chapter 2 an integrative approach to...

Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited 33

CHAPTER2

ANINTEGRATIVEAPPROACHTOPSYCHOPATHOLOGY

STUDENTLEARNINGOUTCOMES*

TextbookPages

Bloom’sTaxonomy

Usetheconcepts,language,andmajortheoriesofthedisciplinetoaccountforpsychologicalphenomena.

Learningandcognition(APASLO1.2.a(1))

pp.55–60 HigherOrderLearning

Biologicalbasesofbehaviourandmentalprocesses,includingphysiology,sensation,perception,comparative,motivation,andemotion(APASLO1.2.a(3))

pp.35–55,60–63

Remember

Developmentalchangesinbehaviourandmentalprocessesacrossthelifespan(APASLO1.2.a(4))

pp.66–67 Remember

Theinteractionofheredityandenvironment(APASLO1.2.d(1))

pp.37–41 HigherOrderLearning

Usetheconcepts,language,andmajortheoriesofthedisciplinetoaccountforpsychologicalphenomena.

Integratetheoreticalperspectivestoproducecomprehensiveandmultifacetedexplanations(APASLO1.3.e)

pp.34–35,66–67

HigherOrderLearning

Explainmajorperspectivesofpsychology(e.g.,behavioural,biological,cognitive,evolutionary,humanistic,psychodynamic,andsociocultural).

Explainmajorperspectivesofpsychology(APASLO1.4)

pp.34,55,63

Remember

*PortionsofthischaptercoverlearningoutcomessuggestedbytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(2007)intheirguidelinesfortheundergraduatepsychologymajor.ChaptercoverageoftheseoutcomesisidentifiedabovebyAPAGoalandAPASuggestedLearningOutcome(SLO).

Copyright©2012byNelsonEducationLimited34

LECTUREOUTLINE

I. One‐DimensionalorMultidimensionalModels

A. One‐dimensionalmodelspositsinglecausesofpsychopathology

(e.g.,it’sallconditioning,it’sallbiology,it’sallsocialor

psychological).Notethattherearefewone‐dimensionalmodelsin

thesenseusedinthetextbook.Forinstance,evenbehaviouraltypes

rarely(ifever)ascribetoaone‐causemodelofconditioning;though

theywilltendtoconceptualizemostpsychopathologyasexplainedby

conditioningorlearningprocesses.Youcanusethistoillustratehow

one’sconceptualsystemwillgreatlyinfluencehowonegoesabout

explainingpsychopathology,andthatparticularlyconceptualsystems

(e.g.,behavioural,cognitive,biological,neurobiological)arequite

complexinthemselves.

B. Multi‐dimensionalmodelsaresystemicandofteninterdisciplinary,

andholdthatasystemofdifferentreciprocalinfluences(i.e.,

biological,cognitive,learning,emotional,social,cultural)interactin

complexwaystoyieldthemajoretiologicalandmaintaining

processesresponsibleforabnormalbehaviour.Assuch,any

biologicalorenvironmentalinfluencecanbecomepartofthissystem

andcannotbeconsideredinanisolatedcontext.Considerthecauses

ofJudy’sphobia,oranothercaseexampleofyourchoosing,inthe

contextofamulti‐dimensionalvs.unidimensionalframework.

II. GeneticContributionstoPsychopathology

A. GregorMendel'sworkinthe19thcenturyinitiallydemonstrated

thatourphysicalcharacteristicsarelargelydeterminedbygenetic

endowment.Examplesincludehairandeyecolor.Withrespectto

mentaldisorder,geneticinfluencesarepredominantinsomecases

(e.g.,Huntington'sdiseaseandPKU).


B. TheNatureofGenes

1. Genesarelongmoleculesofdeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)that

arelocatedatvariouschromosomalsiteswithinthecellnucleus.

Problemssometimesdevelopwhenthenormalcontingentof46

humanchromosomes(arrangedin23pairs)isdisturbed(an

exampleisDown'ssyndromeortrisomy21,whereaperson

inheritsanextrachromosomeonthe21stpair).

2. TheDNAmolecularstructureofgenesisreferredtoasadouble

helixorspiralladder.Thefirst22pairsofchromosomesprogram

developmentofbodyandbrainandthelastpair,calledthesex

chromosomes,determinessexphenotype.Adefectivegene

resultsifsomethingiswrongwithrespecttotheorderingofDNA

moleculesonthedoublehelix.Adominantgeneisoneofthepair

ofgenesthatdetermineaparticulartraitandtheeffectcanbe

quitenoticeable.Arecessivegene,bycontrast,mustbepaired

withanotherrecessivegenetodetermineatrait.

3. Genesseldomdetermineourphysicaldevelopmentinany

absolutewayandthesameistrueforpsychopathology.Muchof

humandevelopmentandbehaviourispolygenic(i.e.,influences

bymanygenesthatindividuallyexertatinyeffect).Becauseof

this,scientistslookforpatternsofinfluenceacrossgenesusinga

procedurecalledquantitativegenetics.

4.Moleculargeneticsfocusesonexaminingtheactualstructureof

geneswithincreasinglyadvancedtechnologiessuchasDNA

microarrays.Thesetechnologiesallowscientiststoanalyze

thousandsofgenesandidentifybroadnetworksthatmaybe

contributingtoaparticulartrait.

C. NewDevelopmentsintheStudyofGenesandBehaviour

1. Thebestestimateforgeneticcontributiontoenduringpersonality

traitsandcognitiveabilitiesinhumansisabout50%.Withrespect


topsychologicaldisorders,geneticinfluencesseemtoaccountfor

lessthanhalftheetiologicalexplanation;however,noindividual

geneshavebeenidentifiedrelatingtoanymajorpsychological

disorders.

2. Moreimportantquestionsnowarehowgeneticand

environmentalfactorsinteracttoinfluencethedevelopment,

maintenance,andtreatmentofpsychologicaldisorders.

3. Ithasalsobecomeclearthatadverselifeeventssuchasa“chaotic”

childhoodcanoverwhelmtheinfluenceofgenes.

D. TheInteractionofGeneticandEnvironmentalEffects

1. Anexampleofgene‐environmentinteractionwasproposedby

EricKandel,whostatedthattheprocessoflearningmaychange

thegeneticstructureofcells.Thismayoccurwhenenvironmental

processesturnondormantgenesandchangesinthebrain's

biochemicalfunctioning.Thisviewlendssupporttothenotion

thatwearelesshardwiredthanpreviouslythought.

2. Thediathesis‐stressmodel

a. Accordingtothismodelofgene‐environmentinteraction,

personsinheritfrommultiplegenestendenciestoexpress

certaintraitsorbehaviours(diathesis),whichmaythenbe

activatedundercertainenvironmentaleventssuchas

stress.Examplesincludeblood‐injury‐injectionphobiaand

alcoholism.Thediathesisorvulnerabilitydoesnot

necessarilyleadtoadisorderunlesssomespecificlife

eventoccurs.

b. Apersonwithalargediathesiswould,accordingtothis

model,requireasmalleramountofstressforadisorderto

developcomparedtosomeonewitharelativelysmaller

diathesistobeginwith.


3. Reciprocalgene‐environmentmodel

a. Thismodelstatesthatpersonsarebelievedtohavea

geneticallydeterminedtendencytocreatethevery

environmentalriskfactorsthattriggergenetic

vulnerabilities.

b. Suchamodelmaybeusedtoexplaindepression,divorce,

andpersonalitycharacteristicssuchasimpulsivity.

