Chapter 11INDUSTRIALAPPLICATIONSTONEWCLEANBURNING,COSTCOMPETITIVEFUELS11.1 THEINCREASINGLYCATACLYSMICCLIMACTICEVENTSFACINGMANKIND11.1.1 ForewordSomeofthebiggestneedsofmankindtocontainincreasinglycataclysmicclimactic events due to global warming and other large environmental problemsare: 1) Remove and recycle carbon dioxide from our atmosphere; 2) Developmeansfortheprocessingof carbondioxideinautomotiveexhaust; and3)Developnewcleanburningcost competitivefuels (seethecontent of thischapter for details).Thebiggestthreattomankindinthiseldisthelackatthiswritinginall developed countries of political will to invest public funds in serious reso-lutionsofourenvironmentalproblems. Allgovernmentalinvestmentsinthesectorknowntothisauthorhavebeenmadefortheappearanceof favoringthe environment while in reality favoring the myopic and self-destructing in-terestsoftheorganizedpetroleumcartel, asitisthecaseforinvestmentofpublic funds in hydrogen (see Section 11.1.3 for the huge environmental prob-lems caused by current hydrogen production via the reformation of fossil fuels,while multiplying the prots of the petroleum cartel).Itshouldbestressedthatthesolutionoflargesocietalproblemsmustbesupported by public funds, since it is unethical to expect that individuals payfor the cost. Yet, all the research presented in this chapter has been supportedby private funds due to the lack of public funds following solicitations by theauthorintheU.S.A., ContinentalEurope, Russia, China, Japan, Australia,and other developed countries.Onewaytounderstandthegravityofenvironmental problemsistonotethatthischapterhasbeenwrittenduringthemonthof September2005at452 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIItheInstituteforBasicResearchinFlorida, whenthesouthernbeltof theU.S.A. had been exposed to some eighteen hurricanes and devastated by thehurricanes Kathrina and Rita, with additional hurricanes expected before theend of the 2005 season. Increasingly cataclysmic climactic events are expectedintheyearsahead, untiltheentiresouthernbeltoftheU.S.A.willbecomeuninhabitable.1Similarincreasinglycataclysmicclimacticeventsareoccurringintherestof theworld. Asanexample, themountainregionof theAndesinPeruisexperiencing an exodus of the local farmers toward the cities due to the lackof snowinwinter, withexpectedmajordroughtthefollowingsummerandconsequential inability to grow crops.Also, The Economist in England published in the fall of 2004 a report fromthe U. S. Pentagon releasing for the rst time data on the slow down of theGulf Stream due to the decreased density and salinity of the North Atlanticcausedbythemeltingof theiceintheNorthPoleregion. Thecompletehalting of the Gulf Stream is now beyond scientic doubt, the only debatableissue remaining is that of the date, at which time England is expected to suerfrom extreme cold in winter and extreme temperature in summer.Thelist of similar increasinglycataclysmicclimacticevents all over theworld could now be endless.It is at this point were the eorts for the construction of hadronic mechanics,superconductivity and chemistry acquire their full light. In fact, all possibili-ties of resolving our huge environmental problems via the use of conventionaldoctrineswerelongexhausted, asbetterillustratedinthisandinthenextchapter, thusestablishingtheneedforsuitablecoveringdisciplinesbeyondany possible doubt.All scientistshaveadirectresponsibilitytocontribute, oratleastnottooppose, seriouseortstowardthesolutionof theseincreasinglycataclysmicproblems via the traditional scientic process of trial and errors, by implement-ing genuine scientic democracy, ethics and accountability vis a vis mankind,not via a formal academic parlance, but in actual deeds, the only ones havingsocial as well as scientic value, beginning with the admission that thedom-inanceoftheentireuniversebytheratherlimitedEinsteiniandoctrinesisapurelypolitical -nonscienticposture,anditserahasnowendedinfavorofcovering theories for physical conditions unthinkable during Einsteins times.1Attheendofthe2005hurricaneseasonFloridawashitbytwentytwomajorclimacticevents, somanythat theU.S. Weather Bureauexhaustedall 21letters of theEnglishalphabet andhadtonamethe22-ndstormfromtheGreekalphabet. Thereisnoneedtowaitafewyearstounderstandthatthedevastatingclimacticeventsexpectedinthenextfewyearsareduetothelackof seriouspoliticalwillNOW.ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 453Figure11.1. Aviewof oneof theprimaryresponsibilities for current increasinglycata-clysmicclimaticevents: thepollutioncausedbyfossilfueledelectricpowerplants.11.1.2 OriginoftheIncreasinglycataclysmicClimacticEventsAccording to ocial data released by the U. S. Department of Energy2, byignoring the world-wide consumption of natural gas and coal, we consumed in2003 about 74 106barrels of crude oil (petroleum) per day, corresponding tothedailyconsumptionofabout3109gallons(g)or1.41010liters(L)ofgasoline per day.Whenaddingtheworldconsumptionof natural gasandcoal, theworldconsumptionof fossil fuelsin2003shouldbeconservativelyestimatedtobeequivalent to 1.5107barrels per day, corresponding to the gasoline equivalentof 7.5 108gallon or 2.8 1011liters per day.Suchadisproportionateconsumptionis duetotheaveragedailyusein2003 of about 1, 000, 000, 000 cars,1, 000, 000 trucks,100, 000 planes plus anunidentiable number of additional vehicles of military, agricultural, industrialand other nature, plus the large consumption of fossil fuels by electric powerplants around the world.The data for 2004 are not reported here because still debated, and estimatedto be of the order of 90 106barrels of crude oil (petroleum) per day. Future2See,e.g.,thewebsitehttp://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/energy.html454 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIFigure11.2. Ocial dataonthe2003disproportionateconsumptionof fossil fuelsintheU.S.A.alone.consumption can be best illustrated by noting that, according to ocial dataof the Chinese government, Chinaisbuilding500, 000, 000(yes,vehundredmillion)newcarsby2015,and thattheneed forpetroleum,inChina fortheyear 2006 will correspond to the world consumption for 2004, including China.The extremely serious environmental problems caused by the above dispro-portionate combustion of fossil fuels can be summarized as follows:3(1) The combustion of fossil fuels releases in our atmosphere aboutsixty millions metric of tons carbon dioxideCO2 per day that are re-sponsible for the rst large environmental problem known as globalwarning or green house eect.4Of these only 30 millions metric tons3Seefordetailsthewebsitehttp://www.magnegas.com/technology/part6.htm. Thereadershouldnote that the calculations in this web site only treat the 2003 consumption of crude oil for automotiveuse. Consequently,thedatathereinshouldbemultipliedbythreetoreachrealisticvaluesfor2003.4The value of 60 million tons of CO2per day is easily obtained from the chemical re-action in the combustion of the indicated daily volume of fossil fuels (see for detailshttp://www.magnegas.com/technology/part6.htmELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 455are estimated to be recycled by our ever decreasing forests. This implies thereleaseinouratmosphereofaboutthirtymillionsmetrictonsofunrecycledgreen house gases per day, which release is the cause of the global warmingnow visible to everybody through climactic episodes such as oods, tornadoes,hurricanes, etc. of increasing catastrophic nature.(2)Thecombustionoffossil fuelscausesthepermanentremovalfrom our atmosphere of about 21 millions metric tons of breathableoxygen per day, a second, extremely serious environmental problemknownasoxygendepletion.5Eventhoughnotdisclosedbypoliticalcirclesandnewsmedia,theveryadmissionofanexcessCO2inouratmo-sphere (that is, CO2no longer recycled by plants) is an admission of oxygendepletion because the O2 in the excess CO2 was originally breathable oxy-gen. Hence, by recalling the atomic weight ofCO2 andO2, we have the value3244 30 106= 21.8 108tons of lost oxygen per day.It appears that, prior the introduction of oxygen depletion by the author in2000, everybodyignoredthefactthatthecombustionoffossil fuelsrequiresatmosphericoxygen. Sinceonlytheglobal warmingisgenerallyconsidered,it appears that newsmedia, governments and industries alike ignored the factthat weneedoxygentobreath. Onlymorerecently, variousenvironmentalgroups,unionsandotherconcernedgroupsarebecomingawarethatthein-creasing heart problems in densely populated area are indeed due to local oxygendepletion caused by excessive fossil fuel combustion.(3) The combustion of fossil fuels releases in our atmosphere aboutfteen millions metric tons of carcinogenic and toxic substances perday. Thisthird, equallyseriousenvironmental problemsiseuphemisticallyreferredtobythenewsmediaas atmosphericpollution, whileinrealityitreferstotheprimarysourceof thewidespreadincreaseof cancerinoursocieties. For instance, it has beenestablishedbyvarious medical studies(generallysuppressedbysupportersof theoil cartel)thatunlessof geneticorigin, breast cancer is due to the inhaling of carcinogenic substances in fossilfuels exhaust. These studies have gone so far as to establish that breast cellsare very receptive to a particular carcinogenic substance in fossil fuel exhaust.Afterall, responsiblecitizensshouldrememberandpropagate(ratherthanmyopically suppress) the fact that the U. S. Environmental Protection Agencyhas formally admitted that diesel exhaust is carcinogenic. A moment of reec-tionissucientforanybodyingoodfaithtoseethatweinhaleonadailybasis carcinogenic substances from gasoline exhaust in an amount that is tenthousands times bigger than carcinogenic substances ingested with food.5The oxygen depletion was rst introduced by the author at the 2000 Hydrogen World ConferenceheldinMunich,Germany(seethewebsitehttp://www.magnegas.com/technology/part6.htm).456 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIFigure11.3. Apictureoffrequentenvironmental disasterscausedbythespill ofcrudeoilfromtankers followingaccidents. The replacement of crude oil withagaseous fuel willeliminatetheenvironmental damage, withtheexceptionofhydrogenbecause, intheeventthecargoofthistankerhadbeencomposedofhydrogen, itsreleaseintheatmosphere, itsimmediaterisingtotheozonelayer,anditsveryrapidreactionwithO3wouldcreateaholeintheozonelayerof thesizeof theStateof RhodeIsland, withconsequential increaseofskinandothercancersonEarth(seeSection11.1.3fordetails).This is another serious environmental problem that has remained virtuallyignoredbyall until recentlyduetothewidespreadmisinformationbythenewsmedia. However, the existence of this third major environmental problemcaused by fossil fuel combustion has now propagated to environmental, unionand other circles with predictable legal implications for the fossil fuel industryanditsmajorusers, unlesssuitablecorrectivemeasuresareinitiated, asitoccurred for the tobacco industry.Itishopedthatpeopletrappedintrac, thusinhalingthecarcinogenicfumes from the vehicle in front, will remember the above evidence and assumean active role in the support of environmentally acceptable fuels because it iswritten throughout history that people have the government and system theydeserve.Thereexist numerous additional environmental problems causedbytheglobal