chapter 2
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter review of literature pertinent to the present investigation
is presented in order to provide background material for under taking the
research study. Both critical and allied literature were reviewed and abstracts
of relevant studies are cited here as under.
Hofstetter MC, Mader U and Wysss T (2011) investigated the effects
of a seven-week outdoor circuit training program on Swiss Army recruits. An
intervention group (standard and additional training, n = 134, 21.0 + 1.1
years, 74.1 + 10.0 kg and 1.78 + 0.1 m) and a control group (standard training
only, n = 125, 20.4 + 1.2 years, 73.3 + 9.1 kg and 1.78 + 0.1 m) from the
same fusilier infantry training school were compared. Physical standard
training in the Swiss Army is specified to consist of two sessions with a total
duration of at least three hours per week. Groups of 20 to 50 recruits undergo
these trainings in a gym hall and outdoors. Standard training includes a wide
range of exercise and sport activities (strength and aerobic fitness training,
team sports, obstacle courses, physical fitness tests, and orienteering). The
additional circuit fitness training program implemented in this study was
conducted once a week for 60 minutes. It was performed outdoors and
consisted of the same exercises every week (warm-up, squats, prone bridge,
back/shoulder exercise, stair climbing, side bridge, single leg balance,
walking on a balance beam, intermitted running and active recovery).
Volunteers’ physical fitness was assessed during the first and last weeks of
basic military training (7 weeks) using a standing long jump, seated 2-kg shot
put, one-leg standing test (OLS), trunk muscle strength test (TMS), and
progressive endurance run (PER). Injury data were collected in medical
records for the 21 weeks of military training school. The intervention group
performed 1.0 session of standard training for 70.0 minutes and 1.0 session
of additional outdoor circuit training for 50.0 minutes per week. The control
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group performed 1.3 session of standard training for a total of 70.7 minutes
per week. After the seven-week basic military training, the intervention and
the control groups showed significant improvements in OLS (35.63 and
3.79%), TMS (29.84 and 11.31%), PER (15.64 and 16.37%), and total
physical fitness score (12.04 and 7.78%, p<0.05). The intervention group
showed significantly greater improvements in OLS, TMS, and total physical
fitness score than the control group (p<0.05). No significant difference in
injury incidence rate between the two study groups (intervention group : 14.2,
control group : 13.9 injuries/month/100 persons) was registered. The results
indicate that the change from a civilian daily routing to the physically more
demanding military routine led to significant improvements in physical fitness
in both study groups. The additional outdoor circuit training session per week
led to greater improvements in total physical fitness score, but did not
increase injury rates.
Miura Hajime (2005) studied the effects of long-term low-intensity
circuit training on artery stiffness in sedentary women. Twenty healthy women
divided into two groups (training group and control group). In the training
group, subjects asked to perform the resistance exercise consisted of arm
curls, bench presses, lateral pull-downs, leg presses and squats 3 days per
week for 2 months. They conducted 5 sets at 30% of their 10RM. Aerobic
capacity (ventilatory threshold [VT]), muscle strength, resting blood pressure,
and arterial stiffness index (brachial-ankle Pulse Wave Velocity [baPWV])
were evaluated before and after training period. After the low-intensity circuit
training, work rate at VT was significantly increased (108.6 + – .25.6W to
128.1 + –.24.3W). The baPWV was significantly decreased (988.7+-.80.5cm
sec’–1’ to 895.7+-.62.6cm sec’-1’). In control group, however, there were no
significant differences during same duration. These results suggested that
long-term low-intensity circuit training attenuates the large artery stiffness in
healthy women. This kind of exercise may have great potential to lower the
risks of circulatory illness in aged men.
