Chapter 15:Search for Order in the Seventeenth

Century

By: Natalie Fisk

Social Crises, War, and Rebellions

The 16th and 17th centuries also reveal Europe’s worsening conditions. The sixteenth century was a period of expanding population, possibly related to a warmer climate and increased food supplies. Population of Europe increased from sixty million in 1500 to 85 million by 1600. This was the first major recovery of European population since the devastation of the Black Death in the mid-fourteenth century. However, records indicate the population leveling off and also declining in 1650, especially in central and southern Europe. War, famine and plague continue to affect population levels.

• Witchcraft trials were held in England, Scotland, Germany, some parts of France and the Low Countries, and even New England in America.

• Its practice came to be viewed as both sinister and dangerous when the medieval church began to connect witches to participating in activities of the devil, transforming witchcraft into a heresy.

• More than 100,000 people were prosecuted. The accused witches usually confessed to a number of practices, most often after intense torture.

• The fear of being accused of witchcraft escalated and spread from large cities to small towns.

• Older women and those with religious uncertainty were more likely to be accused; these accusations were handy scapegoats.

• The destruction caused by the religious wars had at least forced people to accept a grudging toleration, tempering religious passions.

• Governments began to stabilize after the period of crises; more and more educated people were questioning their old attitudes toward religion.

Witchcraft

• Religion, especially the struggle between militant Catholicism and militant Calvinism, played an important role in the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War (1618-16480), often called the “last of the religious wars.”

• The Peace of Augsburg was established in 1555 and ended the religious problem between the Protestants and the Catholics.

Background of the Thirty Years’ War

• In 1617, the Bohemian Estates (primarily the nobles) accepted the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand as their king but soon found themselves unhappy with their choice.

• Ferdinand was a devout Catholic who began a process of Catholicizing Bohemia and strengthening royal power.

• The Protestant nobles rebelled against Ferdinand in May 1618 and proclaimed their resistance by throwing two of the Habsburg governors out of the window of the royal castle in Prague.

• The Bohemian rebels now seized control of Bohemia, deposed of Ferdinand, and elected as his replacement the Protestant ruler of Palatinate, Elector Fredrick V, who was also the head of the Protestant Union.

The Bohemian Phase (1618-1625)

The Bohemian Phase cont.

• Ferdinand, who in the meantime was elected Holy Roman Emperor, refused to accept his disposition.

• Aided by the imposing forces of Maximilian of Bavaria and the Catholic League, the imperial forces defeated Frederick and the Bohemian nobles at the Battle of White Mountain outside Prague on November 8th, 1620.

• Emperor Ferdinand regained the Bohemian throne, declaring Bohemia Catholic.

• The Spanish took control of the western part of Palatinate, and Duke Maximilian of Bavaria took the rest of the territory.

• The Bohemian phase of the Thirty Years’ War ended with a Habsburg and Catholic victory.

• This phase began when King Christian IV, the Lutheran ruler of Demark, supported the Protestants against Ferdinand II.

• Christian made an anti-Catholic alliance with the United Provence and England. He also wanted to gain possession of Catholic territories in northern Germany.

• In the meantime, Ferdinand had gained a new commander for the imperial forces in Albrecht von Wallenstein. He was Bohemian nobleman who had taken advantage of Ferdinand’s Catholic victory.

• Christian’s forces were defeated by an army of the Catholic League under Count Tilly and then by Wallenstein’s forces the next year.

• Christian’s defeat meant the end of Danish supremacy in the Baltic.

• At the height of Ferdinand’s power, he issued the Edict of Restitution in March 1629.

• His proclamation prohibited Calvinist worship and restored the Catholic church.

• The growth of power scared many German princes who feared for their independent status and reacted by forcing the emperor to get rid of Wallenstein.

The Danish Phase (1625-1629)

The Swedish Phase (1630-1635) • Gustavus Adolphus, the Lutheran king of Sweden, was responsible

for reviving Sweden and making it into a great Baltic power, bringing a disciplined Swedish army into northern Germany.

