listen to his political opponent, Alexander Hamilton, who was seen as pro-British. -Despite the declaration of US neutrality, both Britain and France would not respect the rights of the United States, especially at sea. Britain began seizing American merchant ships who traded with French ports in Europe and the Caribbean. In addition, British navy vessels began the practice of impressment, or forcing American sailors into British navy service. It was rumored that the British were actively supporting native American attacks on the American frontier. Yet, America could not afford a war with Britain, and Washington sent US Supreme Court Chief Justice John Jay to negotiate a treaty with Britain, which became known as Jay’s Treaty. In it, the British agreed to finally remove its soldiers and forts from the American frontier and pay for the seized ships and cargo. In return, the US agreed to pay pre-Revolutionary War debts owed by Americans to British merchants and companies. -To most Americans, this treaty did not accomplish much. It did not prevent future seizures of large American vessels, the impressment of American sailors, or other violations of US neutrality. Many thought it made the United States look weak. -Another treaty signed at this time was Pinckney’s Treaty, negotiated with Spain by Thomas Pinckney, US ambassador to Spain. In it, Spain agreed to open the Mississippi to American traffic, New Orleans to American exports, and give US merchants the right of deposit, or allowing them to use New Orleans as a port without paying fees to do so.

Early American Foreign Policy

-After establishing neutrality in the French Revolutionary Wars and stabilizing American foreign policy, the focus of the US government shifted back to domestic issues. -One major issue was that of the native American tribes on the western frontier, especially in the Northwest Territory near the Great Lakes region. Native American tribes, angered by continued settlement of their lands by American settlers, formed a confederation under the leadership of the chief of Miami tribe of Ohio, Little Turtle (Lil’ T). These natives were supplied with weapons and supplies by British traders in the region, and they won several victories over American forces in the area. George Washington send General Anthony Wayne, a Revolutionary War veteran, to fight Little Turtle on the frontier. Little Turtle asked the British government for help; however, the British were negotiating with America to stop the practice of giving aid to the native Americans, and the British refused. Little Turtle felt he was fighting a losing cause, but his fellow chiefs refused to quit fighting. The native confederation was defeated at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. Wayne then destroyed native American settlements and field of crops, forcing them from the region. The US and the native Americans signed the Treaty of Greenville, which gave American settlers access to native lands in the Northwest Territory. In exchange, the natives received a $20,000 payment. -Elsewhere, there was more unrest over what was seen as excessive taxation on poor farmers. In Pennsylvania in 1794, whiskey producers revolted against taxation in the Whiskey Rebellion, in which protesters refused to pay the tax, attacked tax collectors, and created a “new” Sons of Liberty. In response, President Washington personally led an army mostly composed of state militia soldiers to put down the rebellion. The rebels gave up without a fight. This exemplified Washington’s desire to assert the power of the federal government. -When Washington came up for re-election in 1796, he decided against running again. Washington desired retirement and to live out his final years in peace. Furthermore, he wanted to emphasize the point that the President was not an elected king and felt that the leadership of the country should change from time to time. Washington delivered a famous farewell address to the American people, in which he warned against three primary “dangers”: 1) He warned America not to incur a large public debt, which he argued could lead to inflation and economic depression, 2) he warned against foreign alliances and entanglements, arguing that the problems of such allies became the problems of the United States, and 3) he warned against the existence of political parties, calling them a threat to democracy and the stability of the country, potentially leading to conflict.