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Taskin Halil (2009) conducted a study to determine the effect of circuit
training directed toward motion and action velocity over the sprint-agility and
anaerobic endurance. A total of 32 healthy male physical education students
with a mean age of 23.93 + 1.81 years were randomly allocated into a circuit
training group (CTG; n = 16) and control group (CG; n = 16). A circuit training
consisting of 8 stations was applied to the subjects 3 days a week for 10
weeks. Circuit training program was executed with 75% of maximal motion
numbers in each station. The FIFA Medical Assessment and Research
Centre (F-MARC) test battery, which was designed by FIFA, was used for
measuring sprint-agility and anaerobic endurance. Pre-and post training
testing of participants included assessments of sprint-agility and anaerobic
endurance. Following training, there was a significant (p <0.05) difference in
sprint-agility between pre- and posttesting for the CTG (pretest = 14.76 + 0.48
seconds, posttest = 14.47 + 0.43 seconds). Also, there was a significant (p <
0.05) difference in anaerobic endurance between pre- and posttesting for the
CG (pretest = 31.53 + 0.48 seconds, posttest = 30.73 + 0.50 seconds). In
conclusion, circuit training, which is designed to be performed 3 days a week
during 10 weeks for training, improves sprint-agility and anaerobic endurance.
Kristina Neri (2008) studied the effect of a 6-week circuit weight
training program on level of physical activity enjoyment and fitness among
previously sedentary middle-aged women. Ten women, ages 31 to 51 years
old, were assessed for physical fitness (curl up test, push up test, and step
test) and given the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES). Participants
completed 6 weeks of progressive circuit weight training, 2 days a week for
60 minutes each day. The circuit consisted of 10 stations with cardiovascular
and muscular endurance exercises. A1 (group) x 8 (time) repeated measures
ANOVA with follow-up pairwise comparisons was used to determine if there
were significant (p<0.05) differences in the PACES score. Results indicated a
significant (p < .05) increase in PACES scores from the pretest (85.80 +/-
19.95) to the posttest (102.10+/-15.19). Results were also significantly greater
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at week 1, 2 and 6. Three simple 1 (group) x 2 (time) ANOVAs were used to
determine any differences for the fitness variables. The results indicated
significantly (p < .05) greater scores for upper body and abdominal muscular
endurance, but no significant (p < .05) difference in recovery heart rate.
These results indicate a relatively brief physical activity program can increase
physical activity enjoyment and fitness levels among a sedentary middle-aged
female population.
Joshkatz Willson B.R.A. (1992) studied of the effects of a six-week,
low-intensity Nautilus circuit training program on resting blood pressure in
females. Twenty-six healthy, untrained females were studied to determine the
effects of a low-intensity Nautilus circuit training program on resting systolic
and diastolic blood pressure. Thirteen subjects who were in good health with
no personal history or family history of cardiovascular disease participated in
a six-week training program on the Nautilus circuit (14 exercises) and trained
at 30% of maximum. Measurements in blood pressure were made before,
during (three times per week) and after the study. Another group of 13
females served as controls. An attempt was made to determine if strength
increase (due to circuit training) would have an effect on reducing resting
systolic and diastolic blood pressure. The following changes occurred in the
treatment group : (1) resting systolic blood pressure dropped significantly
(from 113 to 99 mmHg) after training and (2) diastolic blood pressure dropped
significantly from (70.9 to 62.0mmHg) after training. However, there were no
differences in these decreases between the exercise and control groups. The
investigators concluded that log-intensity, resistive training should be increase
blood pressure in white, healthy females, aged 18 to 28 years.
Malathi Balakrishnan (2010) conducted a study on the impact of 4-
minute circuit training on enhancing health related fitness among students.
Random selection of classes was done from eight classes and two classes
were chose. The intact sampling method was used to group the classes to
control group (n1=27) and experimental group (n2=33). The one-way ANOVA
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test was used to make comparisons and evaluate the groups. The results
showed that there were no significant differences (p>0.05) between the two
groups and it was assumed that both groups were equal before the treatment.
During the 10 weeks of normal physical education classes, the experimental
group underwent 4-minute-circuit training after the warming-up session. Five
health-related components based on AAPHERED (American Alliance for
Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance) were used to measure in
this study. The paired t-test results showed there were significant differences
(p<0.05) in four components in the experimental group compared to two
significant differences in the components (p<0.05) in the control group. The
independent t-test result showed that the three components had a significant
difference (p<0.05) in the experimental group compared to the control group.
Hence, this study showed that 4-minute-circuit training in 80-minute’s physical
education class once a week does enhance the health-related fitness among
students in this secondary school.