study of fossil fuels, that is, not only the environmental problems causedby their combustion, but also those caused by their production and transporta-tion. ThelatterproblemsareomittedhereforbrevityandalsobecausetheELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 457dimensionof problems1), 2)and3)isasucientcall forpersonsingoodfaith.11.1.3 SeriousEnvironmentalProblemsCausedbyHydrogen,NaturalGas,Ethanol,BiogasesandFuelswithMolecularStructureWhenever facing the ever increasing cataclysmic climactic events caused byfossil fuel combustion, a rather widespread belief is that the solution alreadyexistsanditisgivenbyhydrogenforthelargescalefuel usesof thefuturebecause hydrogen is believed to be the cleanest fuel available to mankind.Duetothepotentiallylethal implicationsformankind, itisnecessarytodispel this belief and indicate that, the current production and combustion ofhydrogen, whether for an internal combustion engine or for a fuel cell, causesaglobal pollutionmuchgreaterthanthatcausedbygasolinewhencomparedfor the same energy outputs.Hydrogen is indeed an environmentally acceptable fuel,but only when itsproduction and use verify the following conditions:CONDITIONI: Hydrogenis producedviatheelectrolyticseparationofwater;CONDITION II: The electricity used for electrolysis originates from cleanand renewable energy sources,such as those of hydric,solar or wind nature;andCONDITION III: The oxygen produced by the electrolytic process is freelyreleased in the environment so that the subsequent hydrogen combustion leavesunchanged the existing oxygen content of our atmosphere.However, the reality in the production and use of hydrogen is dramaticallydierent thantheaboveideal conditions. Infact, hydrogenis todaypro-duced in its greatest percentage via reformation processes of fossil fuels suchas methane CH4, via the use of highly polluting electric power plants, and nooxygen is released in the atmosphere during production.Reformationprocessesarepreferredoverelectrolysisnotonlybecauseofthe low eciency of the electrolytic separation of water,6but also due to thefact that the primary drive in the current international support for hydrogenas a fuel is to permit the petroleum cartel to multiply the prots (because theprotsfromthesaleofthehydrogencontentoffossilfuelsareamultipleofthe prots from the direct sale of fossil fuels, as better indicated below.)6Electrolyticplantsfortheseparationof waterhaveaneciencyof theorderof 0.8, thusyieldinganeciencyforhydrogenproductionbyvolumeoftheorderof0.5,ascomparedtotheeciencyintheproductionofmagnegasdiscussedinthesubsequentsectionsofthischapterthatcanbe10.5inindustrialrecycler,thatis,21timesbiggerthanthatofelectrolysis.458 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIRenewablesourcesof electricity, eventhoughmanifectlyvaluable, aresominutewithrespecttotheenormityofthedemandforfuel thatcannotbetakenintoseriousconsideration. Nuclearpowerplantsalsocannotbetakenintoseriousconsiderationuntil governmentsnallyprovideseriousnancialsupport for basic research on the stimulated decay of radioactive nuclear wasteby nuclear power plants themselves, rather than the currently preferred stor-age of nuclear waste in in depositories nobody wants to have near-by. Theseaspects begin to illustrate the reason hadronic mechanics,superconductivityand chemistry were developed, as studied in more details in the next chapter.When inspected in real terms, the current production, transportation anduse of hydrogen, if implemented in large scale such as that of fossil fuels, causethe following very serious environmental problems:A)Alarmingoxygendepletioncausedbyhydrogencombustion,namely, thepermanentremoval of breathableoxygenfromouratmosphereand its conversion into water vapor H2O. By remembering that oxygen is thevery basis of life, we are here referring to one of the most serious environmentalproblemsfacingmankindthatcanbecomepotentiallylethal forlargescalecombustionofhydrogenirrespectiveofwhetherusedasfuel orinfuel cells.When TV programs show water vapor coming out of car exhaust running onhydrogen, they are actually showing one of the most alarming environmentalproblems facing mankind.Itshouldbeindicatedthatgasolinecombustioncausesmuchlessoxygendepletionthanhydrogencombustion, for various reasons. Therst is thatgasoline combustion turns atmospheric oxygen into CO2 that is food for plants,since the chlorophyll process turns CO2 into breathable O2 while maintainingCfor plant growth. Therefore,the oxygen depletion caused by gasoline andfossilfuelsingeneralisonlythatfortheexcessof CO2thatcannotbeanylonge recycled by plants due to their enormous daily releases, combined withthe ongoing forest depletion.Bycomparison, hydrogenturnsbreathableoxygenintowatervapors. Atthispointequivocaltechniciansindicatethatplantsalsorecyclewaterintooxygen,, which statement is correct because without water plants die, as wellknown. Nevertheless, if proered by experts, the statement may be dishonestbecause they do not mention the fact that our atmosphere is full of water vaporasshownbycloudsandrain. Hence, theadditionalwatervapororiginatingfrom hydrogen combustion cannot possibly be recycled by plants. By compar-ison,theCO2content in our atmosphere was less than 1% one century ago,inwhichcasetheexcessduetofossilfuelcombustionwas, atleastinitially,recycledbyplants, andthisistheveryreasonthehumanraceisstill alivetoday despite the current immense fossil fuel consumption the world over.Yet another reasonfavoringenvironmentallythecombustionof gasolineover hydrogenis that theoxygendepletioncausedbyhydrogencombustionELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 459is alargemultipleof that causedbygasolinecombustion. This additionalenvironmental problem can be seen as follows. Gasoline combustion is basedon the synthesis of CO, one of the most esoenergetic chemical reactions knowntoman, thatreleases255Kcal/mole, followedbythesynthesisof CO2thatreleasesabout85Kcal/mole, andotherreactionsforatotal ofatleast335Kcal/mole. By comparison, the sole chemical reaction in hydrogen combustionis the synthesis ofH2Oreleasing about 57 Kcal/mole. A rst year graduatestudent in chemistry can then compute the multiplier needed for the oxygendepletion caused by gasoline combustion to reach that of hydrogen combustion,of course, under the same energy output.B) Alarming environmental problems caused by current hydrogenproduction. The reformation of methane and other fossil fuels for hydrogenproduction requires large amounts of energy because of the necessary breakingofstrongmolecularbondssuchasCH4. Inthiscase, all byproductsofthereformation, suchasthegreenhousegasCO2, arereleasedintotheenvi-ronment. A rst year graduate student in chemistry can then prove (althoughhis/herteachermaydisagreeforpersonalacademicgains)thattheCO2re-leased in the atmosphere for hydrogen production from CH4 is a large multipleof theCO2 produced in gasoline combustion.Hence, simplecalculationsestablishthatthecurrentmethodsofhydrogenproduction, transportation and use release in the atmosphere carcinogenic sub-stances, greenhousegasesandothercontaminantsthat areat least twentytimesbiggerthanthecontaminantsreleasesbythegasolineproductionandcombustion in contemporary cars with ecient catalytic converters.In fact, the production of hydrogen requires large amounts of energy while,by comparison, gasoline production requires considerably less energy becausecrude oil comes out of the group at pressure without any need of electricity,while rening processes of crude oil into gasoline are mostly chemical in nature,thus requiring minimal electric energy. The global pollution caused by gasolineis therefore essentially restricted to the pollution caused by transportation andcombustion.Being an environmentalist, the author certainly does not support gasolineas the dominant fuel. Nevertheless,scientic honesty requires the admissionthat gasoline is much less polluting than hydrogen as currently produced whenconsidered on a global scale including production, transportation and combus-tion.C) Alarming threat to the ozone layer caused by hydrogen seepageandlosses. Anotherseriousenvironmentalproblemcausedbyhydrogenisduetoitsseepage, namely, thefact that, beingcomposedbythesmallestmoleculeonEarth, hydrogenescapesthroughcontainerwallsirrespectiveofthe used material and thickness. Consequently, the large scale use of hydrogenmust take into account the inevitable release of free hydrogen that, being very460 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIlight,instantly rises to the upper layer of our atmosphere all the way to theozonelayer,resultinginitsdepletionbecausehydrogenandozonehaveoneof the fastest known chemical reactionsH2 +O3 H2O +O2. (11.1.1)Again, gasoline is preferable over hydrogen also in regard to the ozone layer.In fact, gasoline is liquid and its vapors are heavy, thus being unable to reachtheozonelayer. Also, all byproductsofgasolinecombustionareheavyandtheysimplycannot risetotheozonelayer. Assumingthat sometornadocarries byproducts of gasoline combustion all the way up to the ozone layer,they have no known reaction with the ozone that could compare with that ofhydrogen, Eq. (11.1.1).D) Alarming environmental problems caused by the need to liquifyhydrogen. Gasolinecontainsabout110, 000BritishThermalUnits(BTU)pergallon(g)whilehydrogencontainsabout300BTUperstandardcubicfoot(scf). Consequently, theGasolineGallonEquivalent (GGE) isgivenby366scf of hydrogen. Hence, thehydrogenequivalent of anaverage20gallon gasoline tank would require 7, 320 scf of hydrogen, namely, a volume ofhydrogen so big to require a trailer for its transportation in automotive uses.This is the reason all manufacturers testing cars running on hydrogen as afuel, such as BMW, GM, Honda, and others, have been forced to use liquiedhydrogen. At this point the environmental problems caused by use of hydro-gen as an automotive fuel become truly serious, e.g., because hydrogen liquiesclosetotheabsolutezerodegreetemperature, thusrequiringlargeamountsof electric energy for its liquefaction, with consequential multiplication of pol-lution. Additionalsignicantamountsofenergyareneededtomaintaintheliquid state because the spontaneous transition from the liquid to the gas stateis explosive without any combustion (because of the rapidity of the transitionwhen the cooling systems ceases to operate).At the2000HydrogenWorldMeetingheldinMunich, Germany, underBMW support, a participant from Florida stated that If one of my neighborsin Florida purchases a car operating on liquid hydrogen, I will sell my housebecauseintheeventthatneighborleavesthecarparkedinhisdrivewaytospend the weekend in Las Vegas, and the cooling systems fails to operate dueto the Florida summer heat, the explosion due to the transition of state backto the gaseous form will cause a crater.E)Prohibitivehydrogencost. Commercial gradehydrogen(notthepure hydrogen needed for fuel cells) currently retails in the USA at $0.18/scf.Bycomparison, natural gasretailsatabout$0.01/scf. Buthydrogencon-tains 300BTU/scf, while natural gas contains 1, 050BTU/scf. Consequently,1,050300 $0.18=$0.63, namely, commercial gradehydrogencurrentlysellsintheU.S.A. at sixtythreetimesthecost of natural gas, averyhighcostELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 