4. EpigeneticsandtheNon‐genomicinheritanceofbehaviour

a. Relatedtoresearchsuggestingthattherehasbeenan

overemphasisontheroleofgeneticinfluenceon

personality,temperament,andtheircontributiontothe

developmentofpsychologicaldisorders.Examplesinclude

researchongeneticallyidenticalmice(includingratsand

rhesusmonkeysusingcrossfosteringstrategies)rearedin

identicalenvironments,butperformandbehavequite

differentlyonseveralexperimentaltasksabovewhatgenes

wouldsuggest.

b. Themoralisthatitiseventoosimplistictosaythatthe

geneticcontributionstopersonalitytraitsor

psychopathologyis50%;onemustconsidertheheritable

contributioninthecontextofanindividual’spastand

presentenvironment.

c.Epigenetics:Itseemsthatgenesareturnedonandoffby

cellularmaterialthatislocatedjustoutsideofthegenome

(“epi”asintheepigeneticsmeanson‐or‐around)andthat

stress,nutritionandotherfactorscanaffectthisepigenome

whichisthenimmediatelypasseddowntothenext

generationandmaybeforseveralgenerations.


III. NeuroscienceanditsContributionstoPsychopathology

A. Thefieldofneurosciencefocusesonunderstandingtheroleofthe

nervoussystemindiseaseandbehaviour.Knowinghowthenervous

systemandparticularlythebrainworksiscentraltounderstanding

behaviour,emotion,andcognitiveprocesses.

B. Thecentralnervoussystem(CNS)

1. Consistsofthebrainandspinalcordandprocessesall

informationreceivedfromoursenseorgansandreactsas

necessary.

2. Neuronscontroleverythoughtandaction,thebraincontainsan

averageof140billionneurons.

a. Thetypicalneuroncontainsacentralcellbodywithtwo

differentkindsofbranches.Onesetofbranches,

dendrites,extendfromthecellbodytoreceivechemical

messagesfromothernervecellswhichareconvertedinto

electricalimpulses.Theotherbranch,theaxon,transmits

theseimpulsestootherneurons.Anyonenervecellis

linkedwithmultipleothers.

b. Neuronsthemselvesoperateelectrically,butcommunicate

withotherneuronschemically.Thesynapticcleftisa

smallspacethatexistsbetweentheaxonofoneneuronand

thedendritesofanother.Itisherewhereneurons

communicatewithoneanotherviareleaseof

neurotransmittersfromdendritesofotherneurons.

c. Neurotransmittersarethechemicalsreleasedfromone

nervecelltoanotheracrossthesynapticcleft.Aftera

neurotransmitterisreleaseditisquicklydrawnbackfrom

thesynapticcleftintothesameneuronviaaprocessknown

asreuptake.Majorneurotransmittersimplicatedin

psychopathologyincludenorepinephrine(or


noradrenaline),serotonin,dopamine,andgamma

aminobutyricacid(GABA).

d.Newneurotransmittersarefrequentlydiscoveredand

existingneurotransmitterssystemsmustbesubdivided

intoseparateclassifications.Currentestimatessuggestthat

morethan100differentneurotransmitterseachwith

multiplereceptorsarefunctioninginvariouspartsofthe

nervoussystem.

3. Thebrainisdividedintotwoparts.Thelowerbrainstemisthe

mostprimitivepartandisresponsibleformostoftheautomatic

functionsnecessaryforsurvival(e.g.,breathing,sleeping,moving).

Themoreadvancedbrainsystemsarelocatedintheforebrain.

a. Thehindbrainisthelowestpartofthebrainstem,and

containsthemedulla,pons,andcerebellum(motor

coordination).Thesestructurescontrolactivitiessuchas

breathing,heartbeat,anddigestion.

b. Themidbraincoordinatesmovementwithsensoryinput

andcontainspartsofthereticularactivatingsystem(RAS).

TheRAScontributestoarousal,tension,andwakingand

sleeping.

c. Attheverytopofthebrainstem(i.e.,abovethehindbrain)

liesthediencephalon,whichcontainsthethalamusand

hypothalamus;thesestructureshelptransmitinformation

totheforebrainandareintegraltobehaviourandemotion.

d. Attheverybaseoftheforebrain(justabovethethalamus

andhypothalamus)isthetelencephalon,containingthe

limbicsystem.Limbicmeans“border,”andthissystem

figuresprominentlyinmuchofpsychopathology.It

includesthefollowingstructures:hippocampus(sea

horse),cingulategyrus(girdle),septum(partition),and

amygdala(almond).Emotionalexpression,impulse


control,sex,aggression,hunger,andthirstarecontrolled

bythispartofthebrain.Anotherareaatthebaseofthe

forebrainisthebasalganglia,includingthecaudate

(tailed)nucleus.Motorbehaviouriscontrolledbythis

area,anddamagecancausetwitchingorshaking.

e. Thelargestpartoftheforebrainisthecerebralcortex

whichcontainsover80%oftheneuronsintheCNS.

Reasoningandcreativeskillsarederivedfromthisbrain

area.Thecerebralcortexisdividedintotwonear‐

symmetricalhemispheres:thelefthemisphereappearsto

beresponsibleforverbalandcognitiveprocesses,whereas

therighthemisphereappearsmoreresponsibleforspatial

abilities.

f. Eachhemisphereofthecerebralcortexconsistsoffour

separateareasoflobes.Thetemporallobeisassociated

withtherecognitionofsightsandsoundsandlong‐term

memorystorage.Theparietallobeisassociatedwith

touchrecognition.Theoccipitallobeintegratesvisual

input.Thefrontallobeismostinterestingfromthe

standpointofpsychopathologyandislargelyresponsible

forthinkingandreasoningabilities,memory;itenablesone

torelatetopeopleandeventsintheworldandtobehaveas

socialanimals.

C. Peripheralnervoussystem:Worksincoordinationwiththebrain

stemtoensureproperbodilyfunctioningandconsistsofthe(1)

somaticnervoussystem,whichcontrolsmusclesandmovement,

and(2)autonomicnervoussystem(ANS),whichisdividedintothe

sympatheticandparasympatheticnervoussystems.TheANS

regulatesthecardiovascularsystem,endocrinesystem(e.g.,pituitary,

adrenal,thyroid,andgonadalglands)andaidsindigestionand


regulationofbodytemperature.

1. ThesympatheticandparasympatheticbranchesoftheANS

operateinacomplementaryfashion.Thesympatheticnervous

systemmobilizesthebody(e.g.,increasesheartrate)during

periodsofstressordangerandispartoftheemergencyoralarm

response;theparasympatheticnervoussystemrenormalizes

arousalandfacilitatesdigestion.

2. Theendocrinesystemproducesitsownchemicalmessengers

(i.e.,hormones)andreleasesthemdirectlyintothebloodstream.

Adrenalglandsproduceepinephrine(alsocalledadrenaline)in

responsetostress,includingsalt‐regulatinghormones;the

thyroidproducesthyroxine,whichfacilitatesenergymetabolism

andgrowth;thepituitaryisthemasterglandthatproduces

severalregulatoryhormones;andthegonadsproducesex

hormones(e.g.,testosteroneandestrogen).Theendocrinesystem

iscloselyrelatedtotheimmunesystemandisimplicatedin

anxiety,stress‐related,andsexualdisorders.

3. Thehypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenalcorticalaxis(HYPACaxis)

illustratestheconnectionbetweenthenervousandendocrine

systemsandisimplicatedinseveralformsofpsychopathology.

