Chapter 11The Middle East

Introduction

• The Middle East has been a cradle of civilizations– Pharaonic Egypt– Ottoman Empire

• Links Asia, Africa, and Europe– Trade networks

• Birthplace of half a dozen religions– Judaism, Christianity, Islam,…

The Middle of Where?

• Where is the Middle East?– American term coined by the American military– Atlantic coast of Africa to the Iran-Afghan border– Actually changes based on the interest of Western

journalism• Maghreb– A term used to describe North (Northwest) Africa

• Borders on some Middle Eastern countries have been the same for a half century– European colonialism

The Middle of Where?

• The Arab League– One of the only regional institutions which hold

common:• Economic goals• Cultural goals• Political goals

• Arab World– Term used to describe the 22 Arabic speaking

countries of the world as a single geopolitical unit

Middle of Where?

• Shi’a Islam– Shi’ites make up only 15% of the world’s Muslims– The are a majority in Iran and Iraq– Fall of Saddam Hussein’s Sunni government has

been one influence in the rise of Shi’ites• Islamic World– Term used to refer to the total number of the

world’s Muslim majority countries• Muslim World

From Past to Present

• Fertile Crescent– Area in which three of the world’s earliest

civilizations arose– Nile, Jordan, Tigris and Euphrates Rivers

• Invention of Agriculture– Led to the rise of the early civilizations

Religious Roots in the Middle East

• Christianity– Originated in Palestine– Spread outward along trade routes to North Africa– Zoroastrianism based on Christian ideas

• Muslim– Muhammad, an orphan turned businessman and

prophet, spread the message of unity and egalitarianism

• Islam– Shi’a and Sunni became popular in the 7th century

[Figure 10.2 - Open-air church, Cairo. Christianity originated in the Middle East and continues to have a significant presence. (Photo by Sophie Peterson) ]

Ever-Changing Dominance in the Middle East

• Around the 7th century Arab merchants ruled the trade routes on Red Sea and Indian Ocean– Region became wealthy and a world hub for art and science

• With the rise of the Turkish empire in the 11th and 12th centuries, Arab rule faded– Defeated the Byzantine army to conquer Anatolia, which is

modern day Turkey• Crusades led by Pope Urban II were the first of many by

Western Europe to take back the Christian holy land

Ever-Changing Dominance in the Middle East

• By the 13th and 14th centuries, the Mongols invaded, killing more than 1 million people

• Throughout the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire was on the rise, conquering many important areas:– Constantinople 1453

[Figure 10.3 - After the conquest of Constantinople, the great Christian church Hagia Sophia became a mosque. Today the building is a museum. (Photo by Mark Allen Peterson)]

[Figure 10.4 - The fortresses of the Middle East served as models to the crusaders, who built similar castles when they returned home. (Photo by Mark Allen Peterson)]

Diversity and Diversion

• Many languages are spoken in the Middle East– Over 25 languages– Arabic is the most widely spoken language• Fusha• Standard Arabic

– English, French, Italian, Russian spoken mostly by elites

Diversity and Diversion

• Variety of religions in the Middle East– Islam is by far the most popular in the region• And second most popular in the world

– Home to many extinct religions and religions still popular today

– Large Christian minorities in the Middle East• Christianity is the most popular religion in the world

[Figure 10.5 - Washing before prayer at the Beyazit Mosque in Istanbul. (Photo by Mark Allen Peterson)

Arkaan• Set of practices sometimes called the Five Pillars of

Islam:– Shahada, or declaration of faith

• Acceptance of Muhammad’s authority as outlined by the Qur’an and the hadith

– Prayer• Expected to pray at least five times a day

– Fasting• Especially during Ramadan

– Charity• Every Muslim is expected to give 2% of their net worth

– Pilgrimage• To the city of Mecca (modern day Saudi Arabia) where

Muhammad lived

Islamic Transformation

• Some people believe the current era will be a time of transformation– Widespread education has caused many to

question and discover new things about their religious beliefs

– Mass media and the World Wide Web have had the same effect, perhaps stronger

• Public Islam– Term used to describe the diverse invocations of

Islam in public life

From Empires to Nation-States

• The creation of nation-states involved political and economic elites taking over power once held by other foreign empires

• Not easy for people to see themselves as a part of a common nation– diverse languages, diverse religious beliefs

Informal Networks

• Because of the difficulty to accept a common state because of differences, many turned to informal networks they belonged to under the empires:– Tribes are the best example of an informal

network– Proto-states are large minorities that inhabit

certain areas (Kurds)