• His forces moved into the heart of Germany. Adolphus met Wallenstein’s troops near Leipzig.

• At the Battle of Lützen in 1632, the Swedish forces prevailed, but their king was killed in battle. Although the Swedish forces remained in Germany, they proved much less effective.

• Wallenstein was executed on the orders of Ferdinand in 1634. the imperial army defeated the Swedes at the Battle of Nördlingen at the end of 1634 and drove them out of southern Germany, meaning southern Germany would remain Catholic.

• Ferdinand then used this opportunity to annul the Edict of Restitution of 1629.

• The French, under the chief minister of King Louis the XIII, Cardinal Richelieu, entered the war. This began the Franco-Swedish phase.

Franco-Swedish Phase (1635-1648)

• Religious issues were losing their significance.

• The Catholic French were now supporting the Protestant Swedes against the Catholic Habsburgs of Germany and Spain.

• The Battle of Rocroi in 1643 proved decisive as the French beat the Spanish and brought an end to Spanish military success.

• The French moved on to victories over southern Germany.

• By this time, all sides wanted peace; the war in Germany officially ended by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

• The war between France and Spain ended by the Peace of Pyrenees in 1659.

Outcomes of the War

• The Peace of Westphalia ensured that all German states, including the Calvinist ones, were free to determine their own religion.

• It also stated that religion and politics were separate.

• The pope was completely ignored in all decisions of the Peace of Westphalia.

• The Habsburg emperor had been reduced to a figurehead inn the Holy Roman Empire.

Conscript Standing Armies•Changes in military between 1560 and 1650 consisted of increased use of firearms and cannons, greater flexibility and mobility in tactics, and better-disciplined and better-trained armies.•These innovations based largely on conscription necessitated standing armies, which grew larger and increased in expense at the seventeenth century progressed.•These armies were maintained only by levying heavier taxes, making war an economic burden and an ever more important part of the early modern European state.•The power of the state government grew due to the creation of the large bureaucracies to supervise the military resources.

Resources•A series of rebellions and civil wars stemming from the discontent of both nobles and commoners rocked the domestic stability of European governments.•Monarchs attempted to extend their authority to attain a firm grasp on the outbreaks by increasing taxes and created such hardships that common people rose in opposition.

AbsolutismAbsolute monarchy or absolutism meant that the sovereign power or ultimate authority in the state rested in the hands of a king who claimed to rule by divine right. This is also referred to as divine-right monarchy.

•Sovereign power consisted of the authority to make laws, tax, administer justice, control the state’s administrative system, and determine foreign policyBishop Jacques Bossuet- French theologian and court preacher Wrote Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture Argued that government was divinely ordained so that

humans could live in an organized society. Since kings received their power from God, their authority

was absolute; they were responsible to no one except God.

Cardinal Richelieu

• He was the chief minister of Louis the XIII from 1624 to 1642.

• He strengthened royal authority by eliminating the private armies and fortifies cities of the Huguenots and by crushing aristocratic conspiracies.

• He eliminated the political and military rights of the Huguenots while preserving their religious ones.

• Richelieu sent out royal officials called intendants to the provinces to execute the orders of the central government; they strengthened the power of the crown.

• The taille was increased, causing an increase in French debt.

Cardinal Mazarin- the Fronde • He was Richelieu’s trained the successor chosen to dominate

the government after Richelieu’s death. • He created a revolt called the Fronde.

the French disliked Mazarin The nobles temporarily allied with the members of the

Parliament of Paris, who opposed the new taxes levied by the government to pay the costs of the Thirty Years’ War, and with the masses of Paris, who were also angry at the additional taxes.

The Parliament of Paris was the most important court in France, with jurisdiction over half of the kingdom, and its members formed the nobles of the robe, the service nobility of lawyers and administrators.

These nobles of the robe led the first Fronde (1648-1649), which broke out in Paris and was ended by compromise.