461Figure 11.4. Summaryofcomparativemeasurementscombustionexhaustofthenewmag-negas fuel (described in Section 11.3 below),natural gas and gasoline conducted at the EPAaccrteditedautomotivelaboratoryofLiphardt&AssociatesdofLongIsland, NewYorkin2000 (see for details the website http://www.magnegas.com/technology/part6.htm). As onecansee, contrarytopopularbelief, underthesameconditions(samecarwithsameweightusedwiththesamecomputerizedEPAroutine,forthesamedurationoftime),naturalgasexhaust contains 61%morehydrocarbons, about 41%moregreenhoousegases, andabout200%morenitrogenoxidesthangasolineexhaust.that is a reection of the low eciency of the available processes for hydrogenproduction.But, unlikemagnegasandnatural gas, hydrogencannotbesignicantlycarriedinacar inacompressedform, thus requiringits liquefactionthatis veryexpensivetoachieveas well as tomaintain. Consequently, simplecalculationsestablishthattheactual costofhydrogeninaliquiedformforautomotive use is at least 200 times the cost of fossil fuels,Thereisnocredibleorotherwisescienticdoubtthat, undertheabovegenerallyuntoldlargeproblems, hydrogenhasnorealisticchanceofbecom-ing a serious alternative for large use without basically new technologies andprocesses.The above refers to the use of hydrogen as an automotive fuel for internalcombustion engines. The situation for the use of hydrogen in fuel cells is essen-tiallythesame, exceptfordierentecienciesbetweeninternalcombustionengines and fuel cells that have no relevance for environmental proles.A possible resolution, or at least alleviation, of these problems is presentedin Section 11.5.Anotherwidespreadmisrepresentationexistinginalternativefuelsisthebelief that the combustion of natural gas (or methane) is cleaner than that462 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIof gasoline, with particular reference to a presumed reduction of carcinogenicandgreenhouseemissions. This misrepresentationis basedonthevisualevidence that the ame of natural gas is indeed cleaner than that of gasolineor other liquid fuels. However, natural gas is gaseous while gasoline is liquid,withanincreaseof densityinthetrantionfromtheformertothelatterofabout 1, 500 units. Consequently, when the pollutants in the ame of naturalgas are prorated to the density of gasoline, the much more polluting characterof natural energes.Inanycase, recentmeasurementsreviewedlateroninthischapterhavedisproved the above belief because, under identical performances, natural gasis much more polluting than gasoline (see Figure 11.3).Further widespread misrepresentations exist for ethanol, biogases, and otherconventional fuels, that is, fuels possessing the conventional molecular struc-ture, because generally presented as cleaner than gasoline. In eect, ethanolcombustionexhaustisthemostcarcinogenicamongall fuels, thepollutioncausedbybiogasesistrulyalarming, andthesameoccurforall remainingavailable conventional fuels.Inaddition, ethanol. biogasesandotehrfuelsofagricultural originleavelarge carbon deposits on spark plugs, piiston rings and otehr component, bydecreasing considerably the life of the engines.Hence, themereinspectionofthetailpipeexhaustistodayaviewofthepastmillennium,ifnotmotivatedbyequivocalcommercial,politicaloraca-demicinterests. Thesoleapproachenvironmentallyacceptabletodayisthestudy of the global environmental prole pertaining to fuels, that including theenvironmental pollution causes by the production, storage, transportation, andcombustion.Inclosing, equivocal commercial, political andacademicinterestsshouldbe made aware that, following the success of the lawsuits against the tobaccoindustry, environmental groups in Berlin, Washington, Tokyo and other citiesareapparentlypreparinglawsuitsfortrilliondollarspunitivecompensationagainst any large scale producer or user of polluting fuel. Therefore, it appearsthatthebestwaytoconfrontsupportersofhydrogen, ethanol, biofuelsandother highly polluting fuels is that via a judicial process. After all, we shouldnever forget that the future of mankind is at stake on these issues.11.1.4 BasicNeedsfortheSurvivalofMankindThe most basic need for the very survival of our contemporary societies inview of the disproportionate use of fossil fuels and the increasingly cataclysmicclimactic events caused by the pollutants in their combustion exhaust can besummarized as follows:(1) Develop new processes for the nonpolluting, large scale pro-ductionof electricity, thatis, processesbeyondthenowexhaustedpre-ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 463dictive capacities of conventional doctrines. Whether for electrolysis or otheruses, electricity is and will remain the basic source of energy for the synthesisofnewfuels. Atthesametime,hydro,thermalandwindsourcesofenergy,even though very valuable, are dramatically insucient to fulll the present,letalonethefutureneedsofcleanenergy. Nuclearpowerplantshavebeenseverely damaged by governmental obstructions,both in the U.S.A.,Europeand other countries, against new processes for the stimulated decay of radioac-tivenuclearwastebythepowerplantsthemselves, infavorof apoliticallymotivatedstorageoftheradioactivewasteindepositoriessomuchopposedbylocalsocieties,thuspreventingnuclearpowertobeaviablealternative.7Additionally, both the hot fusion and the cold fusion have failed to achieveindustriallyviableresultstodate, andnoneisinsightatthiswriting. Theneed for basically new clean sources of electricity is then beyond scienticdoubt. Thisneedisaddressedinthenextchapterbecause, asweshallsee,the content of this chapter is a necessary pre-requisite.(2)Buildalargenumberoflargereactorsforthelargescalere-movalandrecyclingoftheexcessCO2inouratmosphere. The con-tainment of futureproductionof CO2is basicallyinsucient becausetheexistingamount inour atmosphereis sucient tocauseincreasinglycata-clysmicclimacticevents. Therefore, anothermajorproblemfacingmankindis the removal of theCO2already existing in our atmosphere. This problemis addressed in the next subsection.(3)itDevelopnewfuelsthatarenotderivablefromcrudeoiland are capable of achieving full combustion, that is, fuels structurallydierentthanall knownfuelsduetotheirhighlypollutingcharacter. Theproductionofnewfuelsnotderivablefromcrudeoil isnecessaryinviewofthe exploding demand for fossil fuels expected from the construction in Chinaof 500, 000, 000 new cars and other factors, as well as the expected end of thepetroleum reserves. This need is addressed in this chapter. the need for fuelswith a new chemical structure is set by the impossibility for all available fuels,those with conventional molecular structure, to achieve full combustion. Thisneed is addressed in this chapter.11.1.5 RemovingCarbonDioxidefromourAtmosphereandCarExhaustNowadays, wehaveinour atmospherealargeexcess CO2estimatedtobefrom100to300timestheCO2percentageexistingatthebeginningof7Forgovernmental politicsopposingnewmethodsforthestimulateddecayof radioactivenuclearwaste,onemayvisitthewebsitehttp://www.nuclearwasterecycling.com464 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIthe20-thcentury, whichexcessisresponsiblefortheglobalwormingandconsequential devastating climactic events.Atypical illustrationisgivenbytheGulf of Mexicowhosewatershavereached in August, 2005, such a high temperature (95oF) to kill dolphins andother marine species. This sad environmental problem is due to the fact thatCO2 is heavier than any other gas in the atmosphere, thus forming a layer onthe top of the water that traps Sun light, with the resulting increase of watertemperature.All predictions establish that the current rate ofCO2release in our atmo-spherewilleventuallycausethewateroftheGulfofMexicotoreachinthesummer a steaming state, with consequential impossibility to sustain life, theonly debatable aspect being the time of these lethal conditions in the absenceof corrective action.The only possible,rational solution of the problem is the removal of CO2from our atmosphere via molecular ltration or other methods and its process-ing into noncontaminant gases.Other solutions, suchas thepumpingof CO2undergroundjointlywithpetroleum production as adopted by the petroleum company StatOil in Nor-way and other companies, are denitely unacceptable on environmental groundsbecause of the risk that the green house gas may resurface at some future timewith catastrophic consequences. In fact, being a gas under very high pressurewhen under grounds, it is only a question of time for theCO2 to nd its wayback to the surface.8The technology for the molecular separation ofCO2from our atmosphereisoldandwell established, thusrequiringtheconstructionof equipmentinlargesizesandnumbersforinstallationinasucientnumberoflocationtoyield appreciable results.To understand the dimension for the sole Gulf of Mexico there is the needofanumberofrecyclerslocatedinbargesand/orincoastalareacapableofprocessing at least 10 millions metric tons of air per day.After clarifying that the technology for the removal of CO2 from our atmo-sphere is fully available (only the political will is still absent at this writing invirtuallyalldevelopednations),thenextissueistheselectionoftheappro-priate processing ofCO2 into environmentally acceptable species.Accordingtoextensiveresearchintheproblemconductedbytheauthorandhisassociates,themostecientmethodforrecyclingCO2isthatbasedon owing the gas at high pressure through an electric arc [5]. In fact, the arcdecomposes the CO2 molecule into carbon precipitates and breathable oxygen8Inreality, petroleumcompanies pumpCO2undergroundtoincrease the pressure of release ofnear-bycrudeoil,andcertainlynottohelptheenvironment.ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 465Figure11.5. Aschematicviewof apreferredembodymnentfortherecyclingof CO2intoCandO2viatheusethePlasmaArcFlowtechnologyofRefs.