Wilmore et al (1978) showed that, after a course of circuit training,
women improved VO2 max by 4%, whereas men showed no improvement.
However, the VO2 max of the women pre-training was much lower than the
men’s: 35.5ml/kg/min as opposed to 47 ml/kg/min. This suggests that a
higher level of initial fitness may mean a higher intensity of aerobic effort is
needed for further improvement. Thus the moderate gain in aerobic fitness
shown in the studies, around 5% uplift in VO2 max, may not occur in fitter
individuals.
Gettmen2 et al (1982) showed that after eight weeks of circuit training
a group of men improved their VO2max by 3%. They then completed eight
weeks of continuous running training, whereupon their VO2max went up by a
further 8%, proving once again that traditional aerobic training is more
effective. However, half the group than carried on with the showed that after
eight weeks of circuit training a group of men improved their VO2 max by 3%.
They then completed eight weeks of continuous running training, whereupon
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their VO2 max went up by a further 8%, proving once again that traditional
aerobic running for a further eight weeks while half went back to circuit
training. At the end, both groups had maintained the VO2 max improvements
gained from the original running training. This means that circuit training could
be a useful way for athletes to stay in shape when they are injured. A circuit
of weights exercises that do not stress the injury, with short rest periods, can
be used to maintain aerobic fitness.
Brown (1962) had conducted the study on the effect of circuit training
on the physical fitness on Grade V girls. Two classes were tested on the
AAHPER fitness test before and after eight week of regular physical
education classes. The experimental class, chosen a 10 minutes circuit
training programme before each class. The circuit-training group shoed a
significant gain on all tests except the 50yard dash.
Simmons (1976) studied the effect of circuit training upon Cardio-
vascular condition and motor performance. 15 male students in required
physical education course in circuit training showed statistically significant
mean improvement in nine to fourteen cardio-vascular variables and in all 13
motor fitness variables. The training was done twice in a week in 30 minutes
period and lasted 12 weeks.
Shaw (1984) conducted a study on comparison of three modes of
testing for improved Vo2 max and strength after the nautilus circuit-training
programme. Measured by either arm cranking, leg cranking or arm-leg
cranking the training protocol was conducted 3 times a week for 8 weeks.
Testing was performed on a Schwinn Airdyne cycle ergometer. Differences
were detected between arm cranking, arm-leg cranking tests, in both groups
however there was no significant effect of circuit training on strength and Vo2
max as measured by any of the three modes. It is possible that a long training
period or an increase number of sets in the daily programme may result in
development on strength and Vo2 max in novice subjects.
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Benerak (1983) is conducted a study on the training effect of an upper
body circuit-training programme on heart rate and oxygen uptake. Training
programme extended to eight weeks. Subjects include 8 college students (5
men, 3 women) with a control group of 4 man and 4 women. Training
consisted of 8 exercises one circuit a day. Subjects exercised at a percentage
of their body weight for a specific number of repetitions as developed by
Vitace (1973). Control and experimental groups were pre and post tested
using physical work capacity test on bicycle ergometer. Result showed that
following the training period, the experimental group showed no significant
decrease in resting heart rate but significant increase was in Vo2 max of the
group.
Foley (1986) conducted a study on the effect of circuit training
programme on predicted oxygen uptake of pre pubescent children. A
continuous sub max bicycle ergometer tests for prediction of maximal oxygen
uptake was used to determine the effect of 8 weeks of training on 15
volunteers students age 10-11 years. Subjects for the study were randomly
selected from an elementary school V Grade class. The experimental group
trained three times per week for 8 weeks in a circuit training programme at a
target rate of 70% of age predicted Vo2 max for 30 minutes per section acting
as a control group, 12 students participated in ogranised game and sport
activities for equivalent periods of time. A pre test and post test design
utilizing ANCOVA revealed no significant difference at the 0.05 level between
groups. It was concluded that although improvement is evident in the
experimental group it was equated whether the results were attributable to the
training programme.
