chapter 13: personality. chapter outline 1. the psychodynamic perspective 2. the humanistic...

Chapter 13: Personality

Chapter Outline

1. The psychodynamic perspective 2. The humanistic perspective 3. The trait perspective4. The situationist and interactionist perspectives 5. Biological foundations of personality 6. Personality: How we differ 7. Personality disorders: When things go wrong 8. Personality assessment

© John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

Defining Personality

Personality refers to the unique characteristics that account for enduring patterns of inner experience and outward behaviour A collection of stable states and characteristics Varies from one individual to another

Key historic perspectives on personality psychodynamic humanistic trait situationist interactionist


The Psychodynamic Perspective

Freud and psychoanalytic theoryOther psychodynamic theories

Share the same view—personality and behaviour is shaped by interacting, or dynamic, underlying forces


Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

Based on his clinical practice (seeing patients), he decided that people are influenced by their “unconscious” Developed psychoanalysis—type of therapy

based on his theory of discovering one’s unconscious

One of the first to state that the parent-child relationship influences how people feel about themselves and how they handle intimacy as adults


The Structure of Personality

Conscious—the thoughts and feelings that we are aware of at any given moment

Preconscious—holds memories or feelings that we aren’t consciously thinking about, but can be brought to consciousness

Unconscious—holds memories or feelings that are so unpleasant or anxiety provoking that they are repressed


Three Forces in Personality

Id—basic instinctual drives Present at birth, largely unconscious Pleasure principle—try to seek pleasure and avoid pain Primal instincts—sex (libido), food, aggression

Ego—rational thoughts Develops due to learning Reality principle—logical, rational, realistic part of the

personality Must satisfy the drives of the id while complying with

the constraints of the environment Superego—moral limits

Develops during childhood We internalize, or unconsciously adopt, the values and

norms of others Our conscience leads us to feel guilt and anxiety


Psychosexual Stages

During each stage, the id’s pleasure-seeking tendencies focus on one area of the body Primarily influenced by sexuality and

aggression that cause internal conflict Named after specific erogenous zones, or

pleasure-producing areas of the body Must resolve issues of each stage before

moving on to the subsequent stage Failure to resolve conflicts may result in

becoming fixated at that stage


Psychosexual Stages

Five stages of psychosexual development1. Oral: 0–18 months, pleasure derived through oral satisfaction

Sucking on a bottle and weaning2. Anal: 18 months–3 years, area of pleasure is focused on the anal

region Going to the bathroom and toilet training

3. Phallic: 3–6 years, seek genital stimulation, attraction to opposite-sex parent

1. Oedipus complex, castration anxiety, penis envy4. Latency: 6 years to puberty, repression of sexual impulses and

identification with same-sex parent5. Genital: Puberty–adult, at puberty, latency gives way to

experiencing sexual attraction to opposite sex and establishing mature relationships


Anxiety and Defence Mechanisms

Defence mechanisms—unconscious tactics to protect us from anxiety and internal conflict by dealing with id impulses Repression—keeps unpleasant thoughts

buried deeply in unconscious mind Denial—refusal to acknowledge an existing

situation


Defence Mechanisms


Evaluating Freud

Inadequate evidence Small, limited sample—upper-class women from

Vienna No notes kept during therapy sessions

Cannot be directly tested by scientific methodsLack of predictive power Many aspects remain relevant

Parental influence on relationships in adulthood Defence mechanisms serve a function in

development and psychological disorders Continued study of the unconscious mind


Other Psychodynamic Theories

Neo-Freudians Believe that human functioning is shaped by

interacting, or dynamic, psychological forces

Believe that much of mental life is unconscious

Believe that childhood shapes personality Believe that we struggle with inner conflicts



Alfred Adler Social, not sexual, needs and conscious thoughts

are critical in the development of personality Feelings of inferiority motivate a quest for

superiority Carl Jung

Unconscious has two parts: Personal unconscious—formed through individual

experiences Collective unconscious—inherited memories

shared by all humankindArchetypes—shared memories



Karen Horney Basic anxiety—develops in children who

experience extreme feelings of isolation and helplessness; sets the stage for later neurosis

Culture has a role in development Rejected penis envy—rather, women envied

men’s power as determined by cultural norms


The Humanistic Perspective

Abraham Maslow Humans are basically good and have an urge

to grow and fulfill his or her potential Personality arises from striving to meet needs Hierarchy of needs Self-actualization—need to fulfill our full

potential as humans Believed much could be learned from

studying healthy, well-adjusted people Led to study of positive psychology—positive

experiences and healthy mental functioning; peak experiences


The Humanistic Perspective

Carl Rogers Humans are fundamentally positive and

strive for self-actualization Self-concept—consistent pattern of self-

perception describing how we see ourselves; can be used to characterize an individual

Unconditional positive regard—acceptance without terms or conditions

Client-centred therapy—put aside conditions of worth developed during childhood.


The Trait Perspective

Personality traits—tendencies to behave in certain ways that remain relatively constant across situations.