[5]. themainprincipleisthat,followingitsseparationfromtheatmosphere,themostecientmeanforbreakingdowntheCO2bondis,byfar,theelectricarc..that can be released into the atmosphere to correct the oxygen depletion causedby fossil fuels.Needless to say, these CO2 Recycling Plants can additionally remove fromthe environment circinogenic and other toxic pollutants via the use of the sametechnology of molecular sep[aration and processing.Numerous other processes are also expected to be possible for the removalof the CO2 excess from our atmosphere, and their indication to the author forquotation in possible future editions of this monograph would be appreciated.Whatever environmentally acceptable solution is suggested, the main needsfor serious and responsible governments is to stop the debate and discussionsandinitiateactionnow,whentheeconomiesofdevelopedcountriesarestillsomewhatsolid, because, lateron, increasinglycataclysmicclimaticeventscombined with increases in fossil fuel costs may eventually cause the collapse466 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIof said economies, at which points nations will not have the immense nancialresources needed for the removal of the excessCO2 in our planet.IIn closing, the reader should be aware that current technologies permit thelarge scale production,thus at low cost,of special CO2absorbing cartridgesthat can be houses in conventional car exhaust pipes and replaced periodically.theremovalof CO2isdoneviaspecialchemicalsorothermeans.Additionalpossibilities are given by passing the exhaust through a series of arcs for therecycling ofCO2 intoCand breathableO2.In short, in this chapter we show that current technologies do indeed permitthe production of environmentally acceptable fuels, while in the next chapterwe shall show that other technologies permit new clean energies. Mankind isexposed to increasing cataclysmic climactic events not only because of the lackof political will for any action that could be considered minimally responsibleat this writing (fall 2005) in any and all so-called developed countries, but alsobecause the political will continues to serve the oil cartel, as demonstrated bythe political support of hydrogen, of course, produced from fossil fuels, despitehavingextremelyseriousenvironmentalproblemsidentiedintheprecedingsubsection11.2 THENEWCHEMICALSPECIESOFMAGNECULES11.2.1 IntroductionTheoriginof thealarmingenvironmental problemsincreasinglyaictingour planet are not due to fossil fuels per se, but rather to the strength of theirconventional valence bond, since that strength has prohibited the achievementof full combustion during the past one hundred years of eorts. In fact, mostof the atmospheric pollution caused by fossil fuels is due to chunks (such asdimers) of uncombusted fuel that are carcinogenic primarily because consistingof incomplete molecules.In view of the above occurrence, this author proposed in Ref. [1] of 1998 anewchemicalspeciesthat, bycentralassumption, isbasedonabondmuchweaker than that of valence bonds so as to permit full combustion. For certaintechnical reasonsindicatedbelowthenewspecieswassubmittedunderthename of magnecules in order to distinguish the species from the conventionalmolecules, and the new species is known today as Santilli magnecules.In this chapter we report industrial research with the investment of severalmillions of dollars fromprivatecorporations that followedtheproposal ofSantilli magnecules [1], and resulted in the identication of three distinct newgaseousfuelswiththenovelmagnecularstructure, allachievingtheoriginalobjective of full combustion without toxic substances in the exhaust. SeveralELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 467other substances with magnecular structure are under study and they will bereported in specialized technical journals.Thischapterisorganizedasfollows. Weshall rstpresentthehypothe-sis of Santilli magnecules; we shall then study the industrial methods neededfor their production, the features to be detected experimentally, and the an-alytic equipment needed for the detection of the new species. We shall thenstudy three distinct gaseous fuels with magnecular structure and outline theirrather vast experimental verications. We shall nally study the experimentalevidence for magnecular structures in liquids and other related aspects.To begin, let us recall that the only chemical species with a clearly identiedbond which was known prior to the advent of hadronic chemistry was that ofmoleculesandrelatedvalencebonds, whoseidenticationdatesbacktothe19-th century, thanks to the work by Avogadro (1811), Canizzaro (1858), andseveral others, following the achievement of scientic measurements of atomicweights.Various candidates for possible additional chemical species are also known,such as the delocalized electron bonds. However, none of them possess a clearlyidentied attractive force clearly distinct from the valence.Also, various molecular clusters have been studied in more recent times, al-though they either are unstable or miss a precise identication of their internalattractive bond.An example of unstable molecular cluster occurs when the internal bond isdue to an electric polarization of atomic structures, that is, a deformation froma spherical charge distribution without a net electric charge to an ellipsoidaldistribution in which there is the predominance of one electric charge at oneend and the opposite charge at the other end, thus permitting atoms to attracteachotherwithoppositeelectricpolarities. Theinstabilityoftheseclustersthenfollowsfromtheknownpropertythatthesmallestperturbationcausesnuclei and peripheral electrons to reacquire their natural conguration, withthe consequential loss of the polarization and related attractive bond.Anexampleof molecular clusters without aclear identicationof theirinternal attractive bond is given byionicclusters. In fact,ionized moleculeshave thesamepositivecharge and, therefore, theyrepel, rather than attract,each other. As a result, not only the internal attractive bond of ionic clustersis basically unknown at this writing, but, when identied, it must be so strongas to overcome the repulsive force among the ions constituting the clusters.In 1998, R. M. Santilli submitted in paper [1] (and then studied in detailsin monograph [2]) the hypothesis of a new type of stable clusters composed ofmolecules, dimers and atoms under a new, clearly identied, attractive internalbond which permits their industrial and practical use. The new clusters werecalled magnecules (patents pending) because of the dominance of magneticeectsintheirformation, aswell asforpragmaticneedsof dierentiations468 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIwith the ordinary molecules, with the understanding that a technically moreappropriate name would beelectromagnecules.The following terminology will be used herein:1) The wordatom is used in its conventional meaning as denoting a stableatomic structure, such as a hydrogen, carbon or oxygen, irrespective of whetherthe atom is ionized or not and paramagnetic or not.2)Theworddimerisusedtodenotepartof amoleculeunderavalancebond, such as HO, HC, etc., irrespective of whether the dimer is ionized ornot, and whether it belongs to a paramagnetic molecule or not;3)Thewordmoleculeisusedinitsinternationallyknownmeaningofde-notingstableclustersofatomsunderconventional, valence, electronbonds,suchasH2,H2O,C2H2,etc.,irrespectiveofwhetherthemoleculeisionizedor not, and paramagnetic or not;4)Thewordmagneculeisusedtodenotestableclustersof twoormoremolecules, and/or dimers and/or atoms and any combination thereof formedby a new internal attractive bond of primarily magnetic type identied in detailin this chapter;the wordmagnecular will be used in reference to substanceswith the structure or features of magnecules;5) The words chemical species are used to denote an essentially pure popula-tion of stable clusters with the same internal bond, thus implying the conven-tional chemical species of molecules as well as that of magnecules, under thecondition that each species admits an ignorable presence of the other species.Inthis chapterwe study the theoretical predictionpermittedby hadronicmechanicsandchemistryofthenewchemical speciesofmagneculesanditsexperimental verications, which were apparently presented for the rst timeby Santilli in memoir [1] of 1998.11.2.2 TheHypothesisofSantilliMagneculesThe main hypothesis, studied in details in the rest of this Chapter, can beformulated as follows:DEFINITION11.2.1 [1,2] (patentedandinternational patents pending[5]): Santillimagneculesingases,liquids,andsolidsconsistofstableclus-ters composedof conventional molecules, and/or dimers, and/or individualatomsbondedtogetherbyopposingmagneticpolaritiesof toroidal polariza-tions of the orbits of at least the peripheral atomic electrons when exposed tosuciently strong external magnetic elds, as well as the polarization of the in-trinsic magnetic moments of nuclei and electrons. A population of magneculesconstitutesachemical specieswhenessentiallypure,i.e., whenmoleculesorotherspeciesarecontainedinverysmallpercentagesinadirectlyidentiableform. Santilli magneculesarecharacterizedby, orcanbeidentiedviathefollowingmainfeatures:ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 469I)Magneculesprimarilyexistatlargeatomicweightswherenotexpected,for instance, at atomic weights whichare tentimes or more the maximalatomicweightofconventionalmolecularconstituents;II) Magnecules are characterized by large peaks in macroscopic percentagesinmass spectrography, whichpeaks remainunidentiedfollowingasearchamongallexistingmolecules;III)Saidpeaksadmitnocurrentlydetectableinfraredsignatureforgasesandnoultravioletsignatureforliquidsotherthanthoseof theconventionalmoleculesand/ordimersconstitutingthemagnecule;IV)Saidinfraredandultravioletsignaturesaregenerallyaltered(afeaturecalledmutation) withrespect tothe conventional versions, thus indicat-inganalteration(calledinfraredorultravioletmutation)oftheconventionalstructureofdimersgenerallyoccurringwithadditional peaksintheinfraredorultravioletsignaturesnotexistinginconventionalcongurations;V) Magnecules have ananomalous adhesiontoother substances, whichresultsinbackgrounds(blank)followingspectrographictestswhichareoftensimilartotheoriginalscans,aswellasimplyingthecloggingofsmallfeedinglines withconsequential lackof admissionintoanalytic instruments of themostimportantmagneculestobedetected;VI)Magneculescanbreakdownintofragmentsundersucientlyenergeticcollisions, withsubsequentrecombinationwithotherfragmentsand/orcon-ventional molecules, resultinginvariations intimeof spectrographicpeaks(calledtimemutationsofmagnecularweights);VII) Magnecules can accrue or lose during collision individual atoms, dimersormolecules;VIII) Magnecules have an anomalous penetration through other substancesindicating a reduction of the average size of conventional molecules as expectedundermagneticpolarizations;IX) Gas magnecules have an anomalous solution in liquids due to new mag-neticbondsbetweengasandliquidmoleculescausedbymagneticinduction;X)Magneculescanbeformedbymoleculesofliquidswhicharenotneces-sarilysolvableineachother;XI)Magneculeshaveanomalousaverageatomicweightsinthesensethattheyarebiggerthanthatofanymolecularconstituentandanyoftheircom-binations;XII)Agaswithmagnecularstructuredoesnotfollowtheperfectgaslawbecausethenumberof itsconstituents(Avogadronumber), or, equivalently,itsaverageatomicweight,varieswithasucientvariationofthepressure;XIII) Substances with magnecular structure have anomalous physical char-acteristics,suchasanomalousspecicdensity,viscosity,surfacetension, etc.,as compared to the characteristics of the conventional molecular constituents;470 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIXIV) Magnecules release in thermochemical reactions more energy than thatreleasedbythesamereactionsamongunpolarizedmolecularconstituents;XV)All theabovecharacteristicfeaturesdisappearwhenthemagneculesarebroughttoasucientlyhightemperature, whichvariesfromspeciestospecies, called Curie Magnecular Temperature; in particular, combustion elim-inates all magnetic anomalies resulting in an exhaust without magnecular fea-tures.Magneculesarealsocalled:A) elementarywhenonlycomposedoftwomolecules;B) magneplexeswhenentirelycomposedofseveralidenticalmolecules;C) magneclusterswhencomposedofseveraldierentmolecules.Finally,magneculesarecalled:i) isomagneculeswhenhavingall single-valuedcharacteristicsandbeingreversibleintime, namely, whentheyarecharacterizedbyisochemistry(seeChapter9);ii) genomagneculeswhenhavingallsingle-valuedcharacteristicsandbe-ing irreversible in time, namely, when they are characterized by genochemistry;andiii)hypermagneculeswhenhavingat least