The second Fronde begun in 1650 and was led by nobles of the sword. They were interested in overthrowing Mazarin to secure their positions and increase their own power. They were crushed in 1652, the task becoming easer when the nobles started fighting each other.

• Mazarin died in 1661; Louis XIV took over supreme power.

Jean-Baptist Colbert• Controller of general finances

• Sought to increase the wealth and power of France through general adherence to mercantilism, which stressed government regulation of economic activities to benefit the state.

• He attempted to expand the quantity and improve the quality of French goods.

• Founded new luxury industries such as the royal tapestry works.

• Raised tariffs

• Built canals and roads

• His economic policies, which were madeto make the king more powerful, were ultimatelyself-defeating.

• Best example of the practice of absolute monarchy in the seventeenth century.

• The day after Cardinal Mazarin’s death, Louis XIV, age twenty three, expressed his determination to be a real king and sole ruler of France.

“… It is now time that I govern them myself. You [secretaries and ministers of state] will assist me with your counsels when I ask for them. I request and order you to seal no orders except by my command….”

• He proved willing to pay the price of being a strong ruler. He considered his royal profession “grand, noble, and delightful.”• He created a grand and majestic spectacleat the court of Versailles out of eagerness for glory. Louis set the standard for monarchies and aristocracies all over Europe.

Louis the XIV

Palace of Versailles

Daily Life at the Court of Versailles• It was the residence for the king

• It included a reception hall for state affairs, an office building for the members of the king’s government, and the home of thousands of royal officials and aristocratic courtiers.

• Versailles became a symbol for the French absolutist state and the power of the Sun King, Louis XIV.

• By keeping the high nobility and princes busy, it allowed Louis to rule the government by himself with no other opinions.

• Daily ceremonies were carefully staged, such as watching the king dress and undress. This was a great honor to be included in.

• Daily life at Versailles also included numerous forms of entertainment, such as

walks through the gardens boating trips ballets concerts

The Wars of Louis XIV• Louis made war an almost incessant activity of his reign.• To achieve the prestige and military glory befitting the Sun King

as well as to ensure the domination of his Bourbon dynasty over European affairs, Louis wages four wars between 1667 and 1713.

• 1st war- invaded the Spanish Netherlands to his north and Franche-Comté to the east.

The Triple Alliance of the Dutch, English, and Swedes forced Louis to sue for peace in 1688 and accept few towns in the Spanish Netherlands for his efforts.

He never forgave the Dutch for creating the Triple Alliance. in 1672, after isolating the Dutch, France invaded the

United Provinces with some initial success. French victories led Spain, Brandenburg, and the Holy

Roman Empire to form a new coalition that forced Louis to end the Dutch War by making peace at Nimwegen in 1678.

• 2nd war- this time Louis moved eastward against the Holy Roman Empire

The gradual annexation of the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine was followed by the occupation of the city of Strasbourg, a move that led to a widespread protest.

The Wars of Louis XIV continued The creation of the League of Augsburg, consisting of Spain,

the Holy Roman Empire, the United Provinces, Sweden, and England, led to his third war

• 3rd war- The War of the League of Augsburg This eight-year war brought economic depression and famine

to France. The Treaty of Ryswick ending the war forced Louis to give up

most of his conquests in the empire, although he was allowed to keep Strasbourg and part of Alsace.

• 4th war- the War of the Spanish Succession Charles II left the throne of Spain to Louis XIV. When the latter became King Philip V of Spain, the suspicion

that Spain and France would eventually be united in the same dynastic family caused the formation of a new alliance, determined to prevent a Bourbon hegemony that would mean the certain destruction of the European balance of power

This new alliance of England, the United Provinces, Habsburg Austria, and German states declared war on France and Spain that ended after eleven years.

The Peace of Utrecht in 1713 and the Peace of Rastatt in 1714 ended the war.

The Peace of Utrecht in 1713 and the Peace of Rastatt in 1714 ended the war.

• These peace treaties confirmed Philip V (Louis XIV) as the Spanish ruler, initiating a Spanish Bourbon dynasty that would last into the twentieth century, they also affirmed that the thrones of Spain and France would remain separated.

