Chapter 2

Developmental Psychology

A description of the general approach to behavior by developmental psychologists

Concept of Behavior

There is no single, overarching, comprehensive developmental theory

Not at the level of scientific understanding discussed in Ch. 1

Various “minitheories” are used to account for specific developmental domains

e.g., social-emotional, perceptual, language Text books tend to adopt a cognitive approach

to development

Why Such Theoretical Diversity?

Subject matter varies widely e.g. genetics, biology, and environment

Structural approach to behavior is taken Behavior is largely classified according to its

form or structure Research methods and resulting data do not

represent basic scientific facts Correlational research

Form versus Function A structural approach (Form) helps organize

and communicate about subject matter

But... Overlooks function/ hinders functional analysis

of behavior Behaviors that differ in form may have similar

functions Example: “Attachment”

Most behaviors can be classified according to more than one form

Example: baby reaching for mom

Example: “Attachment”

Developmental Psychology Classifies types of attachment based on

topography of behavior infant leaves side of parent and explores

environment = secure attachment Infant clings to parent & shows signs of

distress when parent leaves = anxious attachment

Example: “Attachment”

The topography of the child's behavior is the indicator of development

Secure or anxious attachment are considered different behaviors requiring different explanations

From a functional perspective, the differing responses may serve the same function (i.e. reinforcement)

Exploring = reinforced by finding new toys Clinging = reinforced by being held/consoled

Example: Baby reaching for Mom when she is in close proximity

This response can be classified according to several categories or “minitheories”

Memory Perception Motor behavior Social behavior

Form versus Function

What is the best way to conceptualize behavior in terms of the goals of science (control, prediction, understanding)?

BOTH form and function are necessary for a comprehensive account of behavior

A concentration on function is important for answering how and why behavior occurs

Structural Approaches & Explanations of Behavior

Different forms of behavior are assumed to be qualitatively different and thus require different theories

This leads to the abundance of “minitheories” in developmental psychology

“Theoretical Eclecticism”

Structural Approaches & Explanations of Behavior

Circular reasoning (reification)

1) Class of behavior is given a name

2) Name is referred to as concrete object and becomes the object of study

3) Name of class becomes the explanation of observed behavior

Only evidence of the concept is the behavior to be explained

Example of Circular Reasoning

1) Infant displays certain behavior toward absent objects- behavior is called “object permanence”

2) “object permanence” is studied as a concept

3) When infant behave a certain way toward absent objects it is said to happen because they now possess “object permanence”

Problems with Circular Reasoning

Is not explanatory Do not address the actual determinants of

behavior May prohibit development of more scientific

explanations

Research & Theory in Developmental Psychology

Correlational Research Stage Theories

Correlational ResearchDrawbacks Nonexperimental observations generate

correlations between two variables Do not represent functional relations

Age & gender are commonly used as independent variables

Scientific definition of IV includes “those whose values are directly manipulated by the experimenter” (McCain & Segal, 1988)

Correlation does not mean causation Yet causal inferences are drawn from data

Correlational Research

Value/ Purpose Allows some prediction of behavior Can suggest something about IVs Demonstrates whether a behavior is present

or not at a particular age, but not how that behavior came to be

Age becomes cause of behavior

Correlational Research & Theory Construction

Changes in age and changes in behavior are frequently positively correlated

These correlations often lead to stage theories of development

Stage Theories

Discontinuous view of development Stages seem to represent fixed, biological

physiological changes Stages are independent of of behavior-

environment interaction

examples: Piaget, Freud, Greenspan, Maslow

Problems with Structural Approach to Behavior Change

1)Structures are not directly observable

e.g., Freud's id, ego, superego

2)Underlying behavioral processes are overlooked or made unclear

3)Description is confused with explanation

Transitional nature of behavior change is ignored

Problems with Structural Approach to Behavior Change

4) “Constitutional-maturational determinants” of behavior change are emphasized at

expense of environmental/physiological variables

5) Optimism about potential benefits of environmental manipulations is

reduced

6) Interpretations easily lead to reification (circular reasoning)

- determinants of behavior come from inside the child

- does not explain or help us understand behavior

Developmental Theory Assessed

Generality Absence of basic functional units of analysis No theory can encompass more than its own

limited domain, thus “minitheories” Testability (both empirical & logical support)

Theories that rely on hypothetical, cognitive structures cannot be tested

External Validity Precise predictions are almost impossible if a

theory is not based on classes of functional relations between observable events

Developmental Theory Assessed

Utility

* Many developmental theories do direct attention to “interesting phenomena”

Less successful at generating practical applications

Applications should be tempered if theories do not meet scientific credibility

Parsimony Assumptions are hypothetical

Developmental Theory Assessed

Verdict The general theoretical approach found in

developmental psychology does not meet criteria for scientific understanding

Does not explain behavioral development well