onemulti-valuedcharacter-isticandbeingirreversibleintime, namely, whentheyarecharacterizedbyhyperchemistry.Theprimaryobjectiveofthischapteris, rst, tostudythecharacteristicfeaturesofmagneculesfromatheoretical viewpoint, andthenpresentinde-pendent experimental verications for each feature.All magnecules studied in this chapter are, strictly speaking, isomagneculesbecause single valued and reversible. The reader should be aware that all cor-rectcalculationsimplyingsingle-valuedirreversiblechemical processes, suchas chemical reactions in general, should be done with genomagnecules. Finally,all biological; structure will inevitably require the use of hypermagnecules asillustrated in Chapter 5.The reader should keep in mind that magnegas, the new, clean combustiblegas developed by the author [1,2,5], of Largo, Florida, has precisely a magnec-ular structure from which it derives its name. Nevertheless, we shall identifyin this chapter other gases, liquids and solids with a magnecular structure.Bydenotingtheconventional valencebondwiththesymbol andthenew magnetic bond with the symbol , examples of elementary magneculesin gases and liquids are respectively given byHH HH, OO OCO, etc., (11.2.1a)C15H20O C15H20O, etc.; (8.1b)ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 471examples ofmagneplexes in gases and liquids are respectively given byHH HH HH . . . , etc., (11.2.2a)HOH HOH . . . , etc.; (11.2.2b)and examples ofmagneclusters are given byHH C O OC O C = O . . . , etc., (11.2.3a)C13H18O C14H12O3 C15H20O . . . , etc. (11.2.3b)A generic representation of a gas magnecules requires the presence of indi-vidual atoms and dimers, such as:HH CO HHOH C HO . . ., etc. (11.2.4)One of the most important features of magnecules is their anomalous releaseof energyinthermochemical reactions(FeatureXIVof Denition8.2.1), inviewof itsevidentimportancefortheindustrial developmentof newcleanfuels such as magnegas (Sects. 7.10 and 7.11).Asweshall seeindetail lateron, thisfeatureiscruciallydependentontheexistencewithinthemagneculesof individual atoms, suchasH, CandO, and/or individual unpaired dimers, such as HO and HC. In fact, at thebreakdown of the magnecules due to combustion, these individual atoms anddimers coupled themselves into conventional molecules via known exothermicreactions such asH + H H2 + 105 Kcal/mole,C + O CO + 255 Kcal/mole,HO + H H2O + 28 Kcal/mole, etc.,(11.2.5)with consequential release during combustion of a large amount of energy thatdoes not exist in fuels with a conventional molecular structure.Inreadingthischapter, thereadershouldkeepinmindthat, inviewofthe above important industrial,consumerandenvironmental implications,aprimaryemphasis of thepresentationis thestudyof magnecules withthelargest possible number of unpaired atoms and dimers, rather than molecules.In inspecting the above representation of magnecules, the readershould also keep in mind that their linear formulation in a row is used mainlyfor practical purposes. In fact, the correct formulation should be via columns,rather than rows, since the bond occurs between one atom of a given moleculeand an atom of another molecule, as we shall see in detail later on.472 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III11.2.3 TheFiveForceFieldsExistinginPolarizedAtomsTheattractivebondresponsibleforthecreationofmagneculesoriginateswithinthestructureofindividual atoms. Therefore,itisrecommendabletoinitiate our study via the identication of all force elds existing in a conven-tional atomic structure.The sole elds in the atomic structure studied by chemists prior to Ref. [1]weretheintrinsicelectricandmagneticelds of electrons andnuclei (seeFig. 11.6). Itwasprovedacenturyagothattheseeldscanonlyproducevalencebonds, thus explaining the reason why molecules were the only formof atomic clustering with a clear bond admitted by chemistry until recently.Santillis [1] main contribution has been the identication of a new force eldintheatomicstructure, which is suciently strong to permit a new chemicalspecies.Sincetheinceptionofatomicphysics, theelectronofthehydrogenatom(butnotnecessarilyperipheral electronsof morecomplexatoms)hasbeenassumed to have a spherical distribution, which is indeed the case for isolatedand unperturbed atomic structures (see also Fig. 811.6).However, electrons are charged particles, and all charges rotating in a planarorbit create a magnetic eld in the direction perpendicular to the orbital plane,andsuchtoexhibittheNorthpolarityinthesemi-spaceseeingacounter-clockwise rotation (see Fig. q11.6..B).A main point of Ref. [1] is that the distribution in space of electron orbitsisalteredbysucientlystrongexternal magneticelds. Inparticular, thelattercausethetransitionfromtheconventional spherical distributiontoanew distribution with the same cylindrical symmetry of the external eld, andsuch to exhibit magnetic polarities opposite to the external ones (Fig. 11.6.C).Therefore, the magnetic elds of atomsarenot solely given by the intrinsicmagneticeldsof theperipheral electronsandof nuclei because, undertheapplication of a suciently strong external magnetic eld, atoms exhibit theadditionalmagneticmomentcausedbyapolarizationoftheelectronorbits.This third magnetic eld was ignored by chemists until 1998 (although not byphysicists) because nonexistent in a conventional atomic state.Asamatteroffact,itshouldberecalledthatorbitsarenaturallyplanarinnature, as establishedbyplanetaryorbits, andtheyacquire asphericaldistributioninatomsbecauseof variousquantumeects, e.g., uncertainties.Therefore, in the absence of these, all atoms would naturally exhibit ve forceelds and not only the four elds currently assumed in chemistry.On historical grounds it should be noted that theoretical and experimentalstudiesinphysicsof thehydrogenatomsubjectedtoanexternal (homoge-neous) magnetic eld date to Schr odingers times.ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 473Figure 11.6. A schematic view of the force elds existing in the hydrogen atom. Fig. 11.6.Adepictsanisolatedhydrogenatominitsconventionalsphericalcongurationwhenatabso-lutezerodegreetemperature,inwhichthesoleforceeldsaregivenbytheelectricchargesoftheelectronandoftheproton,aswellasbytheintrinsicmagneticmomentsofthesameparticles. Fig. 11.6.Bdepictsthesamehydrogenatominwhichtheorbitoftheperipheralelectron is polarized into a plane. In this case there is the emergence of a fth eld, the mag-neticdipolemomentcausedbytherotationoftheelectroninitsplanarorbit. Fig. 11.6.Cdepictsthesamehydrogenatomunderanexternal magneticeldwhichcausesthetran-sitionfromthespherical distributionof theperipheral electronasinFig. 11.6.Atoanewdistributionwiththesamecylindrical symmetryasthatof theexternal eld, andsuchtooermagneticpolaritiesoppositetotheexternal ones. Inthelattercase, thepolarizationgenerally occurs within a toroid, and reaches the perfectly planar conguration of Fig. 11.6.Bonlyatabsolutezerodegreetemperatureorunderextremelystrongmagneticelds.11.2.4 NumericalValueofMagnecularBondsIntheprecedingsectionwehavenotedthatasucientlystrongexternalmagnetic eld polarizes the orbits of peripheral atomic electrons resulting ina magnetic eld which does not exist in a conventional spherical distribution.Needlesstosay, thesameexternalmagneticeldsalsopolarizetheintrinsicmagneticmomentsof theperipheral electronsandof nuclei, resultingintothree net magnetic polarities available in an atomic structure for a new bond.When considering molecules, the situation is dierent because valence elec-trons are bonded in singlet couplings to verify Paulis exclusion principle, asper our hypothesis of theisoelectronium of Chapter 9. As a result, their netmagneticpolaritiescanbeassumedinrstapproximationasbeingnull. Inthis case, only two magnetic polarities are available for new bonds, namely, themagnetic eld created by the rotation of paired valence electrons in a polarizedorbit plus the intrinsic magnetic eld of nuclei.474 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIItshouldbenotedthattheaboveresultspersistwhentheinter-electrondistanceoftheisoelectroniumassumesorbitalvalues. Inthiscasethetotalintrinsic magnetic moment of the two valence electrons is also approximatelynull inaverageduetothepersistenceof antiparallel spins and, therefore,antiparallelmagneticmoments,inwhichabsencetherewouldbeaviolationof Paulis exclusion principle.The calculation of thesepolarizedmagneticmomentsatabsolutezerode-greetemperature is elementary [1]. By using rationalized units, the magneticmomentMe-orb. of apolarizedorbitof oneatomicelectronisgivenbythegeneral quantum mechanical law:Me-orb. =q2mL, (11.2.6)whereL is the angular momentum, is the rationalized unit of the magneticmoment of the electron,q = e, andm = me.Itiseasytoseethat themagneticmoment of thepolarizedorbit of theisoelectronium with characteristics (4.25) coincides with that of one individualelectron. This is due to the fact that, in this case, in Eq. (11.2.6) the chargeinthenumeratorassumesadoublevalue q = 2e, whilethemassinthedenominator also assumes a double value, m = 2me, thus leaving value (8.6)unchanged.By plotting the various numerical values for the ground state of the hydrogenatom, one obtains:Me-orb. = Misoe-orb. = 1, 859.59. (11.2.7)By recalling that in the assumed units the proton has the magnetic moment1.4107, we have the value [1]:Me-orb.Mp-intr.=1, 856.95901.4107= 1, 316.33, (11.2.8)namely, the magnetic moment created by the orbiting in a plane of the electronin the hydrogen atom is 1,316 times bigger than the intrinsic magnetic momentofthenucleus, thus being suciently strong to create a bond.It is evident that the polarized magnetic moments at ordinary temperaturearesmallerthanthoseatabsolutezerodegreestemperature. Thisisduetothe fact that, at ordinary temperature, the perfect polarization of the orbit ina plane is no longer possible. In this case the polarization occurs in atoroid,as illustrated in Fig. 8.2, whose sectional area depends on the intensity of theexternal eld.Asanillustrativeexample, underanexternal magneticeldof 10Tesla,anisolatedhydrogenatom has a total magnetic eld of the following order ofmagnitude:MH-tot. = Mp-intr. +Me-intr. +Me-orb. 3, 000, (11.2.9)ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 475Figure11.7. Aschematicviewof themagneticeldsof theisochemical model of thehy-drogenmoleculewithisoelectroniumassumedtobeastablequasi-particle. Thetopviewrepresentsthemoleculeatabsolutezerodegreetemperaturewithpolarizationof theorbitinaplane, whilethebottomviewrepresentsthemoleculeatordinarytemperaturewithapolarization of the orbit within a toroid. In both cases there is the disappearance of the totalintrinsicmagneticmomentsoftheelectronsbecausetheyarecoupledintheisoelectroniumwithantiparallelspinandmagneticmomentsduetoPaulisexclusionprinciple. Thelackofcontributionoftheintrinsicmagneticmomentsoftheelectronspersistsevenwhentheiso-electroniumhasdimensionmuchbiggerthan1fm,becausetheantiparallelcharacterofthespinsandmagneticmomentspersists, resultinginanaveragenull total intrinsicmagneticmoment of the electrons. Therefore,the biggest magnetic moment of the hydrogen moleculewhichcanbeobtainedviapolarizationsisthatoftheelectronsorbits. Note, asrecalledinSect. 