D. Neurotransmitters

1. Drugtherapiesfunctionbyeitherincreasingordecreasingthe

flowofspecificneurotransmitters.Agonistsincreasetheactivity

ofaneurotransmitterbymimickingitseffects.Somedrugs,

knownasantagonists,functiontoinhibitorblocktheproduction

ofneurotransmitterorfunctionindirectlytopreventthechemical

fromreachingthenextneuronbyclosingoroccupyingthe

receptors;otherdrugsincreaseproductionofcompeting

biochemicalsthatdeactivatetheneurotransmitterorproduce


effectsoppositethoseproducedbytheneurotransmitter(inverse

agonists).Mostdrugsareeitheragonisticorantagonistic.

b. Typesofneurotransmittersinclude:

a. Serotonin(5HT)isconcentratedinthemidbrainand

connectedtothecortex,thusproducingwidespreadeffects

onbehaviour,mood,andthoughtprocesses.Extremelylow

levelsofserotoninareassociatedwithlessinhibition,

instability,impulsivity,andtendenciestooverreactto

situations(e.g.,aggression,suicide,impulsiveovereating,

excessivesexualbehaviour.Tricyclicantidepressants(e.g.,

imipramine),andnewclassesofserotoninspecific

reuptakeinhibitors(SSRIs;e.g.,Prozac)affectthe

serotonergicsystem(seealsoSt.John’s‐wort).

b. Twomajorneurotransmittersaffectmuchofwhatwedo.

Eachofthesesubstancesareintheaminoacidcategoryof

neurotransmitters.Glutamateisanexcitatorytransmitter

that“turnson”manydifferentneurons,leadingtoaction.A

secondtypeofaminoacidtransmitterisgamma‐

aminobutyricacid,orGABA.These“chemicalbrothers”

arefastacting,astheywouldhavetobeforthebrainto

keepupwiththemanyinfluencesfromtheenvironment

thatrequiresactionorrestraint.

c.Gammaaminobutyricacid(GABA)reducespostsynaptic

activitywhich,inturn,inhibitsseveralbehavioursand

emotions,particularlyanxiety.Benzodiazepines,ormild

tranquilizers,makeiteasierforGABAtoattachto

specializedreceptors.Effectisnotspecifictoanxiety.The

benzodiazepine‐GABAsystemreducesoverallarousaland

tempersanger,hostility,aggression,andpossiblyexcessive

anticipationandevenpositiveemotionalstates.


d. Norepinephrine(alsoknownasnoradrenaline)isalso

partoftheendocrinesystemandimportantin

psychopathology.Catecholaminesaresecretedbythe

adrenalglandsandnorepinephrinestimulatesatleast

alpha‐adrenergicandbeta‐adrenergicreceptors.Beta‐

blockersforhypertensionreducethesurgein

norepinephrineandkeepheartrateandbloodpressure

down.Youmayaskstudentstothinkaboutwhatmight

happentosomeonewhooverdoesitwhentheyaretaking

beta‐blockers.

e. Dopamine(alsoclassifiedasacatecholamine)hasbeen

implicatedinschizophreniaandmayactby"switchingon"

variousbraincircuitsthatinhibitorfacilitateemotionsor

behaviour.Reserpine(fromChapter1)blocksspecific

dopaminereceptors,thusloweringdopamineactivity.

Dopamineandserotonincircuitscrossatmanypointsand

seemtobalanceoneanother.AnagonistfordopamineisL‐

DOPA,whichhasbeenshowntobeeffectivefortreating

Parkinson'sdiseasebyincreasinglevelsofdopamine.

IllustratetostudentswhathappenswhenParkinson’s

patientsaregiventoomuchdopamine–theybegintoshow

signsandsymptomsofschizophrenia,whereaswhenthe

levelsofdopaminearelowertotheextremeschizophrenic

patientsshowbehavioursassociatedwithParkinson’s

disease.

E. ImplicationsforPsychopathology

1. Methodsforstudyingbrainimageshavebeenappliedto

psychopathology.Forexample,personswithobsessive‐

compulsivedisordershowincreasedactivityintheorbitalsurface

ofthecerebralcortex,thecingulategyrus,andtoalesserextent


thecaudatenucleus.Oneofthestrongestconcentrationsof

neurotransmittersintheseareasisserotonin,whichisrelatedto

overreactiveorcompulsivebehaviour.Damagetothisbrain

circuitisrelatedtoaninabilitytoignoreirrelevantcues,making

theorganismoverreactive.

2. Theworkofneuroscienceisonlybeginningandonecannotbe

certainabouttherelationbetweentheorbitalsurfaceandOCD.It

ispossiblethatoveractivityinthisregionofthebrainisa

consequence,notacause,ofOCD.

F. PsychosocialInfluencesonBrainStructureandFunction

1. Inadditiontopotentialbiologicalinterventions,psychological

treatmentsmaybepowerfulenoughtomodifybraincircuits;for

example,thetreatmentofOCDviaexposureandresponse

preventioncanresultinthenormalizationofbrainfunction.Also,

psychosocialfactorsmaydirectlyaffectlevelsof

neurotransmitters(animalstudiesindicatethatcertain

neurochemicalsubstanceshaveverydifferenteffectsdepending

onthepsychologicalhistoriesoftheanimals).Twoexamplesof

psychosocialinfluencesonbrainstructureandfunctioninclude:

psychosocialdwarfismandcancer.

2. Severalrecentexperimentsillustratetheinteractionof

psychosocialfactorsandbrainfunctionatthelevelof

neurotransmitteractivity.Experimentsonearlyeffectsof

controllabilityoverlifeeventsinRhesusmonkeyshaveshown

psychosocialfactorscanexertpowerfuleffectsontheactionof

neurotransmittersoversubsequentbehaviour.Learningand

experiencecanalsoaffectthestructureofneurons,includingthe

numberofreceptorsonacellandhowtheyrespondtosubsequent

experience.Oneexplanationisthatlearningandexperience


producesmoreplasticandrichneuralconnectionsinthebrain,

andthatsuchexperiencecandeterminevulnerabilityto

psychologicaldisorderslaterinlife

IV. BehaviouralandCognitiveScience

A. ConditioningandCognitiveProcesses

1. RobertRescorlaandothers'experimentsindicatethatbasic

classicalandoperantconditioningparadigmsfacilitatethe

learningoftherelationsamongeventsintheenvironment.This

learninginvolvescomplexcognitiveandemotionalprocessingin

humansandloweranimals.

2. MartinSeligmandescribedtheconceptoflearnedhelplessness,

orthelackofbehaviourshownbyanorganismwhenitencounters

conditionsoverwhichnocontrolispossible.Peoplemaymake

certainattributionsabouttheirenvironmentwhentheybelieve

theyhavelittlecontroloverstressintheirlives.Peoplemay

becomedepressediftheydecideorthinktheycandolittleabout

thestressintheirlives(i.e.,attributionofnocontrol),evenif

othersthinkthereissomethingthatcouldbedone.

3. AlbertBanduraobservedthatorganismscanlearnsimplyby

watchingothersintheirenvironment(modelingor

observationallearning).Thistypeoflearningrequiresa

symbolicintegrationoftheexperiencesofotherswithjudgments

ofwhatmighthappentotheobserver.Banduraalsospecifiedthe

importanceofsocialcontextinlearningandmaintainedthatmuch

ofwhatwelearndependsonourinteractionswithotherpeople

aroundus.

4. Preparedlearningreflectstherecognitionthatbiologyand

geneticsinfluencewhatwelearnandhowreadilywedoso.This

viewisbasedontheobservationthatwelearntoassociatefears

andphobiaswithcertaintypesofobjectsorsituationsthathave


someevolutionarybasisinpromotingsurvival(e.g.,snakesor

spiders.Overthecourseofevolutioncertainunconditionedand

conditionalstimulibecomemorereadilyassociatedfortheir

survivalvalueandthispreparednessispassedonviagenetics.