Smith (1980) studied the effect of circuit training on the performance
skill of beginners and advanced beginner swimmers. Subjects were 52 male
and female students of North Carolina Central University. The variables
measured for beginner swimmers were breath holding, prone glide, arm
stroke and crawl stroke, and advanced beginner swimmers, treading water,
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front, crawl, and back stroke students were randomly divided in to 2 equal
groups. The experimental group engaged in 6 weeks of circuit training and
swimming, while the control group engaged in 6 weeks of swimming. It was
found that circuit training had a significant effect on the performance skills of
the experimental beginner swimmers.
James (1964) compared the effect of circuit training and isometric
exercises on tread mill performance. 3 groups of college students were
equated on the basis of the Balke Treadmill test. All three groups attended
required Physical Education classes in which badminton was the activity twice
a week for 5 weeks. In addition Group A did circuit training Group B did
isometric exercises three times a week, and Group C acted as a control
group. Ten minutes of circuit training or isometric exercise in addition of
badminton was no more effective in improving treadmill performance time
than badminton alone. Circuit training caused a greater improvement in
treadmill performance than isometric exercise.
Eric (1964) compared the relative effectiveness of interval circuit
training compared with three other methods of fitness training in a school
Physical Education programme. 4 groups of junior high school boys were
matched on initial scores of the Larson Dynamic muscular strength and
modified Harward step tests plus Mccoloy’s classification index. Each
followed a different training pattern for eight-class periods spread over two
months. The interval circuit running group showed significant improvement in
combined Harward and Larson tests scores over circuit training and
conventional Physical Education groups. There were no other differences
shown between groups.
Edward (1970) conducted a study on the effect of circuit training,
weight lifting and interval training on circulo-respiratory endurance. Fifty one
college males from developmental Physical Education classes at the
University, of New Mexico were randomly assigned to one of the three-
exercise programme. The subjects trained for ten weeks period at their
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respective exercise programme. Pre-test and Post-test measures of circulo-
respiratory endurance were administered under same experimental condition.
The ANOVA showed no significant differences between the three exercise
programme in the measures of circulo-respiratory endurance.
Randall (1970) conducted a study in which students were distributed
among 3 groups, one group (N=30) used interval running second group
(N=30) had circuit training in addition to interval running and 3 rd group (N=20)
acted as the control. The training programme were designed to improve the
ability of subjects to run a half mile by a improving their conditioning and
teaching a sense of pace. The experiment was conducted over an 8 weeks
period. The interval-running group and circuit training groups were
significantly faster than the control group. No significant difference was found
between the interval running group and the circuit-training group.
Olsen (1980) investigated the effects of a set circuit-training
programme on strength and muscular endurance of college age men 42
college males participated in the study. Pre-test and Post-tests for strength
and absolute muscular endurance and relative muscular endurance were
given for the bench press and leg press. Treatment consisted of 2 workout
sessions per week for 7 weeks. Test, re test procedures and pretest and
posttest mean changes were analysed using Pearson Correlation and
dependent t- analyses. Absolute muscular endurance in the bench press and
leg press, and relative muscular endurance in the bench press were
significant, non-significant changes were found for the test of relative
muscular endurance in the leg press.
Tremblay (1968) conducted a study on the effect of the upper body
specific circuit training on Grade V children. 57 healthy male and female
subjects from 2 Grade V classes made up to the study population. One class
control group 12 males and 13 females and another class of experimental
group 18 males and 11 females. Testing and intervention took place during
regularly scheduled Physical Education classes where occurred 3 time per
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week. They were given with 3.5 minutes of upper body circuit training in each
physical education class. This procedure was continued for seven weeks. The
result proved that there was a difference between control, experimental group
in strength, strength endurance, and power. There were no difference found
between groups or between sexes for any of anthropometric variables.
Naghibzadesh (1987) investigated a study to determine if circuit
training could be an effective method to improve aerobic capacity as well as
strength. 47 female volunteers were assigned to circuit training, jogging and
control groups. each subject was tested prior and at the end of eight weeks
training period on Vo2 max and IRM bench press and leg press. Based on
results of this investigation there was a 12% and 9.6% increase in Vo2 max
for the circuit training and jogging group respectively. The circuit-training
group improved 28.1% in leg press and 20.1% in bench press. There was no
significant increase for the jogging group in strength parameters however
there was a positive change in leg press. The control group did not change
significantly in any variable.