• The Spanish Netherlands, Milan, and Naples were given to Austria, and the emerging state of Brandenburg-Prussia gained additional territories.

• England received Gibraltar as well as a few of France’s territories.

• Two years after the treaty, Louis XIV was dead, leaving France impoverished and surrounded by enemies.

The Wars of Louis XIV continued

The Decline of Spain

• To most Europeans, Spain seemed the greatest power of the age, but the reality was quite different.

• Philip II went bankrupt in 1596 from expenses on war• His successor, Philip III, did the same in 1607 by spending a

fortune on his court. Armed forces were out of date The government was inefficient The commercial class was weak in the midst of suppressed

peasantry Oversupply of priests and monks

• Philip III allowed his first minister, the duke of Lerma, to run the country.

• Lerma’s primary interest was accumulating power and wealth for himself.

Reign of Philip IV• Offered hope• At the Battle of Rocroi in 1643, much of the Spanish Army was

destroyed.

Brandenburg-Prussia

• The foundation for the Prussian state was laid by Frederick William the Great Elector, who came to power in the midst of the Thirty Years’ War.

• Frederick William realized that Prussia was small and had no

natural barriers, so he created a efficient standing army.

• To sustain his army and his own power, he established the General War Commissariat to levy taxes for the army and oversee its growth and training.

• It soon evolved into an agency for civil government.

• Directly responsible to the elector, the new bureaucratic machine became its chief instrument for governing the state.

• Frederick William made deals with the nobles to eliminate their power.

• Directly responsible to the elector, the new bureaucratic machine became its chief instrument for governing the state.

• Frederick William made deals with the nobles to eliminate their power.

• He would exempt them from taxes or gave them almost unlimited power over the peasants in exchange for a free hand in running the government.

• He followed fashionable mercantilist policies, using high tariffs and monopolies for manufacturers to stimulate domestic industry and the construction of roads and canals.

• His son Frederick III was granted the title of King Frederick I of Prussia.

• The Hohenzollerns helped evolve Brandenburg into a powerful state

• They inherited some lands in the Rhine valley in western Germany

Brandenburg-Prussia continued

Austria

• In the 17th century, Leopold I encouraged the eastward movement of the Austrian Empire, but he was then challenged by the revival of the Ottoman power.

• The Ottomans eventually pushed westward and laid siege to Vienna in 1683.

• The Austrian army attacked and defeated the Ottomans in 1687.

• By the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, Austria took control of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia, establishing an Austrian Empire in southeastern Europe.

• The Austrian Empire never became highly centralized; it remained a collection of territories held together by a personal union.

Italy • By 1530, Emperor Charles V defeated the French armies in

Italy and become the arbiter of Italy. • In 1540, he gave the duchy of Milan to his son Philip II and

transferred all imperial rights over Italy to the Spanish monarchy.

Russian Serfdom• The national assembly chose Michael Romanov to be the

new tsar after Ivan the Terrible, beginning a dynasty that lasted until 1917.

• In the 17th century, Muscovite and Russian society was dominated by an upper class of landed aristocrats who, in the course of the 17th century, managed to bind their peasants to the land.

• An abundance of land and a shortage of peasants made serfdom desirable to the landowners.

• Townspeople were also controlled • Many merchants were not allowed to move from their

cities without government permission or to sell their businesses to anyone outside their class.

Peter the Great• Peter gained a firsthand view of the West when he made the

trip there in 1697-1698 and returned to Russia with a firm dedication to westernize his “backward country.”

• Only this kind of modernization could give him the army and navy he needed to make Russia a great power.

• He built a standing army of 210,000 men.

• He formed the first Russian navy.

• In 1711, he created a Senate to supervise while he was away on military campaigns.

• To impose the rule the of central government more effectively throughout the land, Peter divided Russia into eight provinces and later, in 1719, into 50.

• In 1722, Peter instituted the Table of Ranks to create opportunities for nonobles to serve the state and join the nobility.