Challenges at Home

-The election of 1796 saw the emergence of the nation’s first political parties (which Washington warned against in his farewell address). These parties, however, had been forming for quite some time during Washington’s presidency. The Federalists, or backers of a strong central government, were led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams. Then there were the Antifederalists, or Democratic-Republican Party, led by Thomas Jefferson. The Federalists wanted a strong central government and to promote urban growth, manufacturing, and trade. The Antifederalists wanted to limit the power of the federal government and to promote agriculture as the main economic goal of the country. -The Federalists chose John Adams as their candidate for the 1796 election, and the Antifederalists chose Thomas Jefferson. Each party attacked the other during the election. Jefferson and the Antifederalists accused the Federalists of being too pro-British, pointing to the concessions of Jay’s Treaty and Hamilton’s (and the Federalist) desire to maintain a good trade relationship with Britain, calling them “royalists”. The Federalists accused Jefferson of being too pro-French, and more of a philosopher than an actual politician capable of leading the country. In the end, the people voted Adams into the Presidency, and Jefferson became vice-president. -Even though Adams lacked the charisma and was not as well-liked as Washington, he was still well-respected as a Founding Father, diplomat, and statesman. Adams wanted to remain neutral in the war between Britain and France, but wanted to improve the Franco-American relationship. He sent diplomats to France in an effort to get French privateers to stop attacking American merchant ships trading with British ports. The three diplomats were met by French officials, who demanded $250,000 simply to discuss a treaty between the countries (essentially a bribe). France also wanted a loan of $12 million. Insulted, Adams’ cabinet suggested going to war with France. Adams, however, felt the United States too weak to fight a war with a major European power. The American people felt differently. Many chanted the slogan “Millions for defense, not once cent for tribute!” when the scandal became public. It was called the XYZ Affair, so-named because Adams referred to the three French government officials that demanded a bribe agents X, Y, and Z in his address to Congress over the situation. Although Adams wanted to avoid war, he nevertheless asked Congress to expand the size of the navy to 30 vessels and increase the size of the American army. Congress approved both requests. But again, Adams wanted to avoid war if at all possible. He made maintaining peace with France the primary goal of his Presidency, despite the fact that French and American ships were fighting in the Caribbean by this point. Adams was also trying to carry forward the policies of his predecessor, George Washington, who maintained a policy of neutrality towards both France and Britain.

The Adams Presidency

-Adams’ desire to keep America out of war with France angered many of the Federalists in the government, especially within his own cabinet. Adams forced two of his cabinet members to resign for working to undermine Adams’ authority on the matter. Losing the support of his own party would eventually cost Adams the chance to run for re-election in 1800. -While the Federalists criticized Adams for his peace efforts, the Antifederalists (Democratic-Republicans) criticized Adams for his efforts to at least be prepared for war by increasing the size of the navy and army. To “fight” these criticisms, the Federalist controlled government passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, which basically outlawed public criticism of the federal government, considered by some to be treason (sedition) and gave the President broad powers to expel foreigners (aliens) from the country. The Federalists reasoned the law was necessary for the security of the United States from its enemies. These laws were widely criticized as they appeared to violate the Constitution, especially the right of the freedom of the press (newspapers, magazines, etc.) by making it illegal to “write, print, utter, or publish” critical comments about the government. The Democratic-Republicans argued that the law was specifically meant to target them and their supporters. -Thomas Jefferson and James Madison urged the state legislatures to pass resolutions (official statements of policy or government standing) denouncing the Alien and Sedition Acts. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions were passed in response, in which they stated the Alien and Sedition Acts were unconstitutional, or disagreed with the US Constitution. They claimed the Constitution gave the government no such authority, and therefore the Acts were unconstitutional. Jefferson asserted the idea of states’ rights, or the right of the states to nullify, or ignore and declare invalid, actions of the federal government that were unconstitutional. -In the election of 1800, John Adams lacked Federalist support, and the American people were ready for change. They elected Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson. In the campaign, Jefferson criticized the Alien and Sedition Acts and the increased size of the military, which required higher taxes for Americans. -The election resulted in a electoral tie between the top two candidates, Jefferson and fellow Antifederalist Aaron Burr. Therefore, the election was to be decided in the US House of Representatives. The House had to vote 30 times in order to break the tie in which Jefferson was declared the winner. To avoid such a problem in the future, the 12th Amendment was passed which created a separate ballot (vote) for President and Vice-President. -Adams’ loss in the 1800 election was the “beginning of the end” for the Federalists, who would not successfully win back the Presidency in future elections. -This election was considered significant for many reasons, but many Americans were proud of the fact that power had passed from one political faction to another without violence or bloodshed.

The Adams Presidency (Cont)