chapter 13: query processing

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarsha 13.1 Database System Concepts Chapter 13: Query Processing Chapter 13: Query Processing Overview Measures of Query Cost Selection Operation Sorting Join Operation Other Operations Evaluation of Expressions

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Chapter 13: Query Processing. Overview Measures of Query Cost Selection Operation Sorting Join Operation Other Operations Evaluation of Expressions. Basic Steps in Query Processing. 1.Parsing and translation 2.Optimization 3.Evaluation. Basic Steps in Query Processing (Cont.). - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

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Page 1: Chapter 13:  Query Processing

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.1Database System Concepts

Chapter 13: Query ProcessingChapter 13: Query Processing

Overview

Measures of Query Cost

Selection Operation

Sorting

Join Operation

Other Operations

Evaluation of Expressions

Page 2: Chapter 13:  Query Processing

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.2Database System Concepts

Basic Steps in Query ProcessingBasic Steps in Query Processing

1. Parsing and translation

2. Optimization

3. Evaluation

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.3Database System Concepts

Basic Steps in Query Processing Basic Steps in Query Processing (Cont.)(Cont.)

Parsing and translation translate the query into its internal form (based on relational

algebra)

Parser checks syntax, verifies relation names

Evaluation The query-execution engine takes a query-evaluation plan,

executes that plan, and returns the answers to the query.

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.4Database System Concepts

Basic Steps in Query Processing : Basic Steps in Query Processing : OptimizationOptimization

A relational algebra expression may have many equivalent expressions

E.g., balance2500(balance(account)) is equivalent to

balance(balance2500(account))

A relational-algebra expression can be evaluated in many ways

Evaluation plan Annotated expression specifying detailed evaluation strategy

E.g., use an index on balance to find accounts with balance < 2500,

or perform complete relation scan and discard accounts with balance 2500

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.5Database System Concepts

Basic Steps: Optimization (Cont.)Basic Steps: Optimization (Cont.)

Query Optimization Choose the evaluation plan with the lowest cost

Cost is estimated using statistical information from the database catalog

e.g. number of tuples in each relation, size of tuples, etc.

This chapter shows How to measure query costs

Algorithms for evaluating relational algebra operations

How to combine algorithms for individual operations in order to evaluate a complete expression

Chapter 14 Query optimization

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.6Database System Concepts

Measures of Query CostMeasures of Query Cost Cost is generally measured as total elapsed time for

answering query Many factors contribute to time cost

disk accesses, CPU, or communication time

Typically disk access is the dominant cost, and is relatively easy to estimate. Number of seeks * average seek time

Number of blocks read * average block read time

Number of blocks written * average block write time

Writing is more expensive than reading

– Data is read back after being written to ensure that the write was successful

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.7Database System Concepts

Measures of Query Cost (Cont.)Measures of Query Cost (Cont.) For simply, use number of block transfers from disk as the cost

measure Ignore the difference between sequential and random I/O

Ignore CPU cost

Ignore cost to writing output to disk

Real systems consider these factors

Costs depends on the main memory buffer size Reduce the need for disk access

Depends on other concurrent OS processes

Hard to determine ahead of actual execution

Often use worst case estimates

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.8Database System Concepts

Selection OperationSelection Operation

File scan Search algorithms to locate and retrieve records that fulfill a

selection condition

Algorithm A1 (linear search).

Cost estimate (number of disk blocks scanned) = br

br : number of blocks containing records of relation r

If selection is on a key attribute, cost = (br /2)

stop on finding record

Linear search can be applied regardless of

selection condition or

ordering of records in the file, or

availability of indices

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.9Database System Concepts

Selection Operation (Cont.)Selection Operation (Cont.)

A2 (binary search) Applicable if selection is an equality comparison on the attribute

on which file is ordered

Assume that the blocks of a relation are stored contiguously

Cost estimate (number of disk blocks to be scanned):

log2(br) : cost to locate the first tuple

+ number of blocks containing records that satisfy selection condition

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.10Database System Concepts

Selections Using IndicesSelections Using Indices Index scan – search algorithms that use an index

selection condition must be on search-key of index.

A3 (primary index on candidate key, equality).

Cost = Hti (height of B+ tree) + 1 (retrieve a signle record)

A4 (primary index on nonkey, equality) Records will be on consecutive blocks

Cost = HTi + number of blocks containing retrieved records

A5 (equality on search-key of secondary index). Retrieve a single record if the search-key is a candidate key

Cost = HTi + 1

Retrieve multiple records if search-key is not a candidate key

Cost = HTi + number of records retrieved

– Can be very expensive!

