Chapter 13Artificial Intelligence

Artificial IntelligenceArtificial: humanly contrived often on a natural model Intelligence: the ability to apply knowledge to manipulate one's environment or to think abstractly as measured by objective criteria

Clearly, intelligence is an internal characteristic. How can it be identified?

Thinking MachinesA computer can do some things better --and certainly faster--than a human can:Adding a thousand four-digit numbersCounting the distribution of letters in a bookSearching a list of 1,000,000 numbers for duplicatesMatching finger prints

Thinking MachinesBUT a computer would have difficulty pointing out the cat in this picture, which is easy for a human.Artificial intelligence (AI) The study of computer systems that attempt to model and apply the intelligence of the human mind.Figure 13.1 A computer might have trouble identifying the cat in this picture.

In the beginningIn 1950 Alan Turing wrote a paper titled Computing Machinery And Intelligence, in which he proposed to consider the question Can machines think?But the question is loaded so he proposed to replace it with what has since become known as the Turing Test. Can a machine play the Imitation Game?

The Imitation GameSkip detailed description

The Imitation GameThe 'imitation game' is played with three people, a man (A), a woman (B), and an interrogator (C) who may be of either sex.The interrogator stays in a room apart from the other two.The object of the game for the interrogator is to determine which of the other two is the man and which is the woman.

The Imitation GameThe interrogator is allowed to put questions to A and B.It is A's object in the game to try and cause C to make the wrong identification.The object of the game for the third player (B) is to help the interrogator.

The Imitation GameWe now ask the question, 'What will happen when a machine takes the part of A in this game?'Will the interrogator decide wrongly as often when the game is played like this as he does when the game is played between a man and a woman?

The Imitation Game

The Turing Test (objections)There are authors who question the validity of the Turing test.The objections tend to be of 2 types.The first is an attempt to distinguish degrees, or types of equivalence

The Turing Test (objections)Weak equivalence: Two systems (human and computer) are equivalent in results (output), but they do not arrive at those results in the same way.Strong equivalence: Two systems (human and computer) use the same internal processes to produce results.

The Turing Test (objections)The Turing Test, they argue, can demonstrate weak equivalence, but not strong. So even if a computer passes the test we wont be able to say that it thinks like a human.Of course, neither they, nor anyone else, can explain how humans think!So strong equivalence is a nice theoretical construction, but since its impossible to demonstrate it between humans, it would be an unfair requirement of the Turing Test.

The Turing Test (objections)The other objection is that a computer might seem to be behaving in an intelligent manner, while its really just imitating behaviour.This might be true, but notice that when a parrot talks, or a horse counts, or a pet obeys our instructions, or a child imitates its parents we take all of these things to be signs of intelligence.If a parrot mimicking human sounds can be considered intelligent (at least to some small degree) then why wouldnt a computer be considered intelligent (at least to some small degree) for imitating other human behaviour?

Turings ViewI believe that in about fifty years time it will be possible to programme computers with a storage capacity of about 109 to make them play the imitation game so well that an average interrogator will not have more than 70 per cent chance of making the right identification after five minutes of questioning.

ContextIn 1950, computers were very primitive.UNIVAC I was the first commercial computer made in the United States. It was delivered to the United States Census Bureau on March 31, 1951!At a time when the first computers were just being built, to suggest that they might soon be able to think was quite radical.

Objections Turing ForesawThe Theological Objection The 'Heads in the Sand' Objection The Mathematical Objection The Argument from Consciousness Arguments from Various Disabilities Lady Lovelace's Objection Argument from Continuity in the Nervous System The Argument from Informality of Behaviour The Argument from Extra-Sensory Perception

Can Machines Think?No machine has yet passed the Turing Test.

Loebner Prize established in 1990$100,000 and a gold medal will be awarded to the first computer whose responses are indistinguishable from a human's

Aspects of AIKnowledge RepresentationSemantic NetworksSearch TreesExpert SystemsNeural NetworksNatural Language ProcessingRobotics

Knowledge RepresentationThe knowledge needed to represent an object or event depends on the situation.There are many ways to represent knowledge. One is natural language.Even though natural language is very descriptive, it doesnt lend itself to efficient processing.

Semantic NetworksSemantic network: A knowledge representation technique that focuses on the relationships between objects.A directed graph is used to represent a semantic network (net).

Semantic NetworksFigure 13.3 A semantic network

Semantic NetworksThe relationships that we represent are completely our choice, based on the information we need to answer the kinds of questions that we will face.The types of relationships represented determine which questions are easily answered, which are more difficult to answer, and which cannot be answered.

Search TreesSearch tree: a structure that represents all possible moves in a game, for both you and your opponent.The paths down a search tree represent a series of decisions made by the players.

Search TreesFigure 13.4 A search tree for a simplified version of Nim

Search TreesSearch tree analysis can be applied nicely to other, more complicated games such as chess.Because Chess trees are so large, only a fraction of the tree can be analyzed in a reasonable time limit, even with modern computing power.