• Sought to gain control of the Russian Orthodox church.

• He began to introduce Western customs and clothing such as shaving off nobles’ beards or cutting coats at their knees. He brought over customs such as card games as well.

Peter the Great continued

Peter the Great

Peter the Great- The Great Northern War

• The object of Peter’s domestic reforms was to make Russia into a great state of military power.

• Goal was to “open a window to the West”• Peter, with the support of Poland and Denmark, attacked

Sweden in 1700 to gain the Baltic port. • He believed that the young king, Charles XII could be

easily defeated. • However, he was a good general, crushing Peter’s men at

the Battle of Narva. • Battle of Poltava- Peter defeated Charles’s army • Peace of Nystadt (1721)- gave recognition to what Peter

accomplished: the acquisition of Estonia, Livonia, and Karelia.

• Peter then began to construct a new city, St. Petersburg, which was his window on the West and a symbol that Russia was looking westward to Europe.

• But the forceful way Peter imposed westernization led his people not to embrace Europe and Western civilization but to distrust it.

The Great Northern States- Denmark

• Ruler- Christian IV (1588-1648)

• They system of electing monarchs forced kings to share their power with the Danish nobility, who exercised strict control over the peasants who worked for their lands.

• Danish ambitions were curtailed by the losses they sustained in the Thirty Years’ War and later the Great Northern War.

• Denmark’s Estates brought a bloodless revolution in 1660 The power of the nobility was curtailed A heredity monarchy was reestablished New absolutist constitution was proclaimed in 1665

• Under Christian V (1670-1699), a centralized administration was instituted with the nobility as the chief officeholders.

The Great Northern States- Sweden

• During the reign of Gustavus Adolphus, his wise chief minister, Axel Oxenstierna, persuaded the king to adopt a new policy in which the nobility formed a “First Estate” occupying the bureaucratic positions of an expanded central government.

• This created a stable monarchy and freed the king to raise a formidable army and participate in the Thirty Years’ War, only to be killed in battle in 1632.

• Sweden entered a crises after the death of Adolphus.

• His daughter Christina ruled, showing far more interest in religion than ruling.

• In 1654, she was tired of ruling and wished to become Catholic, which was forbidden in Sweden.

• She abdicated in favor of her cousin, who became King Charles X.

• He reestablished domestic order, but Charles XI rebuilt the Swedish monarchy.

• Charles managed to weaken the independent power of the nobility, leaving it for his son who became Charles XII, who was more interested in military affairs.

• By the time he died in 1728, Charles XII had lost much of Sweden’s northern empire to Russia, and Sweden’s status as a first-class northern power has ended.

Sweden continued

The Ottoman Empire

• They tried to complete their conquest of the Balkans where they had been established since the 14th century.

• Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent brought the Turks back to Europe’s attention

• The Turks advanced up the Danube and seized Belgrade in 1521 and Hungary by 1526, although their attempts to conquer Vienna in 1529 were repulsed.

• They expanded their power into the western Mediterranean, threatening to turn it into a Turkish lake until they were defeated by the Spanish at Lepanto in 1571.

• In the seventeenth century, the Turks again took offensive.

• By 1683, the Ottomans marched through the Hungarian plain and laid siege to Vienna.

• They were then defeated by a mixed army of Austrians, Poles, Bavarians, and Saxons.

• They retreated and were pushed out of Hungary.

• They would never again be a threat to Europe.

The Ottoman Turks continued

Battle of Vienna, 1683

Poland

• In 1572, when the Jagiello dynasty came to an end, a new practice arose of choosing outsiders as kings who would bring new alliances.

• When the throne was awarded to the Swede Sigismund III, the new king dreamed of creating a vast Polish empire that would include Russia and possibly Finland and Sweden.

• Poland not only failed to reach this goal, but by the end of the 17th century, it had become a weak, decentralized state.