[Figure 10.6 - Women gather for a morning tea and chat in Cairo. (Photo by Sophie Peterson)

The Richest and the Poorest

• Production states – revenues from the labor of their citizens in agriculture, herding, manufacturing– Collects taxes and other charges from citizens

• Allocation states – revenues from selling key resources to the rest of the world– Oil producing states are allocation states

The Richest and the Poorest

• Economic disparity is widespread in the Middle East– Statistics show average per capita GDP– 14% of Egyptian population lives in poverty

• Yemen:– 100 billionaires– 20,000 millionaires– 45% of people live in poverty– 1 in 5 people is malnourished

The Richest and the Poorest

• Three main issues of the Middle East:– Population growth• In the last 100 years, Egypt has seen an increase of near

59 million people– Urbanization• 100 years ago less than 10% of people lived in cities• Now more than 60% of people live in cities

– Labor Migration• In Kuwait, foreign workers make up as much as 60% of

the population

[Figure 10.7 - Cities like Cairo continue to grow as unemployed rural peasants seek a better life by moving to cities. (Photo by Mark Allen Peterson)]

The Richest and the Poorest

• Foreign investment has historically failed in the Middle East– Loans to pay off interest on loans has led to debt that is

unlikely to be paid off– Programs, such as structural adjustment programs (SAPs),

led to riots and increasingly desperate conditions

• Capital Flight– Describes the tendencies of the wealthy in poor countries

to invest in rich country enterprises– The trickle down effect is eliminated

The Richest and the Poorest

• Explanations for development failure in the Middle East include:– How bureaucratically controlled economies work

against participation in organizations like the World Trade Organization

– The regions colonial heritage and how borders were established for administrative purposes

The Problem of Palestine

• The establishment of the state of Israel in the former British colony of Palestine is the most significant of historical and contemporary issues

• The Jewish diaspora is an event Jews traditionally identify with

• The rise of secularism and nationalism in the 17th and 18th century transformed how many Jews conceived of themselves– Became the roots of the establishment of the state of

Israel

The Problem in Palestine

• Jewish people were highly discriminated against in all of Europe until the mid-1800’s

• Jews began to see themselves as a nation and believed they had the right to establish a state in their ancestral homeland– Zionism

Zionism

• The belief that Jews constitute a sovereign people and nation, and have the right to establish and maintain a state

• Zionist clubs and study groups sprang up across Europe in the 1870’s and 1880’s

• Aliyah– A central concept of Zionism that refers to

voluntary immigration and persecution which led to immigration

British Influence in Palestine

• Balfour Declaration of 1917- document declaring that Britain would be in favor and work towards establishing a Palestinian state for the Jews if they conquered the Ottomans

• Palestine was captured in December 1918 and by 1920 the British Mandate for Palestine was passed

• Many Jewish migrated to the region– Conflict with the Arabs– Illegal immigration grew worse as Nazi Germany developed

Establishment of Israel

• On November 29, 1947 the League of Nations voted to partition Palestine into two states:– Israel: Jewish– Palestine: Muslim Arabs

• On May 14, 1948 Israel claimed its independence and was shortly attacked by many surrounding countries

• Nakba– Term used by Palestinian Arabs to describe the catastrophe

of the creation of Israel

Continued Conflict

• Both Israel and Palestinian are in the wrong– Israeli has treated the Palestinians with disrespect

by building on Palestinian land, killing leaders and people of the country, and refusing the rights of refugees

– Palestinians have been unable to enforce cease-fire agreements and stop terrorist groups

Political Change in the Middle East

• Arab Spring– A movement by many, and not wholly Arab,

countries seeking political change in the region– Common techniques of civil resistance used

(demonstrations, marches, rallies, etc.)– Started with a person that set himself on fire to

protest poor treatment by police

Past Political Tensions

• The Arab Spring was a culmination of years of protest movements

• Poor living conditions and political corruption left many living in these countries with little hope

• Terrorism developed as a result of unhappiness of the people– Sought to influence political action

Political Islam

• The invocation of Islam in contemporary political and economic life

• Roots of Political Islam can be traced back to the 19th century – Jama al-Afghani, Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, Sayyid Qutb– Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt

• Political Islam was supported by the U.S. in conflict with the Soviets in the 1980’s– Supported a military jihad against Soviet invaders

[Figure 10.8 - Al-Azhar University is the world’s foremost center of Islamic learning. (Photo by Mark Allen Peterson)]

Conclusions

• The Middle East remains an international center of economic activity, social transformation, religious revitalization, and political struggle

• A struggle for answers to economic, political, and geographical issues will most likely persist in the region, and bring with it global ramifications