Search TreesTechniques for searching treesDepth-first: a technique that involves the analysis of selected paths all the way down the tree.Breadth-first: a technique that involves the analysis of all possible paths but only for a short distance down the tree.Breadth-first tends to yield the best results.

Search TreesFigure 13.5 Depth-first and breadth-first searches

Search TreesEven though the breadth-first approach tends to yield the best results, we can see that a depth-first search will get to the goal sooner IF we choose the right branch.Heuristics are guidelines that suggest taking one path rather than another one.

Expert SystemsKnowledge-based system: a software system that embodies and uses a specific set of information from which it extracts and processes particular pieces.Expert system: a software system based the knowledge of experts in a specialized field.An expert system uses a set of rules to guide its processing.The inference engine is the part of the software that determines how the rules are followed.

Expert SystemsExample: What type of treatment should I put on my lawn?NONEapply no treatment at this timeTURFapply a turf-building treatmentWEEDapply a weed-killing treatmentBUGapply a bug-killing treatmentFEEDapply a basic fertilizer treatmentWEEDFEEDapply a weed-killing and fertilizer combination treatment

Expert SystemsBoolean variablesBAREthe lawn has large, bare areasSPARSEthe lawn is generally thinWEEDSthe lawn contains many weedsBUGSthe lawn shows evidence of bugs

Expert SystemsSome rulesif (CURRENT LAST < 30) then NONEif (SEASON = winter) then not BUGSif (BARE) then TURFif (SPARSE and not WEEDS) then FEEDif (BUGS and not SPARSE) then BUGif (WEEDS and not SPARSE) then WEEDif (WEEDS and SPARSE) then WEEDFEED

Expert SystemsAn execution of our inference engineSystem: Does the lawn have large, bare areas?User: NoSystem: Does the lawn show evidence of bugs?User: NoSystem: Is the lawn generally thin?User: YesSystem: Does the lawn contain significant weeds?User: YesSystem: You should apply a weed-killing and fertilizer combination treatment.

Artificial Neural NetworksAttempt to mimic the actions of the neural networks of the human body.Lets first look at how a biological neural network works:A neuron is a single cell that conducts a chemically-based electronic signal.At any point in time a neuron is in either an excited or inhibited state.

Artificial Neural NetworksA series of connected neurons forms a pathway.A series of excited neurons creates a strong pathway.A biological neuron has multiple input tentacles called dendrites and one primary output tentacle called an axon.The gap between an axon and a dendrite is called a synapse.

Artificial Neural NetworksFigure 13.6 A biological neuron

Artificial Neural NetworksA neuron accepts multiple input signals and then controls the contribution of each signal based on the importance the corresponding synapse gives to it.The pathways along the neural nets are in a constant state of flux.As we learn new things, new strong neural pathways are formed.

Artificial Neural NetworksEach processing element in an artificial neural net is analogous to a biological neuron.An element accepts a certain number of input values and produces a single output value of either 0 or 1.Associated with each input value is a numeric weight.

Sample NeuronArtificial neurons can be represented as elements.Inputs are labelled v1, v2Weights are labelled w1, w2The threshold value is represented by TO is the output

Artificial Neural NetworksThe effective weight of the element is defined to be the sum of the weights multiplied by their respective input values:v1*w1 + v2*w2If the effective weight meets the threshold, the unit produces an output value of 1.If it does not meet the threshold, it produces an output value of 0.

Artificial Neural NetworksThe process of adjusting the weights and threshold values in a neural net is called training.A neural net can be trained to produce whatever results are required.

Sample NeuronIf the input Weights and the Threshold are set to the above values, how does the neuron act?Try a Truth Table

Sample Neuronw1=.5, w2=.5, T=1With the weights set to .5 this neuron behaves like an AND gate.

Sample NeuronHow about now?

Sample Neuronw1=1, w2=1, T=1With the weights set to 1 this neuron behaves like an OR gate.

Natural Language ProcessingThere are three basic types of processing going on during human/computer voice interaction:Voice recognition recognizing human wordsNatural language comprehension interpreting human communicationVoice synthesis recreating human speechCommon to all of these problems is the fact that we are using a natural language, which can be any language that humans use to communicate.

Voice SynthesisThere are two basic approaches to the solution:Dynamic voice generation Recorded speechDynamic voice generation: A computer examines the letters that make up a word and produces the sequence of sounds that correspond to those letters in an attempt to vocalize the word.Phonemes: The sound units into which human speech has been categorized.

Voice SynthesisFigure 13.7 Phonemes for American English

Voice SynthesisRecorded speech: A large collection of words is recorded digitally and individual words are selected to make up a message.Telephone voice mail systems often use this approach: Press 1 to leave a message for Nell Dale; press 2 to leave a message for John Lewis.