9.2, theoo-shaped(alsocalledgureeight)congurationhasbeenrecentlyprovedinmathematicstobeoneofthemoststablesolutionsoftheN-bodyproblem.while the same hydrogen atom under the same conditions, when a componentof ahydrogenmolecule has the smaller valueMH2-tot. = Mp-intr. +Misoe-orb. 1, 500, (11.2.10)again, because of the absence of the rather large contribution from the intrin-sic magnetic moment of the electrons, while the orbital contribution remainsunchanged.Theabovefeatureisparticularlyimportantforthestudyof magneculesand their applications because it establishes the theoretical foundations for thepresence of isolated atoms in the structure of magnecules sincethemagnetic476 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIbondsofisolatedatomscanbeatleasttwicestrongerthanthoseofthesameatomswhenpartofamolecule.Anaccurateindependent vericationof theabovecalculations was con-ducted by M.G. Kucherenko and A.K. Aringazin [3], who obtained the follow-ing value via the use of alternative models,Me-orb.Mp-intr. 1, 315. (11.2.11)Needless to say, the quantized value of the angular momentum of the groundstateof theconventional (unpolarized)hydrogenatomisnull, L=0, thusimplying a null magnetic moment,M= 0. This occurrence conrms the wellknown feature that the magnetic moment of the orbit of the peripheral electronof a conventional (unpolarized) hydrogen atom is null.Consequently, expressions (8.6)-(8.11) should be considered under a numberof clarications. First, saidexpressionsrefertotheorbit of theperipheralelectronunderanexternalmagneticeld which implies an evident alterationof the value of the magnetic moment. Note that this external magnetic eldcan be either that of an electric discharge, as in the PlasmaArcFlow reactors, orthat of another polarized hydrogen atom, as in a magnecule. This occurrenceconrmsamainaspectof thenewchemical speciesof magnecules, namely,that theplanepolarizationof theorbits of theperipheral atomicelectronis stableif andonlyif saidpolarizationis coupledtoanother because, ifisolated, the plane polarization is instantly lost due to rotations with recoverthe conventional spheroidal distribution of the orbits.Moreover, expressions (11.2.6)-(11.2.11) refer to the angular momentum ofthe orbit of the peripheral electron polarized in a plane, rather than that withasphericaldistributionasintheconventionalgroundstateofthehydrogenatom. The latter condition, alone, is sucient to provide a non-null quantizedorbital magnetic moment.Finally, the value L = 1 needed for expressions (11.2.6)-(11.2.11) can be ob-tained via the direct quantization of the plane polarization of a classical orbit.Theseaspectshavebeenstudiedindetail byKucherenkoandAringazin[2]and Aringazin [8] (see Appendix 8.A). These studies clarify a rather intrigu-ing property mostly ignored throughout the 20-th century according to which,contrary to popular beliefs, thequantizedangularmomentumof thegroundstateofthehydrogenatomisnotnecessarilyzero,becauseitsvaluedependsonpossibleexternalelds.Itisimportanttonotethatthemagneticpolarizationshereinconsideredare physical notions, thus beingbest expressedandunderstoodviaactualorbits as treated above rather thanchemicalorbitals. This is due to the factthatorbitsarephysicalentities actually existing in nature, and schematicallyrepresented in the gures with standing waves, in semiclassical approximation.ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 477Bycontrasts, orbitalsarepurelymathematical notionsgivenbyprobabilitydensity. As a result, magnetic elds can be more clearly associated with orbitsrather than with orbitals.Despitetheabovedierences, itshouldbestressedthat, magneticpolar-izations can also be derived via theorbitals of conventional use in chemistry.For example, consider the description of an isolated atom via the conventionalSchr odinger equationH[) =_p22m +V_[) = E[), (11.2.12)where [) is a state in a Hilbert space. Orbitals are expressed in terms of theprobabilitydensity [[[)[. Theprobabilitydensityoftheelectronofahydrogen atom has a spherical distribution, namely, the electron of an isolatedhydrogenatomcanbefoundatagivendistancefromthenucleuswiththesame probability in any direction in space.Assumenowthatthesamehydrogenatomisexposedtoastrongexter-nal homogeneousandstaticmagneticeldB. ThiscaserequiresthenewSchr odinger equation,_(p ecA)2/2m+V_[

) = E

[

), (11.2.13)whereA is vector-potential of the magnetic eldB. It is easy to prove that,inthiscase, thenewprobabilitydensity [

[[

)[ possessesacylindricalsymmetrypreciselyofthetypeindicatedabove, thusconrmingtheresultsobtained on physical grounds. A similar conrmation can be obtained via theuse of Diracs equation or other chemical methods.Anaccuraterecentreviewof theSchr odingerequationforthehydrogenatom under external magnetic elds is that by A.K. Aringazin [8], which studyconrms the toroidal conguration of the electron orbits which is at the foun-dationof thenewchemical species of magnecules. Areviewof AringazinstudiesispresentedinAppendix11.A. Asonecansee, underanexternal,strong, homogeneous, and constant magnetic elds of the order of 1013Gauss=107Tesla, thesolutionsofSchr odingerequationoftype(8.13)implytherestriction of the electron orbits within a single, small-size toroidal congura-tion,whiletheexcitedstatesarerepresentedbythedouble-splittedtoroidalconguration due to parity.Intriguingly, the binding energy of the ground state of the H atom is muchhigher than that in the absence of an external magnetic eld, by therefore con-rming another important feature of the new chemical species of magnecules,that of permitting new means of storing energy within conventional moleculesand atoms, as discussed later on in this chapter.For magnetic elds of the order of 109Gauss, spherical symmetry begins tocompetewiththetoroidalsymmetry,andformagneticeldsoftheorderof478 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III105Gauss or less, spherical symmetry is almost completely restored by leavingonly ordinary Zeeman eects. This latter result conrms that the creation ofthe new chemical species of magnecules in gases as per Denition 8.2.1 requiresvery strong magnetic elds. The situation for liquids is dierent, as shown lateron also in this chapter.The magnetic polarization of atoms larger than hydrogen is easily derivedfrom the above calculations. Consider, for example, the magnetic polarizationof an isolated atom of oxygen. For simplicity, assume that an external magneticeldof 10Teslapolarizesonlythetwoperipheral valenceelectronsof theoxygen. Accordingly, its total polarized magnetic eld of orbital type is of theorder of twice value (8.9), i.e., about 6,000 . However, when the same oxygenatomis bondedintothewater or other molecules, themaximal polarizedmagnetic moment is about half the preceding value.Note the dominance of the magnetic elds due to polarized electronorbitsover the intrinsic nuclear magnetic elds. This is due not only to the fact thatthe former are 1,316 times the latter, but also to the fact that nuclei are at arelative great distance from peripheral electrons, thus providing a contributionto the bond even smaller than that indicated. This feature explains the essen-tial novelty of magnecules with respect to established magnetic technologies,such as that based onnuclearmagneticresonances.Note also that a main mechanism of polarization is dependent on an externalmagnetic eld and the force actually providing the bond is of magnetic type.Nevertheless, the ultimate origin is that of charges rotating in an atomic orbit.This illustrates that, as indicated in Sect. 11.2.1, the name magnecules wassuggestedonthebasis of thepredominant magneticorigin, as well as forthepragmaticdierentiationwithmoleculeswithoutusingalongsentence,although a technically more appropriate name would be electromagnecules.Needlesstosay, thepolarizationoftheorbitsisnotnecessarilyrestrictedtovalenceelectrons becausethepolarizationdoes not aect thequantumnumbers of any given orbit,thus applying for all atomic electrons,includingthoseofcompleteinnershells,ofcourse,undera sucientlystrong externaleld. Asaconsequence, theintensityof themagneticpolarizationgenerallyincreases with the number of atomic electrons, namely, the bigger is the atom,the bigger is, in general, its magnetic bond in a magnecule.Ionizations do not aect theexistence of magnetic polarizations, and theymay at best aect their intensity. An ionized hydrogen atom is a naked proton,which acquires a polarization of the direction of its magnetic dipole momentwhen exposed to an external magnetic eld. Therefore,an ionized hydrogenatom canindeedbondmagnetically to otherpolarizedstructures. Similarly,whenoxygenisionizedbytheremovalofoneofitsperipheralelectrons, itsremaining electrons are unchanged. Consequently, when exposed to a strongmagnetic eld, such an ionized oxygen atom acquires a magnetic polarizationELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 479which is similar to that of an unpolarized oxygen atom, except that it lacks thecontributionfromthemissingelectron. Ionizedmoleculesordimersbehavealongsimilarlines. Accordingly, theissueastowhetherindividual atoms,dimers or molecules are ionized or not will not be addressed hereon.The magnetic polarizations here considered are also independent as to whetherthe substance considered is paramagnetic or not. This is evidently due to thefactthatthepolarizationdealswiththeindividual orbitsof individual pe-ripheral electrons, irrespective of whether paired or unpaired, belonging to asaturate shell or not. Therefore, the issue as to whether a given substance isparamagnetic or not will be ignored hereon.Similarly, the polarizations here considered do not require molecules to havea net total magnetic polarity, which would be possible only for paramagneticsubstances, again, because they act on individual orbits of individual atomicelectrons.We should also indicate that another verication of our isochemical model ofmolecular structures is the resolution of the inconsistency of the conventionalmodel inpredictingthatall substancesareparamagnetic, asillustratedinFigs. 1.4 and 1.5.Recall that the atoms preserve their individualities inthe conventionalmolecularmodel,thusimplyingtheindividualacquisitionofamagneticpo-larizationunderanexternaleld,withconsequentialnettotalmagneticpo-larities for all molecules which is in dramatic disagreement with experimental;evidence.By comparison, in the isochemical molecular model the valence electrons areactually bonded to each other, with consequential oo-shaped orbit around therespective nuclei. This implies that the rotational directions of the o-branchesare opposite to each other. In turn,this implies that magnetic polarizationsare also opposite to each other, resulting in the lack of a net magnetic polarityunderanexternal eld, inagreementwithnature(seeFigs. 