• Polish diet

• A two-chamber assembly in which landowners completely dominated the few townspeople and lawyers who were also members

• To be elected kingship, prospective monarchs had to agree to share power with the Sejm in matters of taxation, foreign and military policy, and the appointment of state officials and judges.

• The power of the Sejm has disastrous results for central monarchial authority.

• The acceptance of the liberum veto in 1652, whereby the meetings of the Sejm could be stopped by a single dissenting member, reduced government to virtual chaos.

The Sejm

the Golden Age of the Dutch Republic

• The 17th century had often been called the Golden Age of the Dutch Republic as the United Provinces held center stage as one of Europe’s great powers.

• As a result of the 16th century revolt of the Netherlands, the seven northern provinces, which began to call themselves the United Provinces of the Netherlands in 1581, became the core of the modern Dutch state. It was recognized by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

• There were two chief centers of political power in the new state.

• Each province has an official known as a stadholder who was responsible for leading the army and maintaining order.

• Beginning with William of Orange and his heirs, the house of Orange occupied the stadholderate in most of the seven provinces and favored the development of a centralized government with themselves as hereditary monarchs.

• In 1672, burdened with was against both France and England, the United Provinces turned to William III of the house of Orange to establish a monarchial regime.

• He died in 1703 with no heir, enabling the republican forces to gain control once more.

• By 1715 the Dutch were experiencing a serious economic decline.

House of Orange

William III Of Orange

Amsterdam• By the beginning of the 17th century, Amsterdam had

replaced Antwerp as the financial and commercial capital of Europe.

• In 1570, Amsterdam had 30,000 inhabitants

• By 1610, that number had double, causing city government to approve an “urban expansion plan.”

• That increased the city’s territory from 500 acres to 1800 acres through construction of three new canals.

• The expansion of Amsterdam owed much to the city’s role as the commercial and financial center of European Indian trading companies.

• Merchants unloaded cargoes at Dam Square • Important as a financial center• Calvinist background.

•After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, the Tudor dynasty became extinct, and the Stuart line of rulers came into power by being inaugurated with the accession to the throne of Elizabeth’s cousin, King James VI of Scotland who became James I of England.

•James I Understood little about the laws, institutions, and customs

of England. He espoused the divine right of kings- the belief that kings

receive their power directly from God.

Stuarts

James’ viewpoint on divine right alienated Parliament.

Parliament refused his requests for additional monies needed by the king to meet the increased cost of government.

Parliament’s power of the purse proved to be its trump card in its relationship with the king.

Puritans- Protestants in the Anglican Church inspired by Calvinist theology.

Wanted James to eliminate the episcopal system of the church organization used in the church of England where the bishop played a major role in favor of a Presbyterian model.

Favored for the ministers and elders to play the major administrative role.

James refused because the Anglican Church bishops were a major support of monarchial authority. Puritans opposed the king.

Puritans were solely the lower house of Parliament, an important and substantial part of the House of Commons.

Puritans

Reign of Charles II

• 1628: Parliament passed the Petition of Right.

Prohibited taxation without Parliament’s consent, arbitrary imprisonment, the quartering of soldiers in private houses, and the declaration of martial law in peacetime.

• 1629: Personal rule

Since he could not work with Parliament, he would not summon it to meet.

Ship money was a levy on seacoast towns to pay for coastal defense which was now collected annually by the king’s officials throughout England and used to finance other government operations besides defense.

Lasted until 1640.

When the king and Archbishop Laud attempted to impose the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on the Scottish Presbyterian church, the Scots rose up in rebellion against the king.

The king was financially pinned and had no choice but to call the Parliament into session.

First session: “Long Parliament” lasted from November 1640 to September 1641. Here, they passed the revolutionary Triennial Act, which specified that Parliament must meet at least once every three years, with or without the king’s consent.

After while, Parliament slipped into two sides; one being more radical for change. When the king tried to take advantage of this split by arresting one side, a large group of Parliament decided that the king had gone too far.

England fell into a civil war.