– Each record may be on a different block (a lot of I/O)

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.11Database System Concepts

Selections Involving ComparisonsSelections Involving Comparisons Selections of the form AV (r) or A V(r) by using

a linear file scan or binary search, or indices in the following ways:

A6 (primary index, comparison). (Relation is sorted on A) For A V (r) use index to find first tuple v and scan relation sequentially

from there

For AV (r) just scan relation sequentially till first tuple > v; do not use index

A7 (secondary index, comparison). For A V (r), use index to find first index entry v and scan index

sequentially from there, to find pointers to records.

For AV (r), just scan leaf pages of index finding pointers to records, till first entry > v

In either case, retrieve records that are pointed to

– requires an I/O for each record

– Linear file scan may be cheaper if many records are to be fetched!

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.12Database System Concepts

Implementation of Complex SelectionsImplementation of Complex Selections

Conjunction: 1 2. . . n(r)

A8 (conjunctive selection using one index).

Choose i and algorithms A1 through A7 that results in the least cost for i (r)

Test other conditions tuple after fetching tuples into memory buffer

A9 (conjunctive selection using multiple-key index). Use appropriate composite (multiple-key) index if available

A10 (conjunctive selection by intersection of identifiers) Obtain pointers to records satisfying each individual condition Take intersection of all the obtained sets of record pointers Fetch records from file Apply test in memory, if some conditions do not have appropriate

indices

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.13Database System Concepts

Algorithms for Complex SelectionsAlgorithms for Complex Selections

Disjunction:1 2 . . . n (r).

A11 (disjunctive selection by union of identifiers). Applicable if all conditions have available indices.

Otherwise use linear scan.

Use corresponding index for each condition, and take union of all the obtained sets of record pointers.

Fetch records from file

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.14Database System Concepts

SortingSorting

Why important? Users may require sorted output

Join can be performed efficiently

Logical ordering Build an index on the sort key

Expensive (many I/O operations)

Physically order records

Sorting algorithms In memory algorithms, e.g., quicksort, if relations fit in the memory

Otherwise, external sorting algorithms such as external sort-merge

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.15Database System Concepts

External Sort-MergeExternal Sort-Merge

1. Create sorted runs 1. Let M = #pages in main memory buffer

2. i = 0 repeat Read M blocks of relation into memory; Sort the in-memory blocks; Write sorted data to run Ri ;

3. i++;

4. util the end of the realtion

5. /* Let the final value of i = N */

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.16Database System Concepts

External Sort-Merge (cont’d)External Sort-Merge (cont’d)

Merge the runs (N-way merge) Assume that N < M Use N memory blocks to buffer input runs, and 1 block to buffer

output. Read the first block of each run into its buffer page repeat

Select the first record (in sort order) among all buffer pages; Write the record to the output buffer. If the output buffer is full write it to

disk; Delete the record from its input buffer page;

If the buffer page becomes empty read the next block (if any) of the run into the buffer;

until all input buffer pages are empty

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.17Database System Concepts

Example: External Sorting Using Sort-MergeExample: External Sorting Using Sort-Merge

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.18Database System Concepts

External Sort-Merge (Cont.)External Sort-Merge (Cont.)

If i M, several merge passes are required. In each pass, contiguous groups of M - 1 runs are

merged

Create runs longer by the same factor

E.g. M=11, #runs = 90

After one pass

– the number of runs reduces to 9

– each run is 10 times the size of the initial runs

Repeat util all runs have been merged into one

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.19Database System Concepts

External Merge Sort (Cont.)External Merge Sort (Cont.)

Cost analysis

Total number of merge passes required: logM–1(br/M)

#initial disk accesses is 2br

#disk accesses in each pass is 2br

Total number of disk accesses for external sorting is

br ( 2 logM–1(br / M) + 1)

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.20Database System Concepts

Join OperationJoin Operation

Several different algorithms to implement joins Nested-loop join

Block nested-loop join

Indexed nested-loop join

Merge-join

Hash-join

Choice based on cost estimate

Examples use the following information Number of records of customer: 10,000 depositor: 5000

Number of blocks of customer: 400 depositor: 100

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.21Database System Concepts

Nested-Loop JoinNested-Loop Join

To compute r sfor each tuple tr in r

for each tuple ts in stest pair (tr,ts) to see if they satisfy the join condition if they do, add tr • ts to the result.

endend

r : outer relation

s: inner relation of the join

Requires no indices and can be used with any kind of join condition

Expensive since it examines every pair of tuples in the two relations

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.22Database System Concepts

Nested-Loop Join (Cont.)Nested-Loop Join (Cont.) In the worst case, if there is enough memory only to hold

one block of each relation, the estimated cost is

nr bs + br disk accesses.