Scott (1982) conducted a study on comparison of a circuit strength
training programme and a sport activity programme as measured by
performance on the AAHPERD yough fitness test. 54 male subjects were
participated in the study (11-14 years of age) circuit training group
participated in a combination of weight training and sport activities. While
sports activity group participated in a straight sports activity programme. The
result proved the circuit training group improved in pull-ups, shuttle run,
standing broad jump and 50 yard dash the sports activity group improved in
sit-ups, shuttle run, standing broad jump and 50 yard dash.
Charles (1967) conducted a study on the effect of circuit training
exercises upon leg strength, free running speed and explosive power. He has
taken an experimental group of 20 fresh male volunteers who were selected
randomly from trampoline and handball classes. The experimental group went
for a 5 week, circuit training programme of 8 stations with four sessions per
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week. The groups were tested before and after the programme. The
experimental group made significantly greater improvement in leg strength
and explosive power but not in running speed.
Wooden (1981) conducted a study on the effect of a circuit training
programme on body composition, muscular endurance and muscular strength
in untrained females. Seventeen untrained females volunteered for either the
experimental group (N=13) and the control group (N=4). All subjects were pre
and post-tested. The experimental group participated in circuit training
programme. The result proved that there was no significant difference in total
body weight change between groups, but there was a significant difference in
change for body density, percentage of body fat, lean body weight, muscular
endurance and muscular strength between groups as a result of the circuit
training programme.
Tompkins (1994) studied the effect of circuit breaker programme on
middle school boys. According to him this programme is one of the best
programme to develop the power ability in school students. Results showed a
significant improvement on leg, shoulder and arm power of middle school
level boys.
Macbeth (1973) studied the effects of interval and continuous step
training on attitudes, cardiovascular fitness, and Tennis skills of beginning
Tennis students. This study was compared by ANOVA. Sixty five students
were placed into two experimental groups and one control group, with the
experimental groups receiving a 10 minutes training session twice a week for
10 weeks. Participation in the step training programmes did not affect the
student’s attitude towards Physical Education or Tennis skills. The
programme were successful in bringing about an increase in cardiovascular
fitness of students.
Ronnie (1971) compared the effects of different methods of training
and detraining of the strength and speed of college men. Male students
enrolled in 4 Tennis classes were tested on 4 items of Clarke-Schopf strength
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test. Students were randomly assigned to 3 groups, Group ‘A’ ran one mile
and Group ‘B’ ran 440 yards dashing, Group ‘C’ participated in Tennis. After 6
weeks training period students did not train for two and half weeks. No
significant differences were found for trunk extension, knee extension and
ankle plantar flexion. Significant differences were found in two items. Group C
significantly improved their shoulder extension.
Wilson (1993) study was performed to determine which of three
theoretically optimal resistance-training modalities in the greatest
enhancement in the performance of a series of dynamic athletic activities.
The three training modalities include : (1) traditional weight training, (2)
plyometirc training, (3) explosive weight training, at the load the maximised
mechanical power out put. 64 previously trained subjects were randomly
allocated to four groups that include the above 3 training modalities and a
control group. The experimental groups trained for 10 weeks performing
either heavy squat lifts, depth jumps or weighted squat jumps. All subjects
were tested prior to training, after 5 weeks of training and the competition of
the training period. The test items included (1) 30 mts spirnt (2) vertical jumps
performance with and with out counter movement (3) maximal cycle test (4)
iso-kinetic leg extension test, and (5) isometric test. The experimental group
which trained with the load maximised mechanical power achieved the best
overall results in enhancing dynamic athletic performance recording
statistically significant (P<0.05) improvements on most test items and
showing statistically superior results from the two other training modalities on
the jumping and the iso kinetic test.
Dutko (1993) conducted a study, the purpose of which was to
compare two progressive strength training protocols, a plyometric exercise
protocol and two flexibility protocols of the quadriceps and hamstring
muscular complex of high school weight training students. Sixty men of 16-18
years age volunteered for a 6 weeks, 3 days a week, quadriceps, hamstrings
muscular complex strength and flexibility study. All training protocols,
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significantly increased left quadriceps, and left hamstrings strength. However,
the flexibility protocol static stretching was more effective in producing
strength of the hamstrings.