B. CognitiveScienceandtheUnconscious

1. Advancesincognitivesciencehaverevolutionizedourconceptions

oftheunconscious.Examplesincludetheconceptsofblindsight

(unconsciousvision),dissociationbetweenbehaviourand

unconsciousness(hypnotism),andimplicitmemory(i.e.,acting

onthebasisofthingsthathavehappenedinthepastbutbeing

unabletorememberthepastevents).

2. Onemethodforexploringtheunconscious(orblackbox)isthe

Stroopcolornamingparadigm,wheresubjectsareshowna

varietyofwordsprintedindifferentcolorinks.Delaysincolor

namingoccurwhenthemeaningofthewordattractsthesubject's

attentiondespiteeffortstoconcentrateonthecoloroftheword.

C. Cognitive‐behaviouraltherapy(CBT)referstotheintegrationof

cognitiveproceduresandbehaviouraltechniquesdirectlyinto

therapy.AmongtheoriginatorsofCBTwasAaronT.Beck,who

developedmethodsfordealingwithfaultyattributionsandattitudes

associatedwithlearnedhelplessnessanddepression.AlbertEllis’

rational‐emotive‐behaviourtherapyisanotherformofCBT.CBT

examineinsomedetailappropriateandunrealisticthoughtsand

thinkingprocessesviahavingthepatientmonitortheirthoughts.

Therapyisthendirectedatelucidatingthesethoughtsandworkingto

developadifferentsetofattitudesandattributions,aswellas

changingcertainbehaviours.


V. Emotions

A. Emotionmeanstoelicitorevokemotion(e–motion).Excessiveor

disruptiveemotionsareoftenintimatelytiedwithformsof

psychopathology.

B. ThePhysiologyandPurposeofFear

1. ThephysiologistWalterCannonspeculatedthatfearactivatesthe

cardiovascularsystem,bloodvesselsconstrict,arterialpressure

riseswhilebloodflowisdecreasedtotheextremities,breathing

becomesfaster,increasedamountsofsugararereleasedfromthe

liverintothebloodstream,hearingbecomesmoreacute,digestive

activityissuspended,shiveringandpiloerectionalsooccur.

2. Fearisthesubjectivefeelingofterror,astrongmotivationfor

behaviour(escapeorfighting),andacomplexphysiological

arousalresponse.Thisfightorflightreactionwasfundamentally

importantinthecourseofevolutionandisverymuchwithus

todayinnormalbehaviourandinseveralformsof

psychopathology.

C. EmotionalPhenomena

1. Definingemotionisdifficult,butmostagreethatitisanaction

tendencytobehaveinacertainwaythatiselicitedbyanexternal

event,afeelingstate,andoneaccompaniedbyapossibly

characteristicphysiologicalresponse.Emotionsfunctionto

ensurethatwepassourgenesontosubsequentgenerations.

2. Emotionsareusuallyshort‐lived,temporarystateslastingseveral

minutestoseveralhours.Moodisamorepersistentperiodof

affectoremotionality.Affectusuallyreferstothemomentary

emotionaltonethataccompanieswhatwesayordo,butcanalso

beusedgenericallytosummarizecommonalitiesamongemotional

statesthatarecharacteristicofanindividual.


3. Emotioniscomprisedofthreecomponentsthatareoften

consideredinisolationfromtheothers:behaviour,physiology,

andcognition.WalterCannonviewedemotionasprimarilya

brainfunction,whereasRichardS.Lazarusemphasizesthe

cognitiveaspectsofemotion.Manytheoristsbelievethatthe

cognitiveandemotionalsystemsinteractandoverlap,butare

fundamentallyseparate.

4. Sustainedangerandhostilityappearcloselyrelatedtothe

developmentofheartdisease.Thismayoccurbecausetheability

ofthehearttoefficientlypumpbloodthroughoutthebodydrops

significantlywhenoneisangry(placingthepersonatincreased

riskofdisturbancesinheartrhythm)butnotduringstressor

exercise.

5. Suppressingalmostanykindofemotionalresponse(e.g.,angeror

fear)increasessympatheticnervoussystemactivityandcaneven

helpproducetheunwantedemotionalstateandrelatedthoughts.

Emotionsaffectcognitiveprocesses,andmanybasicemotions

(e.g.,fear,anger,sadnessordistress,excitement)seemtoplaya

directroleinpsychologicaldisorders(e.g.,anxiety,depression,

mania)andmayevendefinethem.

VI. Cultural,Social,andInterpersonalFactors

A. Culturalfactorsinfluencetheformandcontentofpsychopathology

anddifferamongculturesandsocialgroupsthatmayco‐existinclose

proximity.Voodoo,theevileye,andotherfearsrepresentphenomena

thatarestronglytiedtochangesinthesocialenvironment.

B. Genderexertsastrongandpuzzlingeffectonpsychopathology.

Femalesareathigherriskfordevelopingparticularkindsofphobias

(e.g.,insect,smallanimalphobias)andeatingdisorders,whereas

socialphobiasaffectmenandwomenequally.Thedifferencemay


havetodowithculturalexpectationsofmenandwomenandgender

roles.

C. Thenumberandfrequencyofsocialrelationshipsandcontactsis

stronglyrelatedtomortality.Socialrelationshipsseemtoprotect

individualsagainsthighbloodpressure,depression,alcoholism,

arthritis,progressionofAIDS,lowbirthweightinnewborns,and

susceptibilitytocatchingacoldandinfection.Animalstudiesalso

indicatethat(1)socialinstabilitymayleadtosuppressedimmune

responses,and(2)biologicalfactorssuchasdrugscanproduce

differentpsychologicaleffectsdependingonsocialcontext.

D. Olderpersonswithfewmeaningfulcontactsandlittlesocialsupport

reporthighlevelsofdepressionandunsatisfactoryqualityoflife.If

theybecamephysicallyill,theyoftenreceivemoresubstantialfamily

support,whichservestore‐establishtheirsocialbondsandmakeslife

worthliving.

E. Psychologicaldisorderscarryasubstantialsocialstigmainour

society.

F. Interpersonalpsychotherapy(IPT),developedbyMyrnaWeissman

andherlatehusbandGeraldKlerman,emphasizestheresolutionof

interpersonalproblemsandstressors.Inthisapproach,lifestressors

thatprecipitateapsychologicaldisorderareidentifiedandthepatient

andtherapistworktogetheroncurrentinterpersonalproblemsthat

areeitherthesourceofthelifestressorareintimatelyconnectedwith

it(e.g.,interpersonalroledispute,deathoflovedone,acquiringnew

relationships,correctingdeficitsinsocialskills).IPTisbrief,typically

10to15sessions,andishighlyeffectiveforpersonswithproblems

suchasdepression.


G. Psychologicaldisordersareglobalphenomena.Approximately10–

20%ofallprimarymedicalservicesinpoorcountriesaresoughtby

patientswithpsychologicaldisorders;recordnumbersofmenare

committingsuicideinMicronesia;alcoholismlevelsamongadultsin

LatinAmericahaverisento20%.Treatmentsfordisordersthatare

successfulintheUnitedStatesoftencannotbeadministeredin

countrieswherementalhealthservicesarelimited(e.g.,China).

Socialandculturalfactorsmaintaindisordersasmostsocietiesdonot

havethemeansofalleviatingandpreventingthem.

