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Chapter TwoSyntactic Categories

Syntactic categories are of twotypes: Lexical categories (N, V, P,A, AdP) and fnctional categories

(!P, CP, "P)

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Lexical categories

• Noun Phrase (NP)

• Verb Phrase (VP)

• Preposition Phrase (PP)• Adjective Phrase (AP)

• Adverb Phrase (AdP)

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• Noun Phrase (NP)

•

NP is a#aila$le in all natral langagesinclding %nglish, e&g& 'ohn, (an, fa(ily, andfather)in)law & !t also incldes the prononshe, she, yo, the, etc& !t fnctions as a

s$*ect or o$*ect in the sentence& The nonphrase li+e these is called an argent- andis assigned eaning (theta role) and case(noinati#e, accsati#e, or geniti#e) as will

$e seen later& Technically, the nons of oneword strctre along with the copondnons are e.ally called non phrases&

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• Verb Phrase (VP)

• Ver$ phrases contain a lexical #er$, which is either

followed $y other categories or not& %xaples forillstration are:

• They tra#eled&

• They tra#eled to /ecca&

• 'ohn rewarded /ary a nice reward yesterday&• The nderlined #er$s in the sentences a$o#e are

#er$ phrases& Sch #er$ phrases can appear asstati#e, i&e& they are followed $y a copleent $t

with no o$*ect& Transiti#e #er$ phrases, i&e& thosewhich accept only one o$*ect ('ohn wrote thelesson), or ditransiti#e #er$ phrase ('ohn ga#e/ary a $oo+&)

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• Preposition Phrase (PP)

• !t is the phrase that coprises a

preposition and a non as itscopleent, e&g&

• ! et 'ohn at school&

•

Adjective Phrase (AP)• This phrase is coposed of an ad*ecti#e

which sally odi0es a non, e&g&

• 'ohn is cle#er&

• Adverb Phrase (AdP)

• !t odi0es the #er$ in the sentence, e&g&

• 'ohn cae .ic+ly&

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• Functional categories

•

Copleenti!er Phrase (CP)• "n#ection Phrase ("P)

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• Copleenti!er Phrase (CP)

• This phrase is a fnctional category and isheaded $y a copleentiser li+e1 therelati#e pronons& Consider:

• ! et the teacher who taght e %nglish

at the secondary school&• 2ho in (3), li+e the rest of relati#e

pronons, is conted as a copleenti4erand fnctions as a head of the

copleenti4er phrase& 5owe#er thewh&NPs li+e what, who etc locate at thespeci0er of the CP as will $e seen later&

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• "n#ection Phrase ("P)

• !t is of the following constitents: tense,

person, n$er, gender, aspect, case, andood The %nglish !P contains tense, e&g&present, past& The ste of the #er$ st $ein6ected with one of the& Person is the

next featre of the in6ection (s$*ect#er$agreeent s-)& N$er is a $asic featre ofthe in6ection phrase& 5owe#er, it is alongwith gender not a#aila$le o#ertly in the%nglish !P, whereas it is a#aila$le in Ara$ic,and other langages& Consider the followingexaple fro Ara$ic:

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• 7a& Tal8a$ al$int

•

9einineplay thegirl• The girl plays&

•

• $& ;al8a$ alwalad

• /asclineplay the$oy

• The $oy plays&

•

• c& Alawlad yal8a$n• The $oys play</P

• The $oys are playing-

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• Case is #isi$ly (o#ertly) seen in personalpronons, e&g& he, hi(, his, and the s- geniti#e

case in %nglish, e&g& 'ohn-s $oo+ , whilenoinati#e and accsati#e cases appearco#ertly (in#isi$ly) in %nglish& 5owe#er, thethree cases appear o#ertly in Standard Ara$ic&

•

According to the split$in#ection hypothesisthe !P is split into other phrases& Theses areli+e:

• Agreeent s$*ect Phrase (AgrsP)

• Tense Phrase (TP)• Aspect Phrase (AsP)

• /ood Phrase (/P)

• Agreeent o$*ect Phrase (AgroP)