Quarles (1968) conducted a study to compare the increase in leg
power of a rope-jumping group of subjects with a stair running group of
subjects. He selected college men for his study. All subjects trained thrice a
week for 6 weeks in their specific area. A Pre-test and post-test were
conducted before and after the training. Result found that the stair running
group showed a significant gain in leg power while the rope-jumping group
did not show any significant gain.
Santo and Del (1976) conducted a study to find the effect of physical
conditioning programme on selected physiological components of college
men. The subjects were 76 men from a junior college. They were divided into
four different groups who participated in a different physical conditioning
progammes. One was a control group, which has no formal physical
conditioned programme. the experimental groups improved significantly in
cardiovascular fitness in comparison to the control group.
Choleking (1963) studied the effect two training programmes on
selected physiological variables on college women. The physiological
reactions measured were the pules rate, respiration rate, respiration
amplitude, minute volume of respiration and oxygen consumption. The
cardiovascular reaction was measured by counting the pulse rate. All
variables improved during the four-week training period regardless of training
programme prescribed. Both training programmes were of sufficient duration
and intensity to effect changes in post exercise scores.
Namara (1978) investigated the effects of three conditioning
programme selected Physical and physiological parameters of college
students. Cardiovascular endurance was one of the physical parameters in
physical fitness training programme at Boaston Unviersity Army’s physical
training programme, weight training programme and calistthenics groups
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were given treatment for ten weeks, three days in a week for a total of 23
hours. Pre-test and post-test measures were collected separate group
sessions. It is of interest to note that female improved as much on all training
methods as did the marks for all variables, although there were no statistically
significant difference among the training methods.
Bangerter (1965) investigated to determine what relative contribution
each of the three components of the lower extremities made to the vertical
jump. A jump reach from of the vertical jump, with a reliability coefficient of
0.925 was of the three components of leg isolation and weekly workloads for
progressive resistance exercise programme were used to validate strength
gains.
Sayed (1973) studied on 9th grade boys (N=149) who were assigned to
four treatment groups (circuit training, weight training, swedish exercise, and
non-conditioning control). The conditioning programmes were administred
during the 1st 10 minutes of each of 20 physical education class periods (3
times a week over 7 weeks). Activity for the rest of each class period
consisted of volleyball, wrestling, and street hockey. ANOVA revealed within
group improvements and differences among the groups. There was no
difference in cumulative performance and no difference in cumulative
standard scores. The post “no conditioning” test revealed a decrease in pull-
ups performance.
McCann (1968) studied on 49 women physical education majors who
were enrolled in 2 track and field classes. These women participated in 2
separate conditioning programmes twice a week for 7 weeks in addition to
their regular class-work. The Harvard Step Test was given before and after
the 7 week experimental period. It was concluded that a traditional method of
conditioning produced a significant increase in endurance as measured by
the Harvard Step Test.
Harper Billinge and Mathew (1969) conducted a study of the Effect of
two physical conditioning programmes on cardio-respiratory fitness of 25
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college men. The subjects were placed into three groups on the basis of
maximum oxygen consumption, one group participated in a modified army
conditioning programme and second group in interval training involving
running. The third group (control) participated in recreational activities. The
group met five days per week for seven weeks. Cardio-respiratory efficiency
was measured with the help of the Harvard Step Test. The results showed
that both interval training and army trained groups improved significantly in
their cardio-respiratory efficiency. The control group did not improve
significantly.
Berger (1973) in his study has mentioned that a decision with regard
to the type of conditioning exercise to be included in a training programme is
based on the understanding of the primary physiological system and undergo
stress during a game, and the kind of activities which best provide this type of
stress during practice, the body adopts itself to the type of stress placed upon
it. This physiological adaptation is necessary for physical conditioning to
occur. The adaptation made by playing basketball is the best condition for the
sport. Likewise, the running of a cross country athlete results in physiological
adaptation which is the best way for improving condition in that sport. No
matter what the component of conditioning strength, endurance, flexibility or
power, specificity of training applies. The best training to improve best
performance is to practice the movements at the same rate and intensity as
during an actual game situation.