VII. Life‐SpanDevelopment

A. Tocompletelyunderstandpsychopathology,onemustappreciatehow

disorderschangewithtime.Personsarenottheirdisordersandare

oftennotdisorderedatalltimesandparticularlyovertime.Justlikea

fever,cliniciansandresearchersrecognizethataparticularbehaviour

ordisordermayhavemultiplecauses.

B. Forexample,theprincipleofequifinalityisusedindevelopmental

psychopathologytoindicatethattheremaybeanumberofpathstoa

givenoutcome.Thesedifferentpathsmayresultfrompsychological

factorsthatinteractwithbiologicalcomponentsduringvariousstages

ofdevelopment.

KEYCONCEPTS:WHYISTHISCHAPTERIMPORTANTTOPSYCHOLOGISTS?

Thischapteroutlinestheprimarycomponentsofamultidimensionalmodelof

psychopathology.Themultidimensionalmodelconsidersgeneticcontributions,the

roleofthenervoussystem,behaviouralandcognitiveprocesses,emotional

influences,socialandinterpersonalinfluences,environmentalfactors,epigenetic,

developmentalfactorsinexplainingthecauses,andeventhefactorsthatmaintain,

psychologicaldisorders.Thischapterdescribestheseareasofinfluenceaswellas

theirinteractioninproducingmentaldisorder.


STUDENTMOTIVATION

Psychologyidentifiestwobasicformsofmotivation,intrinsicandextrinsic

motivation.

1. Theintrinsiclearnerdesireslearningnewconceptsandtheoriesforitsinherent

interests,forself‐fulfillmentandsatisfaction,enjoymentandtoachievea

masteryofthesubject.Studentswhotakeagenuineinterestinembracingtheir

learningareintrinsicallymotivated.

2. Theextrinsicmotivationismotivationtoperformandsucceedforthesakeof

accomplishingaspecificresultoroutcome.Studentswhoareverygrade‐

orientedareextrinsicallymotivated.

MotivationalSuggestions

Provideopportunitiesforstudentsuccess

Offerpositivefeedback

Assiststudentsindiscoveringpersonalmeaningandvalueintheirlife

Createapositivelearningenvironment

Becaringtostudentsasmembersofacommunity

Developasupportiveteachingstyle

Teachingstrategies

Engagestudentswithcurrentnewsevents

Connectchapterobjectivesandcontentthecommunity,culture,activitiesand

topicsrelevanttostudents’educational,personalandprofessionallife.

CreateaVenndiagramofintrinsicandextrinsicmotivation.

DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS

Discussionquestionshighlightthewaysthatthetopicisengagingforstudents.

Thefollowingquestionssupportchaptercontentandlearningoutcomes,generate

interest,andencouragestudentstopromptlyanswerquestions.Constructive


feedbackacknowledgesstudentsfortheirresponsestothesequestions.The

discussionquestioncanbeansweredindividually,asapairshare,smallgroupor

class.

1. Howdoesanindividual’sdevelopment,behaviour,personalityandIQmake

predictionscomplex?

2. Describethefourcomponentsofamultidimensionalintegrativeapproachto

psychopathology.Howdoeseachcomponentinfluenceeachother?Whichoneof

thesecomponentsismostinfluentialtopsychopathology?Explainyouranswer.

3. Explainthesimilaritiesanddifferencebetweenthe“OneDimensionalModel”

andthe“MultidimensionalModel”forpsychopathology.

4. Howdogenesandtheenvironmentintherolesofpsychopathologyand

behaviour?Howdotheyimpactandaffecteachother?

5. Adverselifeeventssuchasa“chaotic”childhoodcanoverwhelmtheinfluenceof

genes.Whatisthereasonforanindividual’schaoticchildhoodeffectongenes?

6. Whatroledoculture,gender,andsocialrelationshipsplayinthedevelopmentof

psychopathology?

BARRIERSTOLEARNING

1. Strategiesforstrugglingstudentsareteachingstudents“howtolearn”.This

includesidentifyingstrengthsandweaknesses,notetaking,mindmapping,

outliningmaterial,andread,reciteandreviewforexams.

2. Learningisasocialprocessandlearnerscandevelopgreaterknowledgeand

skillswhenworkinginpairsandgroups.Studentscanparticipateinpairshares

andgrouppresentations.

3. Howcantheteachingenvironmentaccommodateallofthestudent’slearning

needs?Difficulttopicsmayneedseveralactivitiesfordeeperunderstanding.

4. Identifydifficultcontenttopicsandapplythemtoreallifesituations,subjective

applications,outofclasswork,newspaperormagazinearticles,currenttopics,

newsevents,andworldandglobalissues.


Questions

Studentsreadaselectionofthecoursecontentandcomeupwiththeirown

questionsaboutthematerial.Thesequestionscanbeusedforaclassdiscussion.

Notes

Studentstakenotesfromalectureandunderlineandnumberthemost

importantpoints.Studentsoutlinethetextbookmaterialandunderlineand

numberthemostimportantpoints.

Brainstorming

Studentsbrainstormaboutwhattheyknowaboutthetopic

Afterreadingthetextbook,materialorlecturestudentscanbrainstormtheir

newknowledgeaboutthetopic.

FlashCards

Studentswritedowntheimportantpointsofeachchapteronindexcards.

Assessments

Assessingstudentknowledgeandlearningaboutthecoursecontentthrougha

quizorquestionnaire.

GraphicOrganizers

Agraphicorganizerislikeamapinaone‐pageformwithblankareasforthestudent

tofillinwithrelatedideasandinformation.Someorganizersarespecificandothers

aremoregeneralandcanbeusedwithmanytopics.Theinformationonagraphic

organizercanbeinadditiontonotetaking,flashcards,informationonaformor

writtenasalist.Examplesofgraphicorganizersincludecharts,maps,Venn

diagramsandflowcharts.


LearningStyles

Presentdifferentlearningstylesandmodalitiesforthevisual,auditoryand

kinesthetic/tactilelearners.

1. VisualLearner

Presentvisualstimulation,withfilms,experiments,newspaperarticles,note

taking,magazines,YouTube,PowerPointpresentations,observingstudents,

classroomdemonstrations,creatingposters,classpresentations,graphic

organizers,charts,illustrations,performingaskit.

2. AuditoryLearner

Listenandheartheinformationwithlectures,readingaloud,conversationalpair

shares,andsmallgroupandclassdiscussions.Studentsreadthecoursematerial

anddiscussitwithapartner.Studentscreatetheirownquestionsaboutthe

coursecontentandshareitwithapartnerorclassdiscussion.

3. Kinesthetic/TactileLearners

Wholebodyinvolvementisneededtoprocessinformationthroughgroup

activities,notetaking,createaVenndiagrams,createtheirowntexts

representationsasadrawingortextofthecoursecontent,outlining,creating

posterboardsofchartsandgraphs.

Identifyingcommonmisconceptionsordifficulttopicshelpsinstructorstoaddress

themexplicitly,inlectures,throughout‐of‐classwork,andwithin‐classactivities.

(Wherethetextbooktakesonthesemisconceptionsorhelpstoparseoutdifficult

concepts,therewillbereferencetoparticularpagesorfeaturesinthebook).

CLASSROOMACTIVITIES,DEMONSTRATIONSANDLECTURETOPICS

Exercise1:Naturevs.Nurture:CanandShouldWeGeneticallyEngineer

MentalHealth?