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• %eads

• =ne of the ain properties of the phrases

a$o#e is that e#ery phrase has a head& the#er$ (V) is the head of VP& the in6ection (!)is the head of !P, the non (N) is the head ofNP, the ad*ecti#e (A) is the head of AP, the

ad#er$ (Ad) is the head of AdP, and thecopleenti4er (C) is the head of CP&

• &he head in the phrases above isresponsible o' projecting the other

constituents o' the phrase 'olloing ite*g* the graatical properties o' theVP are deterined by the verb*

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• Consider the following exaples:

• The $oy plays tennis&

• >the tennis plays&

• The sentence in ($) a$o#e is ill

fored $ecase the pro*ected wordsprecede the pro*ector (i&e& the #er$plays )& The echanis of pro*ection

is interpreted $y the 0st s$odleof ?@T called $ar theory&

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+$bar theory

• $ar theory (BPrinciples andParaeters theory) is considered asa $asic odle of ?@& !t is centrallyconcerned with "strctre

representations and the iposition ofcertain constraints on the& !t ayalso $e in#ol#ed at Sstrctre in

cases of ad*nction 5orroc+s(38D:3E3) aintains:

•

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• $ar theory pro#ides principles for thepro*ection of phrasal

• categories fro lexical categories andiposes conditions on

• the hierarchical organi4ations of categoriesin the for of general

• scheata

• Sch scheata can $e forlated accordingto Chos+y (388: ) as in (<) $elow:

• <) a& - B F>• $& - B -F>

• c& F B F>-

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The scheata in (<) can $e representeddiagraatically as in (G) $elow:

F

(spec) -

-

(ad*nct)

copleent

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• The axial pro*ection P (F), in (<), ispro*ected fro the 0rst le#el pro*ection H (

$ar) co$ining with an optional speci0er&Chos+y (38Ia)& The H is optionally pro*ectedfro another H in co$ination with ad*nct& His pro*ected fro (the head) and a

copleent&• 9rtherore, the order of the head and its

copleent and that of the H pro*ection and itsspeci0er are s$*ect to cross lingistic #ariation1

this #ariation is generally assed to followfro the #ales assigned to the head paraeterin (Ja) $elow and to the speci0er paraeter in(J$):

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• (Ja) The 5ead Paraeter

• (i)H B ;P7 (head 0nal)

• (ii) H B ;P7 (head initial)

• ($) The Speci0er Paraeter

•

(i)P B ;P H (Speci0er initial)• (ii) P B H ;P (Speci0er 0nal)

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• These principles show that a largerange of strctres of #arios langages

ay $e acconted for in astraightforward way& These coldinclde %nglish, Ara$ic, Tr+ish,

'apanese, etc&• 9rther, we ight sppose that an

ad*nct paraeter can ha#e two #ales:

•

• Ia& Ad*nct 0nal

• $& Ad*nct initial

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• The paraeters and #ales gi#ena$o#e de0ne logical space of eightpossi$le phrase strctres& 9orexaple, %nglish and Ara$ic arehead initial langages, while "tch

and 'apanese are head 0nal& (cf5oe+stra, 3883, and Soali, 3887)&%nglish and Ara$ic are also speci0er

initial langages while @lgarian is aspeci0er0nal langage& (cf Tra#is,388, and At+inson 3887)&

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• A frther o$ser#ation related to $ar theoryis that the #aria$le , according to Chos+y(38I$), and A$ney,(38D), aong othersranges o#er not only lexical categories e&g&N,V,A,P, etc, $t also co#er nonlexicalcategories naely !n6ection (!),Copleenti4er (C), deteriner (")& =therfnctional categories are added recentlywithin the Split!n6ection fraewor+&&&naely agreeent (Agr), tense (T), aspect(ASP), negation (N%?), .anti0er (K)& (cfPolloc+, 388 and =halla, 3883, Shlons+y,383, Chos+y, 3883, /aha*an, 3887, 'ohns,3887, and any others)&

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• 9rtherore, the $ar theorydescri$ed a$o#e allows a single headto ha#e ore than one copleent&

Therefore copleents areconsidered sisters of heads&

Consistent with this therepresentation of an with two orore copleents is allowed to $e

as in (D): -

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• The strctre in (D) represents whatso called the ltiple copleenthypothesis (/C5)& !n dealing withdo$le o$*ect constrction thishypothesis leads to the adoption of

the 6at strctre in (D) a$o#e (cfChos+y, 383: G, @arss andLasni+, 38I, @a+er, 38$, Napoli,