Voice SynthesisEach word or phrase needed must be recorded separately. Furthermore, since words are pronounced differently in different contexts, some words may have to be recorded multiple times.For example, a word at the end of a question rises in pitch compared to its use in the middle of a sentence.

Voice RecognitionThe sounds that each person makes when speaking are unique.We each have a unique shape to our mouth, tongue, throat, and nasal cavities that affect the pitch and resonance of our spoken voice.Speech impediments, mumbling, volume, regional accents, and the health of the speaker further complicate this problem.

Voice RecognitionFurthermore, humans speak in a continuous, flowing manner.Words are strung together into sentences.Sometimes its difficult to distinguish between phrases like ice cream and I scream.Also, homonyms such as I and eye or see and sea.Humans can often clarify these situations by the context of the sentence, but that processing requires another level of comprehension.Modern voice-recognition systems still do not do well with continuous, conversational speech.

Natural Language ComprehensionEven if a computer recognizes the words that are spoken, it is another task entirely to understand the meaning of those words.Natural language is inherently ambiguous, meaning that the same syntactic structure could have multiple valid interpretations.

N L C (syntax)Syntax is the study of the rules whereby words or other elements of sentence structure are combined to form grammatical sentences.So a syntactical analysis identifies the various parts of speech in which a word can serve, and which combinations of these can be assembled into sensible sentences.

N L C (syntax)A single word can represent multiple parts of speech.Consider an example:Time flies like an arrow.Skip Syntactical Analysis

N L C (syntax)To determine what it means we first parse the sentence into its parts.time can be used as a noun, a verb, or an adjective.flies can be used as a noun, or a verb.like can be used as a noun, a verb, a preposition, an adjective, or an adverb.an can be used only as an indefinite article.arrow can be used as a noun, or a verb.

N L C (semantics)time adjective of, relating to, or measuring timeflies noun two-winged insectlike verb find pleasant or attractivean articlearrow noun missile having a straight thin shaft with a pointed head at one end and often flight-stabilizing vanes at the other time flies (not house flies) enjoy

an arrow (watching it, chasing it, eating it)

N L C (semantics)time adjective of, relating to, or measuring timeflies noun two-winged insectlike verb find pleasant or attractivean articlearrow noun missile having a straight thin shaft with a pointed head at one end and often flight-stabilizing vanes at the other time flies (not house flies) enjoy

an arrow (watching it, chasing it, eating it)

N L C (semantics)time adjective of, relating to, or measuring timeflies noun two-winged insectlike verb find pleasant or attractivean articlearrow noun missile having a straight thin shaft with a pointed head at one end and often flight-stabilizing vanes at the other time flies (not house flies) enjoy

an arrow (watching it, chasing it, eating it)

N L C (semantics)time adjective of, relating to, or measuring timeflies noun two-winged insectlike verb find pleasant or attractivean articlearrow noun missile having a straight thin shaft with a pointed head at one end and often flight-stabilizing vanes at the other time flies (not house flies) enjoy

an arrow (watching it, chasing it, eating it)

N L C (semantics)time adjective of, relating to, or measuring timeflies noun two-winged insectlike verb find pleasant or attractivean articlearrow noun missile having a straight thin shaft with a pointed head at one end and often flight-stabilizing vanes at the other time flies (not house flies) enjoy

an arrow

(watching it, chasing it, eating it?)

N L C (semantics)This interpretation sounds absurd to us, but analysis shows its a perfectly logical interpretation of the words.This is problem is referred to as a Lexical Ambiguity.It arises because words have multiple syntactical and semantic associations.In this case there are many syntactically and semantically valid interpretations.

Natural Language ComprehensionA natural language sentence can also have a syntactic ambiguity because phrases can be put together in various ways.I saw the Grand Canyon flying to New York.

Natural Language ComprehensionA natural language sentence can also have a syntactic ambiguity because phrases can be put together in various ways.I saw the Grand Canyon flying to New York.

Is it possible that the Grand Canyon flew to New York?

Natural Language ComprehensionReferential ambiguity can occur with the use of pronouns.The brick fell on the computer but it is not broken.

Natural Language ComprehensionReferential ambiguity can occur with the use of pronouns.The brick fell on the computer but it is not broken.

Since it is the subject of the second clause, its referent is the subject of the first clause the brick!

Are you happy knowing that no harm came to the brick?

RoboticsMobile robotics: The study of robots that move relative to their environment, while exhibiting a degree of autonomy.In the sense-plan-act (SPA) paradigm the world of the robot is represented in a complex semantic net in which the sensors on the robot are used to capture the data to build up the net.Figure 13.8 The sense-plan-act (SPA) paradigm

Subsumption ArchitectureRather than trying to model the entire world all the time, the robot is given a simple set of behaviors each associated with the part of the world necessary for that behaviorFigure 13.9 The new control paradigm

Subsumption ArchitectureFigure 13.10 Asimovs laws of robotics are ordered.