KeyTerms: NatureandNurture,Periodicals

Geneticistshaveshownthatcloningispossibleandmanyresearchersare

scramblingtobethefirsttocloneahumanbeing.Cloningitselfraisesahostof

ethical,legal,moral,andscientificquestions.Thefundamentalpremiseofcloning


humansisthepotentialtoreproduceapersonthatwouldbesomehowbetteroff–

smarter,stronger,moreattractive,andphysicallyandpsychologicallymorehealthy

–thantheuncloned.Anotherpremisebehindthismoveisthatgenes(i.e.,nature)

aremoreimportantthanexperience(i.e.,nurture).Yourtextbookauthors,

however,presentadifferentview.

Outlineevidencesupportingyourpositioninthecontextofthefollowing

scenario:Youarethedirectorofalargebehaviouralgeneticsresearchfacilitywith

afederalmandateandblankchecktoeradicatementalillnessinsocietyviagenetic

engineering.Howdoyourespond?Doyougoahead?Howsuccessfulwillyour

missionbe(assumingyoudecidetogothroughwithit)inlightofwhatyouhave

read?Whatistheevidencethatthisprogramwillachieveitsgoalsofgenetically

engineeringmentalhealthandshoulditbedone?Limityouranswerto3–5typed

double‐spacedpages.

Exercise2:WhatDoestheAmygdalaHavetodoWithEmotion?

KeyTerms:Amygdala(Brain),Periodicals

Theamygdalaisatinyalmondshapedbrainstructurethatcanpackawallopwhen

itcomestoemotionalexperienceandexpression.Describewhatisknownaboutits

natureandfunctionwithregardtoemotionalexperienceandexpressioninnormal

behaviourandpsychopathology.Limityouranswerto3–5typeddouble‐spaced

pages.

Exercise3:IsEcstasytheRave?

KeyTerms:EMdma(Drug),AdverseandSideEffects

Ecstasyisasyntheticdrugthatcanproduceprofoundeffectsofbehaviour,emotion,

andcognition.Describewhatisknownabouthowthisdrugoperatesatthe

neurotransmitterlevel.Inyouransweralsodescribetheshortandlongtermeffects

ofbehaviour,cognition,andemotion.Limityouranswerto3‐5typeddouble‐

spacedpages.


CLASSROOMACTIVITIES,DEMONSTRATIONS,ANDLECTURETOPICS

1. Activity:BrainAreas&TheirFunction.Toteachyourstudentsneuroanatomy

andthecontributionsofneurosciencetopsychopathology,preparetwosetsof

indexcards.Ononesetyoushouldwritethebrainstructuresdiscussedinthe

text.Thesecondsetofcardsshouldlistthefunctionsofthesestructures.For

example,yourcardswouldinclude:

STRUCTURE FUNCTION

Centralnervoussystem Consistsofthebrainandspinalcord

Medullaandpons Breathing,pumpingofheart,digestion

Cerebellum Motorcoordination

Midbrain Coordinatemovementwithsensory

input

Reticularactivatingsystem Processesofarousalandtension

Limbicsystem Emotionalexperiences/basicdrivesof

sex,aggression,hunger,andthirst

Caudatenucleus Controlsmotorbehaviour

Cerebralcortex Containsover80%ofneuronsinthe

centralnervoussystem

Lefthemisphere Verbalandothercognitiveprocesses

Righthemisphere Perceivingsurroundingeventsand

creatingimages

Temporallobe Recognizingvarioussightsandsounds

Parietallobe Recognizingvarioussensationsoftouch

Occipitallobe Integratesvariousvisualinput

Frontallobe Thinkingandreasoningabilities

Peripheralnervoussystem Coordinationwithbrainstemtoensure

bodyisworkingproperly

Somaticnervoussystem Controlsourmuscles

Autonomicnervoussystem Regulatesthecardiovascularsystemand


STRUCTURE FUNCTION

endocrinesystem

Endocrinesystem Releaseshormonesintothebloodstream

Sympatheticnervoussystem Mobilizesbodyduringtimesofstress

Parasympatheticnervoussystem Renormalizesbodyafterarousalstates

Pituitarygland Masterorcoordinatorofendocrine

system

Thegoalofthisquickactivityistohavestudentsmatchvariousstructuresof

thebrainwiththeirrespectivefunctions.Dividetheclassinhalfanddistribute

onesetofindexcardstoeachgroupofstudents.Eachstudentshouldreceive

onecard.Instructstudentstofindthematchfortheirstructure/function,and

tellthemtodotheactivitywithouttalking.

2. Activity:EliminatingTestAnxietythroughBehaviourTherapy.Eison(1987)

hasdevelopedawayforstudentstoeliminatetheirtestanxietywiththeuseof

popularbehaviouraltechniques.Toeliminatetestanxietythroughtheuseof

systematicdesensitization,allowstudentstofirstbecomefamiliarwith

relaxationtraining;then,whilerelaxed,askstudentstoimagineananxiety‐

provokingsituationinvolvingtests.Todemonstratetheeffectivenessofrational

emotivetherapy,askstudentstocomprisetwolists(rationalversusirrational)

regardingcommonbeliefsabouttests(thingstheysaytothemselvesduring

exams).Trytoencouragestudentstoexamineeachbeliefcritically;soonthey

shouldbeabletorealizewhymanyfearsregardingtestsareirrational.

SourceInformation.Eison,J.A.(1987)Usingsystematicdesensitizationand

rationalemotivetherapytotreattestanxiety.Activitieshandbookforthe

teachingofpsychology,vol.2.Washington,DC:AmericanPsychological

Association.


3. Activity:MentalIllnessinSocialContext:BeingSaneinInsanePlaces.In

1973sociologistDavidRosenhansoughttoexaminehowdifficultitwouldbefor

peopletoshedthe"mentallyill"label.Hewasparticularlyinterestedinhow

psychiatrichospitalstaffprocessinformationaboutpatients.Rosenhanand

sevenassociateshadthemselvescommittedtodifferentmentalhospitalsby

complainingthattheywerehearingvoices(asymptomcommonlybelievedtobe

characteristicofschizophrenia).Thestaffdidnotknowthe"pseudopatients"

wereactuallypartofanexperiment.Beyondtheallegedsymptomsand

falsificationofnamesandoccupations,theimportanteventsofthe

pseudopatients'lifehistorieswerefactuallypresentedtohospitalstaffasthey

hadoccurred.Thepseudopatientswereinstructedtoactcompletelynormal

uponadmissionintothehospital.Infact,Rosenhantoldthemthatactingnormal

wastheonlywaytheycouldgetout.Despitethefactthattheydidnothingoutof

theordinary,thepseudopatientsremainedhospitalizedforanaverageof19

days(range9to52days).Ironically,theirsanitywasnotdetectedbyhospital

staff,butitwasdetectedbytheactualpatientsinthehospitals.AllofRosenhan's

associatesretainedthedeviantlabelevenafterbeingdischarged.Their

schizophreniawassaidtobe"inremission,"implyingthatitwasdormantand

couldpossiblyresurface.Atnotimeduringtheirstayinthehospitalwasthe

legitimacyoftheirschizophreniclabelquestioned.Itwassimplyassumedthat

theywereschizophrenic,andeverythingthepseudopatientsdidandsaidwhile

inthementalinstitutionswasunderstoodfromthispremise.Normalbehaviours

wereoverlookedentirelyorwereprofoundlymisinterpreted.Minor

disagreementsbecamedeep‐seatedindicatorsofemotionalinstability.Boredom

wasinterpretedasnervousnessoranxiety.Eventheactofwritingonanotepad

wasseenbythestaffasasignofsomedeeperpsychologicaldisturbance.