4.5and8.3formore details).11.2.5 ProductionofMagneculesinGases,LiquidsandSolidsAt its simplest,the creationofmagnecules canbe understoodvia the oldmethodofmagnetizationofaparamagneticmetalbyinduction. Consideraparamagnetic metal which, initially, has no magnetic eld. When exposed to aconstant external magnetic eld, the paramagnetic metal acquires a permanentmagneticeldthatcanonlybedestroyedatasucientlyhightemperaturevarying from metal to metal and called the Curie Temperature.Themechanismoftheabovemagnetizationiswellknown. Initsnaturalunperturbedstate, theperipheral atomicelectronsofaparamagneticmetalhaveaspacedistributionthatresultsinthelackof atotal magneticeld.480 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIFigure11.8. Aschematicviewof theresolutionforthecaseof thewatermoleculeof theinconsistent prediction of the conventional molecular model that water is paramagnetic (Fig.1.14), as permitted by the Santilli-Shillady isochemical model of water molecule (Chapter 9).Asonecansee,theresolution isgivenbytheimpossibilityforthewatermoleculetoacquireanetmagneticpolarity. Notethecomplexityofthegeometryofthevariousmagneticeldswhich, accordingtoongoingresearch, apparentlypermitstherstexplanationonscienticrecordofthe105anglebetweenthetwoHOdimers. ThecorrespondingresolutionforthecaseofthehydrogenisoutlinedinFig.9.5.However, whenexposedtoanexternal magneticeld, theorbitsof oneormore unpaired electrons are polarized into a toroidal shape with end polaritiesopposite to those of the external eld.This mechanism is called magnetic induction, and results in a stable chainof magneticallypolarizedorbitsfromthebeginningof themetal toitsendwith polarities North-South/North-South/North-South/ . . . This chain of po-larizations is so stable that it can only be destroyed by high temperatures.Thecreationof magneculescanbeessentiallyunderstoodwithasimilarpolarization of the peripheral electron orbits, with the main dierences that:no total magnetic polarization is necessary; the polarization generally apply toall electrons, and not necessarily to unpaired electrons only; and the substanceneed not to be paramagnetic.ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 481Figure11.9. Aschematic viewof the mainmechanismunderlyingthe creationof mag-necules, hereillustratedfor thecaseof thehydrogenmolecule. It consists intheuseofsucientlystrongexternal magneticeldswhichcanprogressivelyeliminateall rotations,thus reducing the hydrogen molecule to a conguration which, at absolute zero degrees tem-perature, canbeassumedtolieinaplane. Theplanarcongurationoftheelectronorbitsthenimpliesthemanifestationoftheirmagneticmomentwhichwouldbeotherwiseabsent.Ther.h.s. oftheabovepictureoutlinesthegeometryofthemagneticeldintheimmediatevicinity of an electric arc as described in the text for the case of hadronic molecular reactors(Chapter12). Notethecircularcongurationofthemagneticeldlinesaroundtheelectricdischarge, thetangential natureof thesymmetryaxisof themagneticpolarizationof thehydrogen atoms with respect to said circular magnetic lines, and the consideration of hydro-genatomsatorbital distancesfromtheelectricarc108cm, resultinginextremelystrongmagnetic elds proportional to (108)2= 1016Gauss,thus being ample sucient to createtheneededpolarization(seeAppendix8.Afordetails).To illustrate these dierences, consider a diamagnetic substance, such as thehydrogen at its gaseous state at ordinary pressure and temperature. As wellknown, the hydrogen molecule is then a perfect sphere whose radius is equal tothe diameter of a hydrogen atom, as illustrated in Fig. 11.9.A. The creation ofthe needed magnetic polarization requires the use of external magnetic eldscapable, rst, to remove the rotation of the atoms, as illustrated in Fig. 11.9.B,and then the removal of the internal rotations of the same, resulting in a planarconguration of the orbits as illustrated in Fig. 11.9 .C.Oncetheabovepolarizationiscreatedintwoormorehydrogenmolecu-les suciently near each other, they attract each other via opposite magnetic482 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIFigure11.10. Aschematicviewofthesimplestpossiblebi-atomicmagneculewhosebondoriginates fromthe toroidal polarizationof the orbits of peripheral atomic electrons. Arst maindierence withconventional molecular bonds is that, under sucientlystrongexternalmagneticelds,themagnecularbondmayoccurindependentlyfromtheexistenceornotof valenceelectrons. Consequently, thetwopolarizedatomsdepictedinthisgurecanbearbitrarilychosen, whileforconventional molecularbondstheatomsarerestrictedtoverifyknownvalencerules. Anothermajordierenceisthat, bycentral conceptiontoachieve full combustion for the case of fuels (see Section 11.1), the magnecular bond is muchweaker than the molecular bond. In fact, due to its magnetic origin, the bond of this pictureceasestoexistatagiventemperature(theCurieTemperature)that,forthecaseofgaseousfuelswithmagnecularstructure, it isusuallygivenbytheametemperature. Themainindustrialaswellassocialresultisthatgaseousfuelswithmagnecularstructuredoachieveindeedtotal combustionwithoutanytoxicsubstanceinitsexhaust, somethingimpossiblefor fuels withmolecular structure, as provedbyvarious cases studiedinthe subsequentsectionsof thischapter. Anotherimplicationalsoof majorindustrial andsocial relevanceisthatfuelswithmagnecularstructurecanbesynthesizedinsuchawaytobeinternallyrichinoxygen(usuallyof liquid, ratherthanatmosphericorigin)inordertoreplenishtheatmosphericoxygenalreadydepletedbyfossil fuels, somethingequallyimpossibleforfuelswithmolecularstructure,asalsostudiedlateroninthischapter.polarities, resulting in the elementary magnecules of Fig. 11.10.A. Additionalelementary magnecules can then also bond to each other, resulting in clusterswith a number of constituents depending on the conditions considered.A most ecient industrial production of gas and liquid magnecules is thatvia the PlasmaArcFlow Reactors [5]. As we shall see via the experimental ev-idence presented below, said reactors can produce an essentially pure popula-ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 483Figure11.11. Aschematicviewof thesimplest possiblemultiatomicmagnecular bonds.CaseAillustratestheelementaryhydrogenmagnecule. Thesubsequentcaseisthatoffourhydrogenatoms(H H) (H H)(ortwohydrogenmoleculesH H) (H H))underamagnecular bondthat has atomicweight veryclosetothat of thehelium. Therefore,thedetectioninaGC-MSscanofapeakwith4a.m.u.,bynomeans,necessarilyidentiestheheliumbecausethepeakcouldbelongtothehydrogenmagnecule. CaseBillustratesamagnecule composed by a molecule and a dimer. Case C illustrates the hypothesis submittedinthismonographthatthestructurewith3a.m.u. generallyinterpretedasaconventionalmoleculeH3mayinrealitybeamagneculebetweenahydrogenmoleculeandanisolatedhydrogenatom. Thisisduetothefactthat,oncethetwovalenceelectronsofthehydrogenmolecule are bonded-correlated, theycannot admit the same valence bondwithathirdelectronfor numerous physical reasons, suchas: the bondcannot be stable because theformerisaBosonwhilethelatterisaFermion;theformerhascharge 2ewhilethelatterhascharge e,thusresultinginalargerepulsion;etc.tion of gas and liquid magnecules without appreciable percentages of moleculesdirectly detectable in the GC- or LC-MS.The reason for these results is the intrinsic geometry of the PlasmaArcFlowitself. Recall thatthistechnologydealswithaDCelectricarcsubmerged484 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIwithin a liquid waste to be recycled. The arc decomposes the molecules of theliquid into its atomic constituents; ionizes the same; and creates a plasma ofmostly ionized H, C and O atoms at about 3, 500K. The ow of the liquidthrough the arc then continuously removes the plasma from the arc followingits formation. Said plasma then cools down in the surrounding liquid, and anumber of chemical reactions take place resulting in the formation of magnegaswhich bubbles to the surface of the liquid where it is collected for industrialor consumer use.To understand the creation of anewchemicalspecies dened according toSect. 11.2.1asanessentiallypurepopulationof gasmagnecules, recall thatmagnetic elds are inversely proportional to the square of the distance,Fmagnetic =m1m2r2. (11.2.14)Therefore, an atom in the immediate vicinity of a DC electric arc with 1,000 Aand 30 V, experiences a magnetic eld which is inversely proportional to thesquareof the orbital distance r =108cm, resultinginamagneticeldproportional to 1016units.No conventional space distribution of peripheral atomic electrons can existunder theseextremelystrongmagneticelds, whicharesuchtogenerallycause the polarization of the orbits of all atomic electrons, and not only thoseof valence type, as well as their essential polarization in a plane, rather thana toroid.Assoonastwoormoremoleculesneareachotherpossessingsuchanex-treme magnetic polarization are created, they bond to each other via opposingmagnetic polarities, resulting in the elementary magnecule of Fig. 11.8.A.Moreover, asshownearlier, isolatedatomshaveamagneticeldwithanintensity double that of the same atom when belonging to a molecule. There-fore, as soon as created in the immediate vicinity of the electric arc, individualpolarized atoms can bond to polarized molecules without any need to belongthemselves to a molecule, as illustrated in Fig. 11.10.C.Finally, recall that the PlasmaArcFlow is intended to destroy liquid moleculessuch as that of water. It then follows that the plasma can also contain individ-ual highly polarized molecular fragments, such as the dimer HO. The notionof gasmagneculesasperDenition8.2.1thenfollowsasreferredtostableclustersofmolecules, and/ordimers, and/orisolatedatomsunderaninter-nal attractive bond among opposing polarities of the magnetic polarization ofthe orbits of peripheral electrons, nuclei and electrons when the latter are notcoupled into valence bonds.Eective means for the creation of an essentially pure population ofliquidmagnecules are given by the same PlasmaArcFlow Reactors. In fact,duringits ow through the DC arc, the liquid itself is exposed to the same extrememagneticeldsasthoseoftheelectricarcindicatedabove. ThiscausestheELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 485creationofanessentiallypurepopulationofliquidmagneculescomposedofhighlypolarizedliquidmolecules, dimersofthesameliquid, andindividualatoms, as established by LC-MS/UVD tests.One way to create an essentially pure population of solid magnecules is givenby freezing the new chemical species at the liquid level and then verifying thatthelatterpersistsafterdefrosting,asconrmedbyvarioustests. Therefore,the case of solid magnecules is ignored hereon for simplicity.Bydenotingwiththearrow theverticalmagneticpolarityNorth-Southandwiththearrow theverticalpolaritySouth-North, andbykeepingthestudyattheabsolutezerodegreetemperature, whenexposedtotheaboveindicated extreme magnetic elds, the hydrogen molecule HH can be polar-izedintosuchaformthattheorbitoftheisoelectroniumisinaplanewithresulting structure HH (Fig. 11.7).The elementary hydrogen magnecule can then be writtenHaHb HcHd, (11.2.15)where: a, b, c, ddenotedierentatoms; thepolarizedhydrogenatomHaisbonded magnetically to the polarized atom Hcwith the South magnetic poleof atomabondedtotheNorthpoleof atomc; andtheNorthpolarityofatom b is bonded to the South polarity of atom d (see, again, Fig. 8.5.A). Thisresults in a strong bond due to the at nature of the atoms, the correspondingmutual distance being very small and the magnetic force being consequentlyvery large. Moreover,unlike the case of the unstable clusters due to electricpolarization discussed in Sect. 11.2.1, the above magnetic bonds are very stablebecause motions due to temperature apply to the bonded couple (11.2.15) asa whole.For other magnecules we can then writeHH CO; (11.2.16)or, more generallyHHHCOHOHCABC. . . . . . , (11.2.17)whereA,B,andCaregenericatomsina conventionalmolecularchainandthe atoms without an indicated magnetic polarity may indeed be polarized butare not necessarily bonded depending on the geometric distribution in space.Magneculescanalsobeformedbymeansotherthantheuseof externalmagnetic elds. For instance, magnecules can be produced by electromagneticeldswithadistributionhavingacylindrical symmetry; orbymicrowavescapable of removing the rotational degrees of freedom of molecules and atoms,resultinginmagneticpolarizations. Similarly,magneculescanbeformedbysubjecting a material to a pressure that is suciently high to remove the orbital486 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIIrotations. Magnecules can also be formed by friction or by any other meansnot necessarily possessing magnetic or electric elds, yet capable of removingthe rotational degrees of freedom within individual atomic structures, resultingin consequential magnetic polarizations.It is, therefore, expected that a number of substances which are today listedasof unknownchemical bond, mayeventuallyresulttohaveamagnecularstructure.Magnecules of type (8.15) may well have been detected in past mass spec-trometric measurements, but believed to be the helium (because its molecularweight is very close to that of the helium). In fact, the same happens for themolecule H3 which, in reality may be the magnecule of Fig. 11.10.C.Thedestructionof magneculesisachievedbysubjectingthemtoatem-peraturegreaterthanthemagneculesCurieTemperaturewhichvariesfrommagnecule to magnecule.11.2.6 NewMolecularInternalBondsAsindicatedinSect. 