3887, aong others)&

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• After $rie0ng the $ar theory let-s nowidentify the syntactic pro*ections of the

head, starting with VP& The #er$ (V)pro*ects a #er$ $ar (V-) to $e a place forthe ad#er$ in the tree diagra as appears$elow& Then the V- pro*ects a VP as a

axial pro*ection& The axialpro*ection has a speci0er to the left& !n%nglish and Ara$ic& The speci0er positionis the place of the s$*ect at "strctre&

Then the (V) as a head has a copleentto the right& Consider the tree diagra$elow&

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VP

Speci0er V-

V Ad*nctCopleent

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"n#ection Phrase

• !n6ection Phrase is anotherfnctional category and is analy4edsyntactically in two ways:

&he non$in#ection hypothesishich deals ith "P as onephrase (,ne axial

projection)* &his type isrepresented diagraatically asbelo

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!P

Speci0er !-

! ad*nctcopleent

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• Note that the ad*nct position at !-can $e occpied in case of ha#ing an

ad#er$ $efore the #er$& Consider theexaple $elow:

• 5e directly responded to the

• 5ere the position of the ad#er$directly is n !- position to the left&

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!P

Speci0er !’

NP

heAd#& !

PP

directlyMesponded to the

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• The second hypothesis is called the splitin6ection hypothesis and di#ides thein6ection phrase into its inial partsconsidering each part as a phrase (aaxial pro*ection) sch parts as

entioned a$o#e are : Agreeent s$*ectPhrase (AgrSP), Tense Phrase (TP), AspectPhrase (AspP), Agreeent Phrase(Agr=P)& 9ollowing this classi0cation,

sentences ay $e diagraaticallyrepresented as follows:

• .OQRdoc

http://var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_5/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B7.doc




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•Copleenti!er Phrase

• Copleenti4er Phrase (CP) is

represented diagraatically asfollows

• .OQRdoc





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• The diagra a$o#e shows that the #er$ wasoriginally $ased at (V) position lower on the tree(at deepstrctre) then it o#es to (!) position to$e in6ected with tense, lea#ing a trace (t)& Thenthe non phrase in the speci0er of VP positiono#es to !P speci0er position then it terinates atthe speci0er of CP lea#ing traces on the !P and VP

speci0er positions& A point to notice is that theo#eent occrs fro head to head position andfro speci0er to speci0er position and e#eryo#ed eleent lea#es a trace&

•

Still, there is another type of o#eent thatdiers fro the inial o#eent a$o#e& This iscalled long distance o#eent& Consider theo#eent of the logical o$*ect (direct o$*ect inthe sentence $elow&

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• .OQRdoc

• 5ere the o$*ect lower in the tree o#es long

distance o#eent directly to the speci0erof CP (what) changing the declarati#esentence into a .estion&

• /o#eent is free e#erywhere in natral

langages nless the o#ed eleent eetsa $arrier or $onding node& The $arriers in%nglish are NP and !P and the condition foro#eent which is called subjacency

condition is stated as UNo constitent can $eo#ed ot of ore than one $ondingnode&F 9or con#enience, consider thefollowing exaple:





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• a) who did /ary ha#e the assption t that'ohn saw tWWWWWW

• CP !P NP CP !P

!t is assed that the whphrase 0rst o#es to theinterediate (spec, CP) position as shown in (a)a$o#e& 5owe#er, its s$se.ent o#e to theatrix (spec, CP) crossing NP and !P #iolates theprinciple of s$*acency a$o#e& =f corse, thecase of long distance o#eent entionedearlier o$eys the s$*acency condition& Nowconsider the graatical sentence in ($) $elow&

• who do yo asse t that 'ohn saw tWWWWW• CP !P CP !P

•

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• Noun Phrase

• The non phrase in %nglish along with the NPs

in all natral langages is called an argent asentioned earlier, $t if it occrs either in thespeci0er or the copleent position and has areferential fnction (i&e& eaning)& 5owe#er,

the expleti#es (it and there ) are not argents&• 3& !t is there&(argent)

• 7& !t sees that the $s is approaching& (nonargent)

• The non phrase has the sae strctredrepresentation as the pre#ios phrases&

• .-./012doc





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chapter-2

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