Stothart (1966) conducted a study on the specificity concept related to
muscular endurance. He tested the maximum isometirc strength at 130
degree and 160 degree angles of knee extension for 42 university men who
averaged 19 years in age, 69.9 inches in height and 159.4 lb. in weight.
Muscular endurance of right quadriceps was tested at each angle with load of
30 per cent and 45 per cent of the maximum strength, with one week between
the test. The correlation between isometric strength and muscular endurance
were low and negative. Component analysis and inter-correlation of muscular
29
endurance measures showed that although endurance component was
common to all measures specific to the angle of testing, yet endurance was
not specific to the load. Correlation between the knee angle lengths were
moderate, but using these in partial correlation left the original endurance
correlations relatively unaltered.
Arther Jones (1977) had stated, “Do not be misled...... and you might
be on the subject of specificity....either you have it, or you do not. A
movement is either utterly specific or it is not specific at all.”
“This being true, it obviously states that the only possible specific
training for basketball is the act of playing basketball... the only specific
training for swimming is swimming itself, and so on.”
He further advised that “to build your skills or even to retain your skills
you must practice an activity with total specificity” exactly in the same
manner, with the same tool.
Strength, in general, contributes to any activity, but the applied
demonstration of strength is specific, and learning to apply strength properly
in any activity, requires skill.
Moorehouse and Miller (1963) when defining anatomical fitness, went
to the extent of saying, “In order to be fit, the individual must possess all of
the body parts essential to the performance of the task and must possess the
appropriate body size and shape for the task...... slight individual difference in
point of attachment of tendons to bones and difference in lengths of bones
results in different machanical leverage advantages or disadvantages for
various events. Thus, one person is fit for weight lifting, another for sprint
running and yet another for jumping. If a person enters a competition for
which he is anatomically unfit, he does so, with a distinct disadvantage
compared to this opponent possessing anatomical features more fit to the
event.”
The further said that physiological fitness was specific to the activity.
Since different activities make different demands upon the organism with
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respect to neurological, respiratory, circulatory, metabolic, and temperature
regulating functions, the physiological systems of the body must be fit to
function well enough to support the activity that the individual was performing.
Wilmore (1984) while discussing modes of testing, said “there is an
increasing awareness of the importance of selecting the appropriate test
mode when testing athletes in various sports, i.e. a mode which must closely
approximate the actual sport activity.”
The concept of specificity can also be applied to the test protocol.
When subjects are trained by hill running, the increase in VO2 max is greater
than when using a trademill protocol which increase power by increase in
grade compared to a protocol which increase – power by increase in speed.
Thus due care should be taken to march the protocol for the testing mode or
device, as closely as possible, to the conditions under which the individual
trains.
Considine (1967) conducted a study on task specificity. He concluded
from his study that the data collected from groups of athletes and non-
athletes indicated that reflex time was significantly faster than reaction time of
non-athletes. A low positive but non-significant correlation between reflex time
and reaction time, suggested task specificity.
Fink (1960) conducted a study on the specificity of conditioning in
swimming and running. He tested fresh men swimmers and fresh men –
varsity runners during the first week of practice and retested them after six
weeks. After brief warming-up, the subjects ran at maximum speed for 30
seconds on one day and swam for 30 seconds the following day. The pulse
rate stem-down method was employed to determine how quickly the cardio-
vascular system recuperated. The experimental results supported the
principles of specificity of training that gain in general endurance and cardio-
vascular efficiency acquired in training for one sport made only a light
contribution to performance in the other sport.
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Bergeron (1967) studied the effects of state static training at various
positions and dynamic strength training through a full range motion on
strength, speed of movement, and power. The 96 male subjects were
randomly assigned to three experimental groups that trained either
isotonically with the supine press through a full range of motion or
isometrically at the extended position in the supine press and a control group.
All three experimental groups showed significant gains in static strength at
both positions of measurement, in speed of movement, and in the two tests of
power. The control groups did not make any significant gains. No difference
was found among the three experimental groups.
32
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