11.2.2, andveriedexperimentallylateron, theIRsignatures of conventional molecules suchas CO2aremutatedduetotheappearance of two new peaks which do not exist for the conventional molecule.ByrecallingthatpeaksintheIRsignaturegenerallyrepresentbonds, thisevidence indicates the capability by the CO2 molecule to acquire new internalbonds in addition to those of conventional valence type.Themagneticpolarizationatthefoundationsof magneculespredictstheexistenceof thesenewinternal bondsandpermitstheirquantitativestudy.Recall that external magnetic elds can polarize the orbit of valence electrons,but cannot possibly break or alter valence bonds. Recall that,consequently,suciently strong external magnetic elds can polarize the orbits of all atomicelectrons, and not only those of the valence electrons.Consider thenaconventional moleculesuchas C=O. Whenexposedtothe extreme magnetic elds as existing in the PlasmaArcFlow technology, theorbitsofall internal electronscanbepolarized, individually, forthecarbonandtheoxygen, inadditiontothepolarizationof thetwopairsof valencebonds. Notethattheplanesof thesepolarizationsneednotbenecessarilyparallel toeachother, becausetheirrelativeorientationdependentsonthegeometry at hand.Oneof thevariouspossiblegeometriesisthatinwhichtheplaneof thepolarization of the internal electrons is perpendicular to that of the two pairsofvalencebonds. Inthiscasewehavethebirthofanewbondof magneticorigin in the interior of a conventional molecule, which is evidently given by thealignmentofthetwopolaritiesNorth-SouthandNorth-Southinthecarbonand oxygen, and the consequential attraction of opposite polarities of dierentatoms, as illustrated in Fig. 11.11.A.ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 487Figure11.12. Aschematicviewforthecasesof C=OandOCOof thepolarizationofinternal atomic electrons, while preserving conventional valence bonds, and the consequentialcreationofnewbondsinconventional moleculeswhicharenotofvalencetype, aslateronveriedexperimentallyviaIRscans.Forthecaseof theOCOmoleculewecanevidentlyhavetwointernalbonds of magnetic type in addition to the valence bonds, which are also givenby the alignment of the magnetic polarities, resulting in one new bond for theOC dimer and a second one for the CO dimer, as illustrated in Fig. 11.11.B.As we shall see later on, the above new internal molecular bonds have majorindustrial and consumer implications, inasmuch as they permit the productionof fuels capable of releasing under combustion anomalous amounts of energy,withconsequential reductionofpollutants inthe exhaust,as already provedby magnegas.Needless to say, the creation of new internal bonds is an extreme case of IRmutation. In reality, numerous other weaker forms of mutations without theappearance of new peaks are possible and their study is left to the interestedreader.11.2.7 MainFeaturesfortheDetectionofMagneculesThe experimental detection of gas magnecules requires the verication of anumber of characteristic features of magnecules identied in Denition 8.2.1.Inthefollowingwefocusthereadersattentiononthemainfeaturesofgas488 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. IIImagnecules which must be veried via GC-MS tests. The remaining featureswill be considered later on.Feature1: AppearanceofunexpectedheavyMSpeaks.Gas magnecules are generally heavier than the heaviest molecule in a givengas. Peaks in the GC-MS are, therefore, expected in macroscopic percentageswith atomic weights bigger than the heaviest molecule. As a concrete exam-ple, the heaviest molecule in magnegas in macroscopic percentage is CO2 with44 a.m.u. Therefore, GC-MS scans should only show background noise if setforover44a.m.u. Onthecontrary, peaksinmacroscopicpercentageshavebeen detected in magnegas all the way to 1,000 a.m.u.Feature 2: Unknown character of the unexpected MS heavy peaks.Toprovidetheinitial premises for thedetectionof magnecules, all MSpeaks offeature 1 shouldresult inbeing unknown following the computersearchamongallknownmolecules, usuallyincludingaminimumof150,000molecules. Evidently, this lack of identication of the peaks, per se, does notguarantee the presence of a new chemical species.Feature3: LackofIRsignatureoftheunknownMSpeaks.Anothernecessaryconditiontoclaimthedetectionofmagneculesisthatthe unknownMSpeaks offeature 1 shouldhave no IR signature otherthanthatof themoleculesand/ordimersconstituents. Thisfeatureguaranteesthat said heavy peaks cannot possibly represent molecules,thus establishingthe occurrence of a new chemical species. In fact, only very few and very lightmolecules can have such a perfect spherical symmetry to avoid IR detection,while such a perfect spherical symmetry is manifestly impossible for large clus-ters. Inregardtotheconstituentswearereferring toIRsignatures,e.g.,ofthe CO2 at 44 a.m.u. in a cluster having 458 a.m.u.Feature4: MutationofIRsignatures.The infrared signatures of conventional molecules constituting magneculesare expected to bemutated, in the sense that the shape of their peaks is nottheconventional one. Asindicatedintheprecedingsection, themutationsmostimportantforindustrial applicationsarethoseduetothepresenceofnewIRpeaksrepresentingnewinternal bonds. Nevertheless, variousotherforms of IR mutations are possible.Feature5: Mutationofmagnecularweights.While molecules preserve their structure and related atomic weight at con-ventional temperatures and pressures, this is not the case for gas magnecules,which can mutate in time, that is, change their atomic weight with consequen-ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III 489tial change of the shape and location of their MS peaks. Since we are referringtogaseswhoseconstituentsnotoriouslycollidewitheachother, magneculescanbreak-downduringcollisionsintofragmentswhichcanthenrecombinewith other fragments or other magnecules to form new clusters.Feature6: Accretionoremissionofindividual atoms, dimersormolecules.Magnecules are expected to experience accretion or emission of individualatoms, dimerormoleculeswithoutnecessarilybreakingdownintoparts. Itfollows that the peaks of Feature 1 are not expected to remain the same overa sucient period of time for the same gas under the same conditions.Feature7: Anomalousadhesion.Magnetically polarized gases have anomalous adhesion to walls of disparatenature, notnecessarilyofparamagneticcharacter, ascomparedtothesameunpolarizedgas. This is duetothewell-knownpropertythat magnetismcan be propagated by induction, according to which a magnetically polarizedmolecule with a suciently intense magnetic moment can induce a correspond-ingpolarizationofvalenceand/orotherelectronsintheatomsconstitutingthe wall surface. Once such a polarization is created by induction, magneculescan have strong magnetic bonds to the indicated walls. In turn, this impliesthat the background of GC-MS following scans and conventional ushing areoften similar to the scan themselves. As a matter of fact, backgrounds follow-ing routine ushing are often used to identify the most dominant magnecules.Noticethatthemagneticpolarizationhereconsidereddoesnotrequirethatthewallsoftheinstrumentareofparamagnetictype, sincethepolarizationoccurs for the orbits of arbitrary atoms.Magnetically polarized gases additionally have mutated physical character-istics and behavior because the very notion of polarization of electron orbitsimplies physical alterations of a variety of characteristics, such as average size.Mutations of other characteristics are then consequential.We should nally recall that the above features are expected to disappearatasucientlyhightemperature, evidentlyvaryingfromgastogas(CurieTemperature),while the features are expected to be enhanced at lower tem-perature and at higher pressure, and survive liquefaction.490 ELEMENTS OF HADRONIC MECHANICS, VOL. III11.3 THEUNAMBIGUOUSDETECTIONOFMOLECULESANDMAGNECULES11.3.1 SelectionofAnalyticInstrumentsCurrent technologies oer an impressive variety of analytic instruments (see,e.g., Ref. [4]), which include: Gas Chromatography (GC), Liquid Chromatog-raphy(LC), CapillaryElectrophoresis Chromatography(CEC), Supercriti-cal Chromatography (SCC), Ion Chromatography (IC), Infrared Spectroscopy(IR),RamanSpectroscopy(RS),NuclearMagneticResonanceSpectroscopy(NMRS), X-Ray Spectroscopy (XRS), Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS),Mass Spectrometry (MS), Laser Mass Spectrometry (LMS), Flame IonizationSpectrometry (FIS), and others.Only some of these instruments are suitable for the detection of magneculesand, whenapplicable, their set-upanduseareconsiderablydierent thanthose routinely used with great success for molecules.Among all available chromatographic equipment,that suitable for the de-tectionofgasmagneculesistheGCwithcolumnhavingIDofatleast0.32mmoperatedaccordingtocertaincriteriaoutlinedbelow. Bycomparison,otherchromatographsdonotappeartopermittheentranceof largemag-necules, such as the CEC, or be potentially destructive of the magnecules tobe detected, such as the IC.Among all available spectroscopic equipment, that preferable is the IR, withthe understanding that such an instrument is used in a negative way, that is, toverify that the magnecule considered has no IR signature. The RS may alsoresultinbeingpreferableinvariouscases, whileotherinstruments, suchasthe NMRS do not appear to be capable of detecting magnecules despite theirmagnetic nature, evidently because NMRS are most eective for the detectionof microscopic magnetic environment of H-nuclei rather than large structures.Other spectroscopic instruments have not been studied at this writing.In regard to spectrometric equipment, the most recommendable one is thelowionizationMSduetothefactthatotherinstrumentsseemingly