Reign of Charles II continued

English Civil War

Phase One

•Parliament’s success thrived on the creation of the New Model Army, which was composed primarily of more extreme Puritans known as the Independents, who believed they were doing battle for the Lord.

•Oliver Cromwell had been credited for some of the military greatness.

•Parliament, supported by the New Model Army, ended the first phase of the civil war with the capture of King Charles I in 1646.

Phase Two

•Split occurred in parliamentary forces: Presbyterian majority, who wanted to disband the army

and destroy Charles I with a Presbyterian state church The army, composed mostly of the more radical

Independents who opposed the established Presbyterian church.

•The army marched on London in 1647 and began negotiations with the king, who fled at such advantage to seek help from the Scots.•Oliver Cromwell enraged at treachery second civil war and captured the king Results•Purged Presbyterian members of Parliament, leaving Rump Parliament.•King charged with treason.•Charles beheaded on January 30, 1649.

English Civil War continued

Cromwell faced an uneasy period:• Catholic uprising in Ireland• Uprising in Scotland, on behalf of Charles I• The Levellers• Rump Parliament

The Levellers• advocated such advanced ideas as freedom of speech, religious

toleration, and democratic republic, arguing for the right to vote for all male householders over the age of twenty-one.

• called for annual Parliaments, women’s equality with men, and government programs to care for the poor.

Rump Parliament• Rump Parliament- they abolished the monarchy and the House of

Lords and proclaimed England a republic or commonwealth.• Cromwell found it difficult to work with Rump Parliament• dispersed it by force.• destroyed both king and Parliament.

The Rule of Oliver Cromwell

•Once he had dissolved the Parliament, he divided the country into eleven regions, each ruled by a major general who served virtually as a military governor.

Levied 10% land tax to meet thecost of military government.

Not able to fully establish aconstitutional basis for a workinggovernment, so he resorted to using military force keep control of the Independents.

•Oliver Cromwell died in 1658. The monarchy was restored in the name of Charles II, the eldest son of Charles I.

Rule of Oliver Cromwell continued

Oliver Cromwell

Charles II:• Pushed his own ideas, but was sympathetic to and

perhaps even inclined toward Catholicism.

• Brother, James, did not hide the fact that he was a Catholic.

• Parliament became suspicious when Charles issued the Declaration of Indulgence, which suspended the laws that Parliament had passed against Catholics and Puritans

induced the king to suspend the declaration.

The Restoration of the Monarchy

Test Act- specifying that only Anglicans could hold military and civil offices.

Debate over Parliament’s attempt to pass a bill that would have jarred James from the throne as a professed Catholic created two political groups:

Whigs- wanted to exclude James and establish a Protestant king with toleration of Dissenters

Tories- supported the king, despite their dislike of James as a Catholic, because they did not believe Parliament should tamper with the lawful succession to the throne.

The Restoration of the Monarchy

The Glorious Revolution

Seven prominent noblemen invited William of Orange, husband of James’ daughter Mary, to invade England.

• Raised an army and invaded England.

• James, his wife, and their baby son fled to France.

With almost no bloodshed, England had commenced on a “Glorious Revolution.”

The issue now was, not over whether there would be a monarchy, but rather who would be the monarchy.

Revolution Settlement: confirmed William and Mary as monarchs.

Bill of Rights- affirmed Parliament’s right to make laws and levy taxes and made it impossible for kings to oppose or do without Parliament by stipulating that standing armies could be raised only with the consent of Parliament.

Toleration Act of 1689- granted Puritan Dissenters the right of free public worship, although they did not yet have full civil and political equality since the Test Act was not repealed.

William and Mary

The Glorious Revolution continued

Thomas Hobbes:• was alarmed by the revolutionary

upheavals in his contemporary England.

• name has since been associated with the state’s claim to absolute authority over its subjects, a topic that he elaborated on in his treatise to political thought known as the Leviathan.

• Believed that humans were guided not by reason and moral ideals but by animalistic instincts and ruthless struggle for self-preservation.

• Created a commonwealth, which Hobbes called “that great Leviathan to which we owe our peace and defense,” to save themselves from destroying each other.

