Chapter 2

Doing Sociological Research

Chapter Outline The Research Process The Tools of Sociological Research Prediction, Sampling and Statistical

Analysis Is Sociology Value-Free? Research Ethics

Doing Sociological Research

Sociological research is a tool sociologists use to answer questions.

The method of research used depends on the kind of question you ask.

Sociology and the Scientific Method Sociological research derives from the scientific

method. Sociological research does not necessarily

proceed in a sequence of rigid steps. Sociological studies may be based on surveys,

observations, and other forms of analysis, but they always depend on an empirical foundation.

Research Process Develop a research question. Create a research design. Gather data. Analyze data. Reach conclusions and report results.

Research Process

Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Qualitative Quantitative

Does not use statistical methods.

Uses statistical methods.

More interpretive, shows more nuance.

Provides data to calculate averages and

percents.

Analysis of Variables

Sociological research seeks to find out whether (X) affects (Z),which in turn affects (Y).

Human Development Index An indicator developed by the United

Nations used to show the differing levels of well-being in nations around the world.

The index is calculated using a number of measures, including: Life expectancy Educational attainment Standard of living

Human Development Index

Tools of Sociological Research Questionnaires, Interviews Participant Observation Controlled Experiments Content Analysis Historical Research Evaluation Research

The Survey: Polls, Questionnaires, and Interviews

A survey questionnaire will solicit data about the respondent additional questions on a particular research subject.

In closed-ended questions, people must reply from a list of possible answers, like a multiple-choice test.

For open-ended questions, the respondent is allowed to elaborate on her or his answer.

Polling Question If a university asks you to complete an

anonymous, written survey asking questions about your sexual attitudes, experiences, and behaviors, how likely is it you will agree to complete the survey?A.) Very likelyB.) Somewhat likelyC.) UnsureD.) Somewhat unlikelyE.) Very unlikely

Polling Question A university asks you to participate in an

interview asking questions about your cheating attitudes, experiences, and behaviors. The researchers assure your confidentiality. How likely is it you will agree to the interview?A.) Very likelyB.) Somewhat likelyC.) UnsureD.) Somewhat unlikelyE.) Very unlikely

Participant Observation(Field Research) A method by which the sociologist becomes

both participant and scientific observer of a group.

Usually, the group is aware the sociologist is studying them, but not always.

Combines subjective knowledge gained through personal involvement and objective knowledge acquired by disciplined recording of what one sees.

Controlled Experiments Highly focused ways of collecting data,

especially useful for determining a pattern of cause and effect.

Two groups are created: An experimental group is exposed to the

causal factor one is examining. The control group is not.

All other conditions are equal for both groups.

Content Analysis Using cultural artifacts to measure what

people write, say, see, and hear. Researchers analyze magazine stories

and ads, TV commercials, novels, movies, popular music, graffiti, and other cultural elements.

Involves primarily qualitative, but also quantitative, analysis.

Historical Research Examines sociological themes over time. Commonly done in historical archives,

such as official records, church records, town archives, private diaries, or oral histories.

Historical research is usually qualitative, but quantitative approaches are also used—for example analysis of trends.

Evaluation Research Research is often used to evaluate the

effectiveness of social policy. If the research is intended to produce

policy recommendations, it is called policy research.

The research can be either qualitative or quantitative.

Prediction and Probability Sociology analyzes, explains, and predicts

human social behavior in terms of trends and probabilities.

Example: If you are a Black male, 16 to 29, you are 6

times more likely to be arrested for a given offense than a White male of the same age, from the same neighborhood and the same socioeconomic background, for the same offense, and with the same prior arrest record.

Sampling Often the groups sociologists want to study are

so large or so dispersed that research on the whole group is impossible.

To construct a picture of the entire group, they take data from a subset of the. A sample is any subset of a population. A population is a relatively large collection of

people that a researcher studies and about which generalizations are made.

Statistics in Sociology Percentage is the same as parts per hundred.