If a smaller relation fits entirely in memory, use it as the inner relation. Reduces cost to br + bs disk accesses.

Assuming worst case memory availability cost estimate is 5000 400 + 100 = 2,000,100 disk accesses with depositor as

outer relation, and 1000 100 + 400 = 1,000,400 disk accesses with customer as

the outer relation.

If a smaller relation (depositor) fits entirely in memory, the cost estimate will be 500 disk accesses.

Block nested-loops algorithm (next slide) shows better performance

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.23Database System Concepts

Block Nested-Loop JoinBlock Nested-Loop Join

Variant of nested-loop join in which every block of inner relation is paired with every block of outer relation.

for each block Br of r do begin

for each block Bs of s do begin

for each tuple tr in Br do begin

for each tuple ts in Bs do begin

Check if (tr,ts) satisfy the join condition

if they do, add tr • ts to the result.

endend

endend

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.24Database System Concepts

Block Nested-Loop Join (Cont.)Block Nested-Loop Join (Cont.)

Worst case estimate: br bs + br block accesses. Each block in the inner relation s is read once for each block in the

outer relation (instead of once for each tuple in the outer relation)

Best case: br + bs block accesses.

Improvements to nested loop and block nested loop algorithms: In block nested-loop, use M - 2 disk blocks for outer relations,

where M = memory size in blocks; use remaining two blocks to buffer inner relation and output

Cost = br / (M-2) bs + br If equi-join attribute forms a key or inner relation, stop inner loop

on first match Scan inner loop forward and backward alternately, to make use of

the blocks remaining in buffer (with LRU replacement) Use index on inner relation if available (next slide)

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.25Database System Concepts

Indexed Nested-Loop JoinIndexed Nested-Loop Join Index lookups can replace file scans if

join is an equi-join or natural join and index is available on the inner relation’s join attribute

Can construct an index just to compute a join.

For each tuple tr in the outer relation r, use the index to look up tuples in s that satisfy the join condition with tuple tr

Cost of the join: br + nr c Where c is the cost of traversing index and fetching all matching s

tuples for one tuple of r c can be estimated as cost of a single selection on s using the join

condition.

If indices are available on join attributes of both r and s,use the relation with fewer tuples as the outer relation.

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.26Database System Concepts

Example of Nested-Loop Join CostsExample of Nested-Loop Join Costs

Compute depositor customer, with depositor as the outer relation.

Let customer have a primary B+-tree index on the join attribute customer-name, which contains 20 entries in each index node.

Since customer has 10,000 tuples, the height of the tree is 4, and one more access is needed to find the actual data

depositor has 5000 tuples

Cost of block nested loops join 400*100 + 100 = 40,100 disk accesses assuming worst case

memory (may be significantly less with more memory)

Cost of indexed nested loops join

100 + 5000 * 5 = 25,100 disk accesses.

CPU cost likely to be less than that for block nested loops join

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.27Database System Concepts

Merge-JoinMerge-Join

1. Sort both relations on their join attribute (if not already sorted on the join attributes).

2. Merge the sorted relations to join them

1. Join step is similar to the merge stage of the sort-merge algorithm.

2. Main difference is handling of duplicate values in join attribute — every pair with same value on join attribute must be matched

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.28Database System Concepts

Merge-Join (Cont.)Merge-Join (Cont.)

Can be used only for equi-joins and natural joins

Each block needs to be read only once, assuming all tuples for any given value of the join attributes fit in memory

Thus number of block accesses for merge-join is

br + bs + the cost of sorting if relations are unsorted.

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©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan13.29Database System Concepts

Materialization (Cont.)Materialization (Cont.)

Materialized evaluation is always applicable

Cost of writing results to disk and reading them back can be quite high Our cost formulas for operations ignore cost of writing results to

disk, so

Overall cost = Sum of costs of individual operations + cost of writing intermediate results to disk

Double buffering: use two output buffers for each operation, when one is full write it to disk while the other is getting filled Allows overlap of disk writes with computation and reduces

execution time