chapter 12 getting the project started winston jackson and norine verberg methods: doing social...

Chapter 12Getting the Project Started

Winston Jackson and Norine Verberg

Methods: Doing Social Research, 4e

12-2 © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Choosing a Problem, a Design, and VariablesDoing research involves making a series of

consecutive decisions including:

1. Choosing a problem

2. Choosing a design

3. Determining the precise questions

4. Reviewing the literature

5. Using the Internet and other online sources

6. Choosing variables


1. Choosing a Problem

The single most important consideration in choosing a topic is genuine interest!

Possible topics may be derived from:A. Current issue

subject of public debate, concern

B. Variation in dependent variable e.g., What factors influence grade performance?

C. Testing a theory examine a relationship between variables

predicted by theory but which is not obvious to common sense


1. Choosing a Problem (cont’d)

D. Testing partial theories Testing alternative explanations for a well-

established relationship

E. Testing folk wisdom Study a taken-for-granted belief (e.g., sport teams

win more often on home ice/stadium)

F. Applied research Research that has immediate relevance to the

group being studies

G. Replication study


2. Choosing a Design

Many factors influence choice of design The nature of the research question typically

determines which design is most appropriate There are other pragmatic considerations too

Amount of time, research funds, kind of respondents available to researcher


2. Choosing a Design (cont’d)

Step 1: What have others done?

Step 2: Consider alternatives If you face problems related to time, ethics

approval, your technical abilities, availability of funding, assistants

Step 3: Review the chapter that introduces the type of design tentatively selected

Step 4: Be prepared to reconsider the research design used


3. Determining the Precise Questions

Articulate what you want to investigate – define your question precisely

A project cannot address all possible questions on a topic The project will become more precise as the

researcher becomes familiar with the literature and has a better sense of practical limitations

It is normal to go through a process of narrowing down the topic and specifying the hypotheses With time, the project will take shape


4. Reviewing the Literature

Researchers review the literature to get a sense of the scientific knowledge about the topic

Accessing relevant literature Ask researchers who work in the area for

ideas on where to get information Check with reference librarian Check books and textbooks for leads Check journals that publish work in the area Use Internet and online sources


4. Reviewing the Literature (cont’d)

Goals of the literature review include: Identifying consensus among researchers Noting inconsistencies among researchers Identifying variables that others have found to be

relevant Identifying areas that could contribute to new

understandings Seeing how others have made connections to theory Seeing how others have measured variables and

analyzed data


5. Using the Internet and Other Online Sources

Increasingly researchers are using the Internet and online sources

Can conduct searches for papers and books on your topic Most library homepages provide links to online

search engines Reference librarians are a valuable resource

Many journals provide full-text articles online Many are free to public; some free to members


6. Choosing Variables

Variables are defined as concepts that we intend to measure

Variables may be identified by: Reviewing the research literature Applying relevant theoretical models (variables

implied by the theory) Examining questionnaires for ideas Developing causal models and figuring out

what control variables might be relevant Your own thought on the matter


Developing Causal Models

A causal model is a graphic representation of proposed interconnections between variables encourages clarity and accuracy

Types of models

1. Two-variable model

2. Three-variable model

3. Multivariate models


Two-Variable Models

Use X/Y notation for independent (cause) and dependent (effect) variables

Use greater ( > ) and less than ( < ) to indicate the direction of the relationship

Use arrow to indicate causal direction Arrow points to dependent variable

> X > Y

e.g., The greater the participation in social activities (X), the greater the self-esteem (Y)


Three-Variable Models

Involves the introduction of three additional types of variables

A. Intervening variables

B. Source of spuriousness variables

C. Antecedent variables


Three-Variable Models:An Intervening Variable Model An intervening variable (I) is a variable that links

an independent variable (X) to a dependent variable (Y) An intervening variable model indicates the way I

influences how X and Y are related

It specifies that a change in X causes a change in I, which in turn causes a change in Y.

<insert unnumbered figure from p. 340, right-hand column>

The greater the X, the greater the I, the lower the Y


Intervening Variable Model (cont’d)

In this diagram, three alternative explanations are suggested for the connection between X and Y


Three-Variable Models:A Source of Spuriousness Model A source of spuriousness model proposes that the relationship

between X and Y may be explained by a third factor (called a source of spuriousness (S/S) variable)

It suggests that although X and Y are related, the relationship may be non-causal The relationship exists because a third variable (i.e., a source

of spuriousness variable) influences both X and Y


Three-Variable Models:An Antecedent Variable Model An antecedent variable model that proposes that an antecedent

variable (A) causes variation in the independent variable (X), which, in turn, influences the dependent variable (Y)

“A” is causally prior to both the independent and dependent variables Thus, it converts the independent variable into an intervening variable


Multivariate Models

Models that use numerous variables are known as multivariate models

Two main typesA. Candidate variable model

B. Path models


Multivariate Models:Candidate Variable Model A candidate variable model proposes several

independent variables as possible causes of variation in the dependent variable See Figure 12.1 (next slide)

The variables on the left side of the diagram are the independent variables The arrows indicate the direction of the

relationships


Figure 12.1 Predicting Positive Attitudes Toward the Elderly


Multivariate Models:Path Models A path model is a graphic representation of a

complex set of proposed interrelationships among variables Shown in Figure 12.2 (next slide) and Box 2.4

The researcher specifies the nature of the relationship among the independent and dependent variables Considered more complex modelling


Figure 12.2 Interrelationship of Major Dependent Variables


Other Considerations

1. Stating hypotheses Good diagrams can replace formal

hypotheses statements Use arrows to show direction of relationship

(i.e., > and < symbols )

2. Specifying methods of analysis Knowing method of analysis in advance will

guide the way in which variables are measured (nominal vs. ratio level)


Specifying Hypotheses, Procedures of Analysis Once the hypotheses have been specified,

one proposes the method of analysis to be used Researchers are strongly discouraged from

deviating from proposed hypotheses and procedures (“hunting for findings”; see Chapter 10)

renders statistical tests meaningless


How to Know When You Are Ready to Start the Project Complete a research proposal that includes:

a problem statement a literature review a methodology section

Then, use Table 12.2, “Project Initiation Check List” (page 345), to see if you have all the necessary written materials, permissions, instruments, and equipment in place

chapter 12 getting the project started winston jackson and norine verberg methods: doing social...

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