Furthermore,eventhoughtherewasnothing"pathological"aboutthe

pseudopatients'pasthistories,theserecordswerereinterpretedtobeconsistent

withtheschizophreniclabel.Rosenhanconcludedthatthestaffweredoingtheir

jobsasdesignedandmadenoconsciousefforttomisconstruetheevidence.The

moralisthatpsychiatriclabelsaresopowerfulthattheycanprofoundlyaffect


thewayinformationisprocessedandperceived.Hadthesamebehavioursbeen

observedinadifferentcontext,theynodoubtwouldhavebeeninterpretedinan

entirelydifferentfashion.Youmayusethisstudyandotherslikeittodiscuss

theroleofcontextininfluencingourinterpretationsofabnormalbehaviour.

Alternatively,thisisagreatspringboardfordiscussionaboutthestigmaof

mentalillness,andeventhedangersofone‐dimensionalmodels.Youmayalso

askstudentsiftheycancomeupwithotherbehavioursthatwouldhavebeen

misinterpretedinthissituation.

SourceInformation.Rosenhan,D.(1973).Onbeingsaneininsaneplaces.

Science,179,250‐258.

4. Activity:TheUbiquityofEmotion&Conditioning.Conditioningisso

ubiquitousineverydayexperiencethatitisoftenhardtosee.Havestudents

comeupwithexamplesofclassicallyconditionedemotional/evaluative

responsesandusesuchexamplestoillustratethatmostconditioningisquite

adaptive.Ifstudentshavetroublecomingupwithexamples,youmaystartwith

conditionedtasteaversions,objectsoreventsthatstudentsfear,or

words/imagesthatelicitanemotionalresponse(e.g.,fear,anger,disgust;seeing

flashingbluelightsinyourrear‐viewmirrorandgettingcaughtforspeeding

whiledrivingonthehighway).Havestudentstalkaboutthedimensionsthatare

involvedintheconditionedresponsesinkeepingwiththetextdescriptionof

emotionasinvolvingcognition,behaviour,andphysiology.Asatrick,youmay

askstudentswhethertheyhaveeverfeltthatanexamtheyhadtakenwasunfair.

Don’taskforashowofhands.Moststudentswillraisetheirhands.Youcan

thenask,“Whydidyouallraiseyourhands?”Usethisexampletoillustratethe

roleofexperienceandsocializationinlearningandbehaviour(inthiscase,

automaticallyraisingone’shandinresponsetoaquestionintheclassroom

withoutbeingaskedtodoso).

5. Activity:SusanMineka’sWorkonVicariousLearningofFearinPrimates.

SusanMinekaandhercolleagueshaveperformedsomeinterestingexperiments


demonstratingvicariouslearningoffearinlab‐rearedmonkeys.Herworkto

daterepresentsthemostcompellingevidenceforobservationallearningoffear.

Manystudentsfindthedescriptionofherclassicstudiesinterestinginitself.

6. Activity:CreateTwoorThreeCharacterswithPsychopathologiesDividethe

classintogroups.Eachwillcreatecharacter,withadifferentpsychopathology.

EachgroupwilldrawthephysicalcharacteristicsofthispersonORadda

psychopathologyftothecharactersfromChapter1.Eachgroupwillanswerthe

followingquestions.Whatisthepsychopathologyofeachcharacter?Whatisthe

causeandsourceofthepathology?Whatspecificbehavioursdoeseach

character/individualdisplayasaresultofthespecificpsychopathology?Each

teamwillsharetheircharacterwiththeclass.

REFLECTIONSONTEACHING:HOWCANIASSESSMYOWNPERFORMANCE?

1. Didmyacademicperformancemeasurethequalityofstudentlearning?

2. Howdidmyinstructionalperformanceimproveinthisclass?Whatinstructional

strategiesweresuccessfulinthepresentationofobjectivesandchaptercontent,

studentparticipationandqualityfeedback?

3. Whatstrategicteachingmethodsandactivitiesenhancedstudentengagement?

4. Whichonesdidnotengagestudentlearningandparticipation?

5. Whatmethodsofconstructivefeedbacktomeasurestudentprogressand

evaluationweremostsuccessful?

6. Whathigherlevelsofthinkingactivitiesenhancedstudentlearning?Howdid

studentscriticallyanswerquestions?


7. Wasexpertiseandexperienceintegratedintothecourselecturesand

discussions?

8. Howdidconstructivefeedbacktoenhancestudentlearning?Whichhelped

studentperformancethemost?Least?

9. Whichgroup/classroomactivitiesworked?Whichonesdidnot?

10. Whichmethodsoffeedbackassistedthestudentslearningprocessandprogress?

SUPPLEMENTARYREADINGMATERIALFORCHAPTER2

Barber,C(2008).Thebrain:amindlessobsession:despitestunningadvances

inneuroscienceandboldclaimsofrevelationsfromnewbrain‐scantechnologies,

ourknowledgeaboutthebrain'sroleinhumanbehaviourisstillprimitive.The

WilsonQuarterly,Winter2008,v32i1,p.32(13).

Blows,W.T.(2000).Neurotransmittersofthebrain:Serotonin,

noradrenaline(norepinephrine),anddopamine.JournalofNeuroscienceNursing,

32,234‐238.

Carroll,V.S.(2008).Throughthelookingglass—ourpast,ourpresent,and,

perhaps,ourfuture.(Then&Now).JournalofNeuroscienceNursing,40,i1,p5(2).

Damasio,A.R.(1995).Descartes'error:Emotion,reason,andthehuman

brain.NewYork:AvonBooks.

Ellis,A.,&Harper,R.A.(1976).Aguidetorationalliving.NorthHollywood,

CA:WilshireBookCompany.

Gross,C.G.(1998).Brain,vision,memory:Talesinthehistoryof

neuroscience.Cambridge:MITPress.


Hundert,E.(1991).Asyntheticapproachtopsychiatry’snature‐nurture

debate.IntegrativePsychiatry,7,76‐83.

Kihlstrom,J.F.(1987).Thecognitiveunconscious.Science,237,1445‐1452.

Marshall,L.H.,&Magoun,H.W.(Eds)(1998).Discoveriesinthehuman

brain:Neuroscienceprehistory,brainstructure,andfunction.Totowa,NJ:Humana

Press.

Mineka,S.,Davidson,M.,Cook,M.,&Keir,R.(1984).Observational

conditioningofsnakefearinrhesusmonkeys.JournalofAbnormalPsychology,93,

355‐372.

Radford,B.(1999).Theten‐percentmyth(people'suseofonly10%oftheir

brains).SkepticalInquirer,23,1‐3.

Ramachandran,V.S.,&Blakeslee,S.(1998).Phantomsinthebrain:Probing

thehistoriesofthehumanmind.NewYork:WilliamMorrow&Company.

Sacks,O.(1985).Themanwhomistookhiswifeforahatandotherclinical

tales.NewYork:SummitBooks.

SUPPLEMENTARYVIDEORESOURCESFORCHAPTER2

CNNToday:AbnormalPsychology2000,vol.1.(Availablethroughyour

NelsonEducationLtd.representative).Thesegmenttitled“AnIntegrativeApproach

toPsychopathology:EmotionsandTheirInfluencesontheBody”focusesonthe

emotionofangerinmenandwhatcanbedonetoalleviateit.Abriefmentionisalso

madeofdepressionandhowitcanimpactoneshealth(e.g.highbloodpressure,

heartattacks).Presentsaviewthatemotionscanbedangerous.(2min,5sec)


DeficitsofMindandBrain.(McDonnellSummerInstituteofCognitive

Neuroscience,Eugene,Oregon;availablethroughyourNelsonEducationLtd.

representative).Partoneofthisvideotapeprovidesanoverviewofneuroimaging

techniquesandtheneuropsychologyofcognitiveimpairments(particularlyneglect

syndrome)thatresultfromstrokes;parttwoprovidesaneuropsychologicalviewof

schizophrenia.(60min)

DiscoveringPsychology:TheResponsiveBrain.(Annenburg/CPB

Collection).Examinestheinteractionofthebrain,behaviour,andtheenvironment.