Trait theories Gordon Allport—first trait theorist, based work on case studies Hans Eysenck—used factor analysis to create superfactors


Superfactors

Superfactor—fundamental dimension of personality made up of a related cluster of personality traits

Neuroticism—degree to which one experiences negative emotions Low: calm, even-tempered High: worrying, temperamental

Extraversion—degree to which one is outgoing Introvert: thoughtful, reliable, passive Extravert: impulsive, sociable, assertive

Psychoticism—degree to which one is vulnerable to psychoses, or loss of touch with reality© John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

The Five-Factor Model

Five-factor theory—an empirically derived trait theory that proposes five major trait categories: agreeableness/disagreeableness extraversion/introversion neuroticism/stability conscientiousness/irresponsibility openness to experience/unimaginativeness

Most popular trait theory, especially with researchers


Five-Factor Model


Evaluating Trait Theories

Strength: Traits become increasingly stable across the adult

years Relatively stable across many situations and cultures Traits predict other personal attributes and often

other behaviours There appears to be a strong genetic contribution to

personality traitsCriticisms:

Oversimplify personality Portray personality as fixed rather than changing


The Situationist and Interactionist Perspectives

Situationism—behaviour is governed by situation rather than internal traits Skinner—personality is consistent response tendencies

Interactionism—emphasizes the relationship between a person’s underlying personality traits and the reinforcing aspects of the situations in which people choose to put themselves

Bandura—reciprocal determinism Reciprocal relationship exists among environment,

behaviour, and internal mental events Self-efficacy—people’s personal beliefs about their

ability to achieve the goals they pursue Advantage—these variables are testable

Disposition-situation relationships often show stability


Reciprocal Determinism


Biological Foundations of Personality

How much do genetic factors contribute to personality? Twin studies allow researchers to separate

genetics and environment. Genes are more important than environment

in development of temperament and traits Some behavioural tendencies and addictions

have genetic components Environmental experiences may affect the

development of psychotic illness in individuals with a genetic predisposition


Biological Foundations of Personality


Personality: What Happens in the Brain?

Phrenology—evaluate mental and moral qualities by examining skull shape Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828) Inaccurate! But his ideas about the

localization of brain functions and the role of the brain in personality continue to influence neurological science


Personality: What Happens in the Brain?

• Parts of the brain that influence personalityoAmygdala

• Emotionality, motivation, processing negative stimuli (e.g., fear and avoidance)

• Inhibited children may have an easily activated amygdala in unfamiliar situations, which activates a lot of fear and shyness.

oHemisphere dominance• People with right hemisphere dominance

experience increased sadness, inhibition, withdrawal

• People with left hemisphere dominance have more positive emotions and traits, such as extraversion

• This difference may appear at a very early age© John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

Neurotransmitter Activity

Dopamine High levels = positive

emotions, high energy

Low levels = anxiety, inhibition, low energy

Serotonin Low levels =

depression, violence, impulsivity

Cortisol High levels =

inhibition


Interpreting the Research

Important factors to keep in mind when interpreting genetic and neurological personality research: Several brain regions play a role in personality Genes interact with other genes Genetics and biology and environment

reciprocate Biological processes associated with

personality may be the results of environment and experience, not the cause


Personality: How We Differ

Gender differences Similarities outnumber differences Context, culture, social roles, hemispheric

lateralization, sex hormones play a role Incorrect conclusions cause stereotypes Women assess others’ emotions more accurately than

men Gilligan

Men are higher on individuality and autonomy Women are higher on social and connectedness traits

Hyde There are differences in levels of aggression, motor

performance, and sexuality


Differences Among Cultural Groups

Individualist and collectivist cultures Collectivist cultures consider the needs of the group over

that of the individual. Score higher on measures of agreeableness Value harmony in interpersonal relationships Describe self as part of a group

I am a student at the university Individualist cultures value individual achievement and

independence Score higher on measures of extraversion and openness Value privacy Describe self using a personal trait

I am independent


Culture, Socioeconomic Environment, and Personality

Living conditions have a direct impact on how personality traits translate into behaviours Socioeconomic status has a clear link to the

outcomes of individual differences in impulsivity

Poor neighbourhoods produce many more triggers for delinquent acts

Socioeconomic environment Few studies have been done Area for future research


Culture, Socioeconomic Environment, and Personality


Personality Disorders: When Things Go Wrong


Personality Disorders

Personality disorder—an inflexible pattern of inner experience and outward behaviour that causes distress or difficulty with daily functioning

Antisocial personality disorder—extreme disregard for others Impulsive, egocentric, reckless, possibly criminal More males 1.7%–3.7% of the Canadian population Superficial charm, irritable, aggressive

Borderline personality disorder—severe mood and self-concept instability, high levels of volatility Emotion dysregulation Engage in impulsive, dangerous activities (e.g., self-

mutilation, risky sexual behaviour, substance abuse)


School Shootings, Videogames, and Family Violence

Family violence is more of a risk factor than fictional violence In 37 school shootings, only 12% of the

shooters had any interest in videogames Shooters have low self-esteem, depression,

and antisocial personality patterns Shooters are often victims of bullying or

rejection


Disregarding Others

Alleged Ponzi-schemer and fraudster Milowe Brost is in custody for defrauding thousands of investors of more than $300 million


Personality Assessment

Socially desirable responding—responding to a question in a way that is socially acceptable rather than accurate

Personality inventories—paper-and-pencil questionnaires designed to assess various aspects of personality Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 2 (MMPI-2)

Useful in assessing abnormal personality characteristics Validity items to account for socially desirable

responding NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R)

Does not evaluate abnormal personality characteristics Evaluates traits comprising three of the five

superfactors: Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness


Personality Assessment

Projective tests—use ambiguous stimulation to access a person’s unconscious Rorschach inkblot test—ambiguous

shapes intended to force participants to project meaning Responses thought to indicate

underlying personality characteristics or conflicts

Low validity Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)—

participants create stories describing ambiguous black-and-white drawings Systematic scoring, but not consistently

used Low validity


Copyright

Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein.

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