If 22% of U.S. children are poor, for every 100 children randomly selected from the population, approximately 22 will be poor.

Rate is the same as parts per some number, such as per 10,000 or 100,000. The homicide rate in 2003 was 5.7 killed per

100,000. For every 100,000 in the population, 5.7 were

murdered.

Statistics in Sociology Mean is the same as an average.

Adding a list of fifteen numbers and dividing by fifteen gives the mean for the list.

Median is the midpoint in a series of values arranged in numerical order. In a list of fifteen numbers in numerical order,

the eighth number is the median. Mode is the value that appears most frequently

in a set of data.

Regional Attitudes Toward Abortion

Comparison of Research Techniques

Tool Qualitative or Quantitative

Survey Usually quantitative

Participant observation

Usually qualitative

Controlled experiment

Usually quantitative

Content analysis Can be either quantitative or qualitative.

Comparison of Research Techniques

Tool Qualitative or Quantitative

Historical research

Usually qualitative

Evaluation research

Can be either quantitative or qualitative.

Comparison of Research Techniques

Tool Pros Cons

SurveyLarge number of variables.

Difficult to focus on a few variables.

Participant observation

Studies behavior in

home setting.Time-consuming

Comparison of Research Techniques

Tool Pros Cons

Controlled experiment

Focus on 2 or 3 variables.

Hard to measure large number of

variables.

Content analysis

Unobtrusive

Limited by studying cultural artifacts rather than attitudes.

Comparison of Research Techniques

Tool Pros Cons

Historical research

Saves time and expense.

Can reflect biases and norms from when data was

collected.

Evaluation research

Accounts for differences over time.

Limited number of variables can be

measured.

Misuse of Statistics Citing a correlation as a cause. A correlation

reveals an association between things they do not necessarily indicate that one thing causes the other.

Overgeneralizing. Example: Studying only men, and then generalizing conclusions to both men and women.

Building in bias. Bias can be built into a questionnaire by little more than careless wording.

Misuse of Statistics Interpreting probability as certainty.

Example: Finding that women are more likely than men

to favor strict gun control only means that women have a higher probability of favoring strict gun control than men.

It does not mean that all women favor strict gun control and all men do not favor it.

Misuse of Statistics Faking data. A famous instance of this occurred

in a study of separated identical twins. The researcher wished to show that despite

separation, twins remained similar in certain traits.

It was later shown that the data were fabricated.

Using data selectively. Sometimes a survey includes many questions, but the researcher reports on only a few of the answers.

Is Sociology Value-Free? Researchers make choices throughout

research that can influence results. The person surveyed is often not told the

purpose of the survey or who is funding the study.

Controlled experiments depend on natural responses to staged situations.

Ethical Considerations in Research Whether one should collect data without

letting research subjects know they are being studied or observed.

Whether researchers have the right to hold their data in confidence from the courts or police without naming their research subjects.

Quick Quiz

1. The first step in sociological research is:

a. to develop a research question

b. to collect the data

c. to decide on a research design

d. to analyze the data

Answer: a The first step in sociological research is

to develop a research question.

2. According to the text, which of the following is not a step in the research process?

a. developing conclusions

b. analyzing the data

c. duplicating the research design

d. developing a research question

Answer: c According to the text, duplicating the

research design is not a step in the research process.

3. Which of the following types of research does participant observation represent?

a. secondary

b. closed-ended

c. quantitative

d. qualitative

Answer: d Participant observation represents

qualitative research.

4. In a controlled experiment, which of the following would not be exposed to the causal factor being examined?

a. the control group

b. the posttest group

c. the pretest group

d. the experimental group

Answer: a In a controlled experiment the control

group would not be exposed to the causal factor being examined.

5. Research that assesses the effect of policies and programs on people in society is called:

a. comparative research

b. evaluation research

c. programmatic research

d. content analysis

Answer: b Research that assesses the effect of

policies and programs on people in society is called evaluation research.