Alsoshowshowbrainstructureandfunctionareinfluencedbybehaviouraland

environmentalfactors.(30min)

InsideInformation:TheBrainandHowitWorks.(FilmsfortheHumanities

andSciences:P.O.Box2053,Princeton,NJ08543‐2053/(800)‐257‐5126).This

videotapedescribeshowthemanyareasofthebrainfunctionandincludes

interviewswithresearchersinthefieldofneuroscience.(58min)

TheBrain,Mind,andBehavior.(PBSVideoCatalogue,1‐800‐344‐3337).This

seriesfocusesonthenatureandfunctionofthehumanbrain,consciousness,andthe

effectsofthebrainandhormonesonbehaviour.(8parts,60mineach)

TheEnchantedLoom:ProcessingSensoryInformation.(Filmsforthe

HumanitiesandSciences:P.O.Box2053,Princeton,NJ08543‐2053/(800)‐257‐

5126).Discusseshowthebrainiscapableofsortingthroughvastsensory

informationandinterpretingitonthebasisofpastexperienceandexpectations.

(60min)

TheHumanBrain.(InsightMedia:2162Broadway,NewYork,NY10024/

(800)‐233‐9910).Investigatorsdiscusshowthebrain’sabilitiescanbeenhanced

throughtheproperenvironmental.Alsopresentsthecaseofamanwhoimproves

hisconditionafteraseriousbraininjury.(25min)


TheMind.(PBSVideoCatalogue,1‐800‐344‐3337).ThisPBSseriesfocuses

onmentaldevelopmentinthecontextofnormalandabnormaldevelopment.

TheNervousSystem.(InsightMedia:2162Broadway,NewYork,NY10024/

(800)‐233‐9910).Exploresthefunctionofneuronsaswellasthecentral,peripheral

andautonomicnervoussystems.(25min)

INTERNETRESOURCESFORCHAPTER2

AlbertBandura

http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/bandura.html

Awebpagedevotedtothemanwhodiscoveredobservationallearningand

modelingtherapy.

BehaviourGenetics

http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/behavior.shtml

BiochemistryofNeurotransmitters

http://themedicalbiochemistrypage.org/

Thissitedescribesthenatureandfunctionofseveralneurotransmitters.

CognitiveScience

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive‐science/

ThisentryintheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophycontainsthehistory,methods

andtheoreticalconceptsusedbycognitivescience.

Etiologyissues

http://www.sparknotes.com/?psychology%20abnormal

Anoverviewofmanyapproachestopsychopathologydividedalongthelinesofthe

nature/nurturedebate.


HistoryofNeuroscience

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/hist.html

Thissitelistssomeofthemostimportanteventsthatoccurredinneuroscienceand

psychologyinchronologicalorder,datingbackto4000B.C.

MessengersoftheBrain

http://bipolar.about.com/cs/neurotrans/l/aa0007_msngrs.htm

Thisstudentresourcedescribeshowneurotransmittersworkwithillustrations.

NeuropsychologyCentral

http://www.neuropsychologycentral.com/

Thissiteoffersaprimerofneuropsychologyincludinglinkstoother

neuropsychologytopicsanddiscussiongroups.

NIMHNIH

http://www.nimh.nih.gov/

Thiswebsiteisamustforinformationrelatedtothebrain.

StroopTest

http://www.snre.umich.edu/eplab/demos/st0/stroopdesc.html

ThisisanonlineversionoftheStrooptestwherestudentscantestthemselves.

WhousesPsychologicalservicesinCanada?

http://www.crhspp.ca/Docs/huns.htm

ThisisanarticleaboutJohnHunsley’sresearchcollectedduringtheNational

PopulationHealthSurvey.

TheWholeBrainAtlas

http://www.med.harvard.edu/AANLIB/home.html

Thisisanexcellentsitereviewingthestructureandfunctionofthehumanbrain.


AnatomicFeaturesoftheHumanSpinalCord

AnatomicFeatures:Spinalnervesandinternalorganizationofthespinalcord

(greyandwhitematter)

Function:Relaysinformationtoandfromthebrain;responsibleforsimple

reflexivebehaviour.


AnatomicFeaturesoftheHumanskull

AnatomicFeatures:Afusedconnectionofbonyplatescoveringthebrain

Function:Protectionofthebrain


AnatomicFeaturesProtectiveMeningesoftheCNS

AnatomicFeatures:Duramater,arachnoidmembrane,andpiamater

Function:Protectivecoveringofthecentralnervoussystem(CNS),locationof

venousdrainage,andcerebrospinalfluidabsorption


AnatomicFeaturesoftheVentricularSystem

AnatomicFeatures:Lateral(1stand2nd),3rd,and4thventricles,choroidsplexus,

cerebralaqueduct,andarachnoidgranulations

Function:Balancingintracranialpressure,cerebrospinalfluidproduction,and

circulation


AnatomicFeaturesoftheBrain’sVascularSystem

AnatomicFeatures:Arteries,veins,circleofWillis

Function:Arteriesprovidenourishment,oxygen,andothernutrientstothebrain’

theveinscarryawaywasteproducts


AnatomicFeaturesoftheLowerBrainStem

AnatomicFeatures:Hindbraincontainsthemedullaoblongata(myelencephalon),

andpons(metencephalon);Midbraincontainsthetectumandtegmentum,cranial

nerves,reticularactivatingsystem

Function:Relaysinformationtoandfromthebrain;responsibleforsimple

reflexivebehaviour


AnatomicFeaturesoftheCranialNerves

AnatomicFeatures:Locatedwithinthebrainstem

Function:Conductingspecificmotorandsensoryinformation


AnatomicFeaturesoftheReticularFormation

AnatomicFeatures:Neuralnetworkwithinthelowerbrainstemconnectingthe

medullaandthemidbrain

Function:Non‐specificarousalandactivation,sleepandwakefulness


AnatomicFeaturesoftheHypothalamus

AnatomicFeatures:Hypothalamicnuclei,majorfibresystems,andthirdventricle

Function:Activates,controls,andintegratestheperipheralautonomic

mechanisms,endocrineactivity,andsomaticfunctions,includingbodytemperature,

foodintake,andthedevelopmentofsecondarysexualcharacteristics


AnatomicFeaturesoftheBasalGanglia

AnatomicFeatures:Structuresofthecaudatenucleus,putamen,globuspallidus,

substantianigra,andsubthalamicnuclei

Function:Importantrelaystationsinmotorbehaviour(suchasthestriato‐pallido‐

thalamicloop);connectionsfrompartoftheextrapyramidalmotorsystem

(includingcerebralcortex,basalnuclei,thalamus,andmidbrain)andcoordinate

stereotypedposturalandreflexivemotoractivity


AnatomicFeaturesoftheLimbicSystem

AnatomicFeatures:Structuresoftheamygdala,hippocampus,parahippocampal

gyrus,cingulategyrus,fornix,septum,andolfactorybulbs

Function:Closelyinvolvedintheexpressionofemotionalbehaviourandthe

integrationofolfactoryinformationwithvisceralandsomaticinformation


Anatomicfeaturesofthecerebralhemispheres

AnatomicFeatures:Structuresofthefrontal,parietal,occipital,andtemporal

lobes

Function:Highercognitivefunctioning,cerebralspecialization,andcortical

localization

chapter 2 an integrative approach to...

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