Thomas Hobbes

John Locke:• Argued against the

absolute rule of one man.

• Two Treatises of Government explained his experience of English politics.

• Believed that humans lived in a state of equality and freedom rather than a state of war.

• Humans had natural right to life, liberty, and property

John Locke

MannerismA sixteenth century artistic movement in Europe that deliberately broke down the High Renaissance principles of balance, harmony, and moderation.

El Greco:• Famous Mannerism painter who painted for churches in Toledo.

• Elongated and contorted figures reflect the artist’s desire to create a world of intense emotion.

Laocoön

An artistic movement of the seventeenth century in Europe that used dramatic effects to arouse the emotions and reflected the search for power that was a large part of the seventeenth century ethos.

Baroque artists sought to bring together the classical ideals of the Renaissance and spiritual feeling of the sixteenth century religious revival.

• Began in Italy• Mostly embraced by the Catholic Reform movement.• It was known for its use of dramatic effects to arouse

the emotions

Peter Paul Rubens- a prolific artist and an important figure in the spread of the Baroque from Italy to other parts of Europe.• The Landing of Marie de’ Medici at Marseilles

Gian Lorenzo Bernini- the greatest figure of the Baroque period• Throne of Saint Peter and Ecstasy of Saint Theresa

The Baroque Period

The Landing of Marie de’ Medici at Marseilles

Ecstasy of Saint Theresa

•First woman to be elected to the Florentine Academy of Design.

•Fame resides on a series of pictures of heroines from the Old Testament.

Judith Beheading Holofernes

Artemisia Gentileschi

French late Classicism- emphasis on clarity simplicity balance harmony of design

• a rather austere version of the High Renaissance style. • It reflected French society from chaos to order.

• French Classicism continued the grandeur in the portrayal of noble subjects, especially those from classical antiquity.

• French Classicism continued the Baroque’s conception of grandeur in the portrayal of noble subjects.

•Nicholas Poussin exemplified these principles in his paintings.

French Classicism

• Neither classical nor Baroque, Dutch painters were primarily interested in the realistic portrayal of secular everyday life.

• This included portraits of • group portraits of their military companies and

guilds • and the interiors of their residences• themselves• landscapes • seascapes• genre scenes • and still life

•Judith Leyster shows great evidence of such works. She became the first female member of the painting of the Guild of Saint Luke in Harlem.

Dutch Realism

Self Portrait

The finest product of the golden age of Dutch painting was Rembrandt van Rijn.

He painted opulent portraits and grandiose scenes that were often quite colorful.

Dutch Realism continued

Syndics of the Cloth

Guild

• William Shakespeare was a “complete man of the theatre.”

• Shakespeare was a master at the English language

• He was best known for writing plays, although he was also an actor and shareholder in the chief company of the time, the Lord Chamberlain’s Company.

• Shakespeare exhibited a remarkable understanding of the human condition.

William Shakespeare

Lope de Vega set the agenda for playwrights.

• Incredibly prolific writer

• Almost one third of his fifteen hundred plays survive.

• Plays have been characterized as witty, charming, action-packed, and realistic.

• Considerably more cynical than Shakespeare.

Theater in Europe

Lope de Vega

Spain:

Theater in Europe continuedFrance:

Jean–Baptiste Racine displayed French works of drama themes and plots.

• Phedrè was his best play where Racine followed closely to the plot of the Greektragedian Euripides’ Hippolytus.

• He focused on conflicts, such as between love and honor or inclination and duty, that characterized and revealed the tragic dimensions of life.

Jean–Baptiste Racine

• Jean-Baptiste Molière wrote, produced, and acted in a series of comedies that often satirized the religious and social world for his time.

• In Tartuffe, he ridiculed religious hypocrisy.

• The Paris clergy did not find Tartuffe funny and had it banned for five years. Only the protection of the king saved Molière from more severe harassment.

Jean-Baptiste Molière

Theater in Europe continuedSpain: