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2.1 INTRODUCTION

The first step towards determining how public relations education at technikons can be improved

in the context of globalisation, is to study the implications of contemporary globalisation for

higher education. What emerges from the literature consulted, is that a relationship of reciprocal

influence exists between globalisation and higher education. On the one hand higher education

is greatly influenced by the new emerging economy, restructuring of the state and other forces of

globalisation, and in many respects it mirrors these changes in society. Kishun (1998:58), for

example, mentions the domination of the >market ideology=, the process of massification, the

technological revolution and the emergence of a socially distributed knowledge production

system as forces of globalisation which have changed the higher education sector. On the other

hand, tertiary institutions play a part in the direction taken by globalisation. Apart from

participating in the education of the future workforce, it could be argued that their prominent role

in research and theorisation enables tertiary institutions to provide environmental output which

may influence society=s response to global forces. In this regard, Sadlak (1998:106) argues that

tertiary institutions have become central in modern society, with their role having shifted from

being a reflection of social, cultural and economic relationships, to being a determinant of such

relationships. For this reason, higher education is going to be involved in searching for

responses to the challenges of globalisation.

In this chapter an attempt is made to investigate the reciprocal relationship between globalisation

and higher education. This is done by reviewing the impact of global forces on the higher

education sector, and technikons in particular, as well as the potential contribution of tertiary

institutions in managing and responding to globalisation in a way that contributes to the common

good. This chapter also includes conceptualisation of globalisation, an overview of its

development and an outline of theoretical approaches to the phenomenon.

2.2 TOWARDS A DEFINITION: DISCOURSES OF GLOBALISATION

CHAPTER 2: GLOBALISATION: AN OVERVIEW OF THE IMPACT ON HIGHER EDUCATION

45

Globalisation is a complex phenomenon which can be approached from different angles, and

interpreted and defined in different ways. It is also a controversial phenomenon with many

supporters, as well as opponents.

Broadly speaking, globalisation can be defined as mainly an economic phenomenon or as a

broader process encompassing a wider range of societal forces such as politics, technology,

culture and education. The following discussion reflects aspects of globalisation which impact

on higher education, while specific consequences for this sector are covered later in this chapter.

2.2.1 Globalisation as an economic process

Globalisation is often seen as a process which has its origins in economics (Claassen, 1999:29).

To this end, Mersham and Skinner (20001b:17) state that by the end of the 1980s, globalisation

had become a common term for describing the accelerating interdependence of economies

around the world.

Some definitions of globalisation as an economic process include that of: Stetar (2000:28) - >the

increasing integration of world capital, knowledge and trade=; Abedian (1998a:20) - >world

economic integration=; and Mersham and Skinner (2001a:29) - >the progressive integration of the

world=s economies=.

The economic aspect of globalisation is characterised by dimensions such as the global financial

market, transformation of international trade, internationalisation of production, and

globalisation of science and technology (Castells, 2001a:3-10). Verwey (2001:81), for example,

describes globalisation as >the increasing convergence and interdependence of national

economies and of the scope and availability of markets, distribution systems, capital, labour and

technology=. And according to Daniels et al. (2000a:3), internationalisation in business is

measured in terms of trade, export, imports, cross-border investment flows, protectionism,

export/import diversification, and international alliances and partnerships with foreign firms.

Many scholars equate economic globalisation with the promotion of Western capitalism (e.g.

Thussu, 2000:76; Elliott, 2001:89; Dahl, 1998:2; Tehranian, 1999:24; Castells, 2001a:2).

According to Mowlana (1997:8) the world is experiencing a movement towards a market

46

economy and capitalism headed by the United States of America (USA) and the European Union

(EU). This process was accelerated by the disintegration of the Third World as a political force

and the collapse of the Soviet Union as a major competitive power in the international system. It

is also argued that much of globalisation is concentrated within the USA-EU-Japan triad,

prompting use of the term >triadisation= rather than globalisation of the world economy (Thussu,

2000:77).

The role of multinational companies is emphasised in various definitions and discussions of

economic globalisation (e.g. Castells, 2001a:8; Dahl, 1998:16; Tehranian, 1999:47; Thussu,

2000:77; McAuley, 2001:240; Everard, 2000:10). The perceived behaviour of multinationals

accounts for much of the current criticism of globalisation (as covered later in this chapter).

McAuley (2001:240), for example, defines globalisation in terms of a desire on the part of

multinational companies for economic gain. >Globalisation can be viewed as a relentless

transition of the economic and political landscape by self-seeking multinationals, who have scant

regard for their employees or the environment, together with the connivance of politicians.=

2.2.2 Globalisation and greater communication connectivity and information flow

A recurrent theme in definitions of globalisation is that of greater connectivity and a resulting

increase in the availability and flow of information, brought about by recent developments in

communication technology. Terms such as the following have been advanced to describe this

phenomenon: Information Age (Aldridge, 1997:8); Information Explosion (Frederick, 1993:8);

Information Superhighway (Neher, 1997:4); Internet Age (Thussu, 2000:224); Digital

Renaissance (Aldridge, 1997:8); Communication Revolution (Van Dijk, 1999:8); Age of

Communication (Verwey, 2001:75); Global Communication (Mowlana, 1997:239); Digital Age

(Mersham & Skinner, 2001b:136); and e-Sphere (Pelton, 2000:2).

Herbert (2001:(x),42), for example, refers to the increasing globalisation of news flow, citing

examples such as the spread of CNN International, which reaches over 200 countries, and the

BBC World Service for radio, to which 58 million people listen in Africa alone - 18 million in

English and 40 million in other languages. Others, such as Thussu (2000:224), Herbert

(2001:(viii)), Van Dijk (1999:9) and Pelton (2000:302), refer to greater connectivity and

47

information flow as a result of new communication technology such as fibre optics, satellites, the

Internet, mobile telephony and multimedia.

Mersham and Skinner (2001a:29) suggest that the Internet underpins globalisation, and is the

>defining phenomenon of the early 21st century, occupying the minds of governments, business

leaders and organised labour alike=.

According to Herbert (2001:48), globalisation means that information is freely and frequently

exchanged between different groups across national and cultural boundaries. This results in

borders being so blurred that they are becoming meaningless.

While several theorists view the Communication Revolution as a major cause of globalisation,

Van Dijk (1999:223) argues that the globalisation of the economy is not caused by

communication technology, but intensified by it.

2.2.3 Globalisation as more than an economic process

Probably the majority of scholars view globalisation as more than an economic process. Even

among those who study globalisation mainly as an economic process, there is often recognition

of the complex and multifaceted nature of the phenomenon. Castells (2001a:3) is a case in point.

He points out that globalisation is not only economic, but also refers to media, information

systems, international institutions and the networking of states. Abedian (1998a:6-7) echoes this

view by suggesting that globalisation describes the increasing inter-penetration between

individual life and the global future. He argues that globalisation should not be understood as

wholly an economic concept, or simply a development of the world system, or as purely the

development of large-scale global institutions. Morolo (2001) adds that although primarily

viewed as a complex and multifaceted economic process, globalisation also impacts at political,

social and cultural levels.

Definitions of globalisation covering more than economics include examples such as: >the

gradual (and often rapid) fading of boundaries - be they cultural, religious, economical, industrial

or technological= (Serfontein, 2001:78); >a result of the internationalisation of commodity flows,

48

migratory movements, pollution and information= (Dahl, 1998); and >the process by which

societies and economies become integrated= (Elliott, 2001:87).

2.2.4 Globalisation and the role of culture

Thussu (2000:77) suggests that, in addition to an economic perspective, globalisation can be

interpreted from a sociological perspective. Abedian (1998a:3) supports this view, and suggests

that globalisation is best understood in the context of the broader social-evolution manifested in

systemic globalisation.

According to Thussu (2000:77), the notion of culture is of primary importance in sociological

interpretations of globalisation. Into this category fall interpretations which equate globalisation

with Western cultural imperialism or Americanisation, resulting in the weakening of local

cultural ties. A more optimistic approach is provided by those who argue that global cultural

movement offers cultural enrichment to cultures which are receiving as well as migratory. Some

scholars dispute the view of cultural imperialism, arguing that the global flow of culture is not

necessarily a form of domination, nor is it one-way, but flows in multiple directions (Thussu,

2000: 78-79).

According to Thussu (2000:80), many globalisation theories tending towards economic,

technological and political determinism largely ignore the issue of culture. Interpretations

preoccupied with the production and consumption of material culture also ignore the role of

cultural diversity, aesthetics and spirituality. Interpretations predicting a borderless world with

the global market eroding cultural differences, also miss an understanding of the interaction of

class with nationalism, region, race, ethnicity and feminism to produce local political struggles

and the rise in ethnic and religious conflict worldwide.

2.2.5 Interconnection of globalisation and localisation

Various authors recognise the interplay between globalisation and local variables. According to

Hamelink (1995:122), the local and global are interconnected. This means that globalisation

impacts locally on people=s lives. Even if they lack electricity and live in rural areas, their lives

49

are often influenced by global events and decisions (Hamelink, 1995:123). Tehranian (1999:47)

supports this view, by suggesting that a dual process of globalisation of the local, and

localisation of the global, has made isolation and dissociation virtually impossible for any nation.

Localisation is seen as a bottom-up process, in contrast with globalisation as a top-down process

(Tehranian, 1999:47).

The term glocalisation has been advanced to describe the process in which the global and local

interpenetrate (Claassen, 1999:30). The term has its origins in the discipline of marketing, and

expresses the global production of the local, and the localisation of the global (Thussu, 2000:79).

Conradie (2001:71) suggests that globalisation impacts on local societies at two levels: directly

and indirectly. An example of a direct impact would be a change in the international exchange

rate of the local currency as a result of a global economic change. Indirect impacts are those

mediated by intervening local variables such as people=s cognitions, values, perceptions and

attitudes. Conradie (2001:72) concludes that socio-cultural variables such as these not only help

determine the perceived importance of global forces in a particular industry, but also contribute

to the local impact of, and responses to, globalisation.

2.2.6 Globalisation as a movement towards global consciousness and understanding

Protagonists of globalisation often see it as accompanied by a move towards a new global

consciousness (Thussu, 2000:77).

Hamelink (1995:3) defines global consciousness as an awareness that local events have global

consequences, an understanding of the political roots of global problems, a sensitivity to the need

for global solidarity, and an acceptance and mutual recognition of social and cultural differences.

Hamelink (1995:3-4) sees global consciousness as a condition which would foster global

understanding, which in turn would lead to true global integration. He defines global

understanding as acceptance and mutual recognition of socio-cultural differences and a

perception of the needs of the global community being more important than those of the local

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community.

As indicated further down in this chapter, many theorists recognise the potential of globalisation

and the Communication Revolution to move mankind towards a higher consciousness, resulting

in greater global unity, social justice, equity, etc.

Hamelink (1995:3-4), however, believes that the world is nowhere near a global consciousness.

He identifies the environment as a unique area where a level of global consciousness seems to be

emerging, and cites surges in ethnic politics, communalism and nationalism as signs of a lack of

global coexistence among races and cultures.

However, it could be argued that the world is in a transitory phase moving towards the more

idealised version of global understanding, as defined above. Again, further down in this chapter

an outline is given of new paradigms implying that the world is moving towards a holistic global

perspective away from separateness thinking. This goes with predictions such as: greater

acknowledgement of the interdependence of human society; more emphasis on global collective

thinking; an increase in multicultural and global alliances and international cooperation; and

greater tolerance and respect for human differences.

2.2.7 Globalisation as applied to higher education

Globalisation in higher education deals with more than the economy. Thus, when applied to

tertiary education, including technikons, globalisation should be defined in the broader sense of

the word, i.e. as more than an economic process, but including the latter. As this study deals

with technikon education, the rest of this chapter and thesis should be read with a broader

definition of globalisation in mind. A specific working definition for this study, deducted from

the literature set out in this chapter, is outlined towards the end of this chapter in Section 2.9.

2.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GLOBALISATION

According to Gelb (2001:60), the globalisation process began to be analysed in the late 1980s.

Although globalisation is generally regarded as a contemporary phenomenon (McAuley,

2001:240), its origins go much further back.

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Foreman-Peck (quoted by McAulay, 2001:241) traces globalisation back to: the expanding early

civilisations of the Greeks and Romans, as they developed their trading routes around the

Mediterranean; the spread of religions such as Buddhism, Christianity and Islam; and the

voyages of discovery of Western European countries to the New World. A sense of a wider

world community was prompted by the improvements in sailing and military technology, and the

spread of the printing process. Then came the industrial revolution which established a

relationship between manufacturing and raw material-supplying economies.

The development of globalisation can be seen from different perspectives. Those who see

globalisation as essentially an economic phenomenon, explain its history in terms of the

development of different trade and economic systems. Those who approach globalisation from a

broader point of view focus also on the evolution of socio-cultural life on earth. In both cases,

development is linked to advances in technology as far as travel and transportation, and

communication media are concerned. The following discussion focuses on general aspects of the

developmental history of globalisation, which laid the foundation for globalisation in higher

education. The development of globalisation specifically in the higher education sector is

covered in Section 2.4.

2.3.1 Globalisation as a stage in social evolution

A number of scholars, such as Abedian (1998b:95) and Van Dijk (1999:222), argue that

globalisation should be analysed and understood in the context of the social evolution of

mankind.

Abedian (1998a:4) sees globalisation as the latest phase in evolutionary phases which started

with hunting-gathering tribes. This was followed by development into agrarian-pastoral

communities, then continued from agriculture-based empires to the feudal and pre-industrial

societies of the Middle Ages, and eventually progressed to the industrial and post-industrial

societies of today.

2.3.2 Globalisation as a managerial paradigm evolving out of previous economic systems

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Jeannet (2000:10-22), who approaches globalisation from an economic viewpoint, sees this

phenomenon as the latest managerial paradigm, evolving out of previous international trading

systems. He identifies different phases in the development of the world economy, progressing

from a trading economy based upon exporting in the 19th century, towards an economy that made

it easy for companies to set up operations in many counties, for example:

* international trading economy. This economy developed for centuries in the era of trade,

starting as trade in agriculture and developing into trade in manufactured goods with

managers bridging business practice across two countries.

* international exporting and importing economy. Manufacturers started exporting

products into many different markets. An export company would develop a new product

for its domestic market, improve it and then start exporting as demands grew.

* multinational enterprise. After World War II, American, European and Japanese firms

started expanding by building factories and operations in foreign markets. Multinational

companies began to dominate the economy.

* globalised economy. This is the current and latest in the series of economic eras, and is

characterised by an economic space open to all, the rapid disappearance of some of the

barriers still present in the multinational economy and the growing homogeneity of

customers.

2.3.3 Factors contributing to the development of contemporary globalisation

In this section, an overview is provided of development in telecommunication technology and

other factors contributing to contemporary globalisation.

2.3.3.1 Development in telecommunication technology

The Communication Revolution is characterised by an increase in the volume and speed of

communication (Castells, 2001a:5; Thussu, 2000:224; Herbert, 2001:5; Van Dijk, 1999:17),

made possible by major innovations such as communication satellites, the Internet and mobile

telephony (Mersham & Skinner, 2001b:16; Thussu, 2000:224-228; Herbert, 2001:(viii)).

Mersham and Skinner (2001b:17) single out the satellite - born three decades ago - as the most

powerful development in global communication.

53

Other important capabilities of the new media include digitalisation of all forms of data - e.g.

text, voice, pictures, sound and video (Mersham & Skinner, 2001b:18) - and mediated interactive

communication (Van Dijk, 1999:9).

Convergence is also mentioned by various authors (e.g. Herbert, 2001:(viii); Verwey, 2001:77;

Mersham & Skinner, 2001b:221) as a major structural change in global communication brought

about by the new media. The former refers to the integration of telecommunication, data

communication and mass communication in a single medium (Van Dijk, 1999:9).

Other factors contributing to contemporary development in global communication include a

move towards worldwide standardisation in new communication technology (Thussu, 2000:229-

230), and a fairly uniform policy of deregulation and privatisation of broadcasting organisations

(Herbert, 2001:2). Mowlana (1997:13) also mentions the privatisation and commercialisation of

communication satellite systems in the mid-1990s.

In addition, Verwey (2001:76-77) mentions a reduction in the cost of communication, a rise in

communication bandwidth and vastly expanded connectivities, including access to remote areas,

as characteristics of modern communication technology.

2.3.3.1.1 History of the Internet

A discussion of the history of globalisation would be incomplete without reference to the

development of the Internet, generally regarded as the backbone of global communication.

The Internet is a global network allowing millions of computers and other electronic devices to

communicate with each other via telephone lines and satellites (Mersham & Skinner,

2001a:150).

The origins of the Internet lie in a communication network created in 1969 by the American

Department of Defense to provide an independent network for the military in case of a Soviet

nuclear attack. This network was called the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network

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(ARPANET) (Goldstuck, 1995:13).

By the end of 1971, ARPANET had grown to fifteen hosts, all of which were conducting

research funded by the American Department of Defence. The following year saw the first

public demonstration of ARPANET at an international conference on computer communication,

and also the first electronic mail message sent via ARPANET (Everard, 2000:14-15). By 1972

ARPANET had also grown from its initial four to 50 computers (Goldstuck, 1995:13-14). In

1979 ARPANET was opened to universities (Everard, 2000:17).

In 1983 ARPANET was split into a military and an academic network, with the latter giving rise

to the Internet. In 1990 ARPANET was dismantled, and its functions taken over by other

Internet providers (Everard, 2000:17-19). The explosion of the use of the Internet was facilitated

by the development of the World Wide Web (WWW) in 1989 (Thussu, 2000:25), and its

subsequent launch in 1992, by which time the Internet linked more than 17 000 networks across

33 countries (Everard, 2000:19). By 1994, commercial users for the first time outnumbered

academics on the Internet - by a two-to-one ratio (Everard, 2000:19). By 2000, the Internet had

become a global medium with more than a billion unique web pages (Thussu, 2000:225) and 378

million users worldwide (Mersham & Skinner, 2001b:120), reaching critical mass levels of

consumers in many developed countries (Dahl, 1998).

Further growth in Internet usage is predicted (e.g. by Thussu, 2000:235; Tehranian, 1999:51).

According to Castells (2001c:197), it is estimated that by 2004, 350 million users will have

access to a mobile Internet based on cell telephony. McAuley (2001:253) believes that the

Internet will grow faster than any other communication channel, and points out an expected

49,6% compound annual growth rate in business to business exchanges in the USA to the year

2004. Castells (2001b:157) foresees over two billion Internet users by 2007.

It is also predicted that the Internet will undergo a cultural transformation, and become more

diversified. While the Internet is primarily still an American and English speaking domain,

McAuly (2001:248) cites surveys indicating that users are three times more likely to buy

products in their own language. Two-thirds of users are also likely to click away from a site in a

language other than their own. It is estimated that by 2005, about 70% of Internet users will

55

speak a different language to English.

Change in the form of the Internet is also expected. Van Dijk (1999:223) predicts that the

Internet will undergo a >normalisation= in the first part of the 21st century, after its revolutionary

phase in the 1990s. According to Allen and Miller (2001:60), the Internet=s final form is yet to

be determined: >Whether the Web is more likely to be seen through the TV screen than the

computer monitor, and how information and entertainment provided through the Web are finally

to be paid for, are among the many issues that will not be settled for years to come.=

Pelton (2000:6) also predicts a massive increase in >teleworkers= and >electronic immigrants=.

These are workers living in one country and working in another. Pelton (2000:6) predicts that

the 25 million teleworkers of 2000 will grow to some 60 to 80 million by 2010. A 168-hour

work week and the coming of the ICEE Age are also predicted. The former describes the non-

stop relentlessness of work schedules in cyberspace, while the latter refers to a high-tech mega-

industry resulting out of a marriage of information, communications, entertainment and energy

industries (Pelton, 2000:6-7).

According to Pelton (2000:(xiii)), the global base of information is now expanding about 200 000

times faster than the global population.

2.3.3.1.2 Development of the Internet in the higher education and commercial sectors in

South Africa

South Africa joined the Information Highway in 1989, when a research network called Uninet-

ZA was set up by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) to link universities

and educational and research institutions in the country. Initially Uninet-ZA was connected to

the Internet through a satellite link-up, but in 1994 it gained its own fibre optic cable that

connected Rhodes University, Uninet=s link to the Internet, to a network in Washington DC.

Uninet provided limited bandwith, because of the high cost and the lack of resources to update its

56

technology (Moja & Cloete, 2001:253). Consequently, with the assistance of an American donor

consortium, an agreement was formed in 2000 with the South African Minister of

Communications and the telecommunications provider Telkom, to establish the Tertiary

Education Network (TENET) which will manage higher education=s future inter-networking

service contracts (Leat, quoted by Moja & Cloete, 2001:253). TENET is a registered non-profit

organisation, consisting of four members of the CTP and four members of the South African

Universities Vice-Chancellor=s Association (SAUVCA). It is anticipated that this new service

will provide tertiary institutions with more bandwith and a better service (TENET, 2002).

The first commercial link to the Internet was provided by the Internetworking Company of

Southern Africa (Tisca), which set up a hub connected by undersea cable to an American

network. Towards the end of 1993, Tisca gave ten South African commercial companies live

access to the Internet.

Public access to the Internet in South Africa was made available with the introduction in 1994 of

Netscape Navigator, a software programme for accessing the Internet (Goldstuck, 1995:16-19).

According to Mersham and Skinner (2001b:123), the Internet reached a critical mass of

consumers in South Africa at the end of 1998, following a period of rapid growth, which lasted a

little over a year. South Africa is the most digitally connected country in Africa (Mersham &

Skinner, 2001b:124). By the end of 2001 there were approximately 2,89 million South Africans

online, which meant that one in fifteen persons were connected (Nua Internet Surveys, 2003b).

2.3.3.2 Other contributing factors

Firstly, advances in transportation and travel (Jeannet, 2000:25) contribute to global integration

by permitting greater mobility of people and goods (Abedian, 1998a:8). The increasing global

flow of people contributes to global cultural diffusion (Thussu, 2000:78) and changing

demographics (Daniels et al., 2000a:6). There is also, in some instances, a trend towards global

customer homogeneity, meaning that customers are becoming more similar in taste and

requirements (Jeannet, 2000:27).

57

Liberalisation of trade is identified as another major contributing factor (Castells, 2001a:5;

Thussu, 2000:231; Daniels et al., 2000d:253). This involves the reduction of trade barriers, the

disappearance of communism and other political changes (Jeannet, 2000:23), and deregulation as

a result of World Trade Organisation (WTO) agreements (Thussu, 2000:231). Deregulation also

involves a move towards privatisation, the reduction of industry-specific regulation and the

standardisation of existing government regulations (Jeannet, 2000:24-25). Liberalisation and

deregulation of trade bring about increased internationalisation of economic and financial

systems (Daniels et al., 2000d:253), resulting in greater market competition. The

transnationalisation of goods and services (Abedian, 1998a:8) also brings about changes in

customer expectations (Daniels et al., 2000d:253).

New forms of international organisation, international agreements, and the operations of

international management and technological organisations, are seen as other factors contributing

to globalisation.

Toonen (1998:19-20) mentions the role of intergovernmental organisations (IGOs), international

non-governmental organisations (INGOs) and transnational pressure groups, as new forms of

international regimes. The 1992 Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, for example, brought together

over 120 governments and hundreds of national and transnational pressure groups. Likewise, the

2002 Johannesburg Summit on Sustainable Development was attended by, among others, 104

heads of state and 8000 NGOs (UN, 2002).

Daniels et al. (2000a:10) mention the following examples of international agreements

influencing global business: multilateral agreements concluded by large regional trading blocs

such as the EU, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Pacific Ocean

countries; the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) which freed up the international

movement of trade; and the International Patent and Trade Marks Convention which creates

ownership rights for enterprises that do business internationally.

Examples of significant international management organisations include: the UN; the United

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO); the International

Monetary Fund (IMF); the World Bank (Toonen, 1998:20); the Development Bank of Asia; and

58

the Inter-American Development Bank (Daniels et al., 2000a:10). Examples of international

organisations with a technological interest include: the Universal Postal Union; the

International Telecommunication Union; the World Meteorological Organisation (Toonen,

1998:20); and the International Air Transportation Association (IATA) (Daniels et al.,

2000a:10).

2.3.4 South Africa emerging as a global player

South Africa is no exception to increasing exposure as regards global forces. Firstly, the South

African state is heavily engaged in bilateral and multilateral interactions aimed at building its

international infrastructure (Gelb, 2001:74).

The country rapidly reintegrated into the world community after the 1994 election of a

democratic government. A development of great significance for the global reintegration was

the country=s readmittance to influential international organisations such as the UN, the then

OAU, the Commonwealth, the International Olympic Committee, the Federation of International

Football Associations, the Lome Convention, etc. (Kishun, 1998:59). South Africa also joined

NAM in 1994, and assumed chairpersonship in 1998. In 1999 the country signed the Trade,

Development and Cooperation Agreement (TDCA) with the EU, its main commercial partner. In

1999 the Group of Twenty (G20), of which South Africa is a member, was established to provide

a new mechanism for informal dialogue in the framework of the Bretton Woods system. The

Standard Basic Assistance Agreement was also signed between South Africa and the UNDP in

1994 (GCIS, 2001).

Also significant is South Africa=s role in regional bodies such as the Indian Ocean Rim

Association for Regional Cooperation (IORARC) and the Southern African Development

Community (SADC) (Kishun, 1998:59).

Today South Africa is a full participant in debates on global issues in international forums.

Examples of such issues include: UN reform; the global development debate; negotiations with

the EU; the future of NAM; biodiversity and climate changes; South Africa=s role in

peacekeeping operations and disarmament; and new structures at the WTO (GCIS, 2001). South

59

Africa was also instrumental in the recent transformation of the OAU into the African Union and

the formation of the New Partnership for Africa=s Development (NEPAD) (Department of

Foreign Affairs, 2002).

South Africa=s formal government relations at a global level are handled by the Department of

Foreign Affairs, which grew substantially after 1994. By 1999 diplomatic relations had been

established with 164 countries and more than 70 international agencies (GCIS, 1999:179). This

Department now maintains diplomatic relations with countries in the following regions: Africa,

Asia, Canada, Eastern and Western Europe, Latin America, the Caribbean, the Middle East and

the USA (GCIS, 2001). South Africa is officially represented at a number of international

organisations such as the UN, EU, Permanent Mission to the International Atomic Energy

Agency, World Bank, IMF, etc. (GCIS, 1999:212). There are also a large number of

representatives of international organisations stationed in South Africa. Examples include

UNESCO, the UN Information Office, the UN Food and Agricultural Organisation, the UNDP,

the International Labour Organisation, the Organisation for Migration and the Regional Tourism

Organisation of Southern Africa (GCIS, 1999:204-205).

The National Research Foundation (NRF) in South Africa also recognises the importance of

globalisation for the country, in having established globalisation as a research focus area, and

inviting researchers from all disciplines to analyse the process of globalisation from a

continental, regional and national perspective (Morolo, 2001).

Apart from globalisation in the government sector, South Africa is also characterised by a rising

degree of economic global integration (Abedian & Biggs, 1998:(xi)). According to Daniels et al.

(2000e:343), the opening of global markets to South Africa, together with new communication

technology, has resulted in major expansion of international trade and investment. More and

more companies, especially those which are research and development intensive, are forming

international strategic alliances in response to global demands. Strategic alliances, defined as

cooperative arrangements between two or more local and/or global firms, are becoming

increasingly popular, especially to build research and development partnerships and marketing

and/or distribution agreements (Daniels et al., 2000e:352-353). South Africa is also attracting

substantial foreign investment. Furthermore, tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors with

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foreign visitors increasing in numbers (Daniels et al., 2000f:358-359).

However, South Africa is still mostly an importing country, the number of importers being

almost double the number of exporters. In this regard Daniels et al. (2000a:14) suggest that an

export orientation should be encouraged to increase the country=s global competitive position.

2.3.5 South Africa=s role in global integration in Africa

South Africa is in a unique position on the African continent, having the infrastructure of a

developed country within a developing one. Its economy is also immense in comparison with

others on the continent (Stetar, 2000:30).

Since South African State President Thabo Mbeki=s launch of the African Renaissance project,

there has been much emphasis on the country=s role in cooperating with the rest of the continent

to achieve a common vision of renewal and development. The SADC is viewed as the region

with the greatest potential to initiate this Renaissance, having a relatively good infrastructure

(Daniels et al., 2000f:358). South Africa plays a vital role in development cooperation in the

SADC, sharing its transport network, manufacturing industry, labour market, scientific and

technical expertise, as well as capital resources, with member countries (Burger & Dikeni,

2001/02:276-278).

Soludo (2001:56) sees a potential for South Africa in assisting Africa in global integration, and

potential interrelationships between the South African economy and those of East and southern

Africa. This dynamic potential is created by South Africa being in a free trade agreement with

Europe, SADC, the new European Union-Africa Caribbean Pacific (EU-ACP) Agreement (Lome

V), and the US Africa Growth and Opportunity Act.

2.4 DEVELOPMENT OF GLOBALISATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION

In this section, a brief overview is provided of the development of globalisation, specifically in

the higher education sector.

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2.4.1 Global associations in higher education

Increased global contact in higher education is evident in the existence of organisations such as:

the Global Alliance for Transnational Education (GATE); the International Institute of

Education (IIE); the Alliance for International Educational and Cultural Exchange; the

Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU); the Society for Research into Higher

Education (SRHE), based in London but with members all over the globe; the Higher Education

Development International (HiED); the International Association of Student Affairs and

Services (IASAS); the World Association for Cooperative Education (WACE); and the

Association of African Universities (AAU) (AAU, 2002; ACU, 2002; AIECE, 2001; GATE,

2001; Goodman, 2001; Ludeman, 2001:1; Paolini, 2001:6; WACE, 2001; HiED, 1999).

2.4.2 Global connectedness emerging in higher education in South Africa

The International Education Association of South Africa (IEASA) was established in an attempt

to identify global trends and events that impact on the higher education sector, and to support

institutions at a national level in developing strategies to manage the internationalisation process.

IEASA held its inaugural conference in 1997 (Kishun, 1998:61).

There is a noticeable increase in the number of students from other countries wishing to study in

South Africa. South Africa has been ranked by UNESCO in the top 40 of the world=s host

countries as far as higher education is concerned. In 1992 only Egypt hosted more foreign

students in Africa (Kushin, 1998:65).

At the national level, the government ministries of Foreign Affairs, Education and Home Affairs

have a direct role in the development of a national policy framework related to globalisation.

The Department of Education has signed a large number of bilateral agreements, while the

Department of Home Affairs has been directly involved in the development of policies regarding

immigration and study permits for international visitors and students (Kishun, 1998:66). South

Africa=s Department of Education established the International Relations Directorate (Kishun,

1998:66), and the NRF has a section called International Science Liaison (Kriger, 2001).

62

In tertiary institutions there are also international structures in place. SAUVCA launched an

international relations committee in 1997, to advise members on the extent and importance of

international relations for local universities. The University and Technikon Public Relations

Officers (UNITECH) launched a similar international unit (Kishun, 1998:67). Other

international structures in place for technikons are outlined in Section 2.4.4.

2.4.3 South Africa=s role in globalisation of higher education in Africa

South Africa also has the potential to play a pivotal role in globalisation of higher education on

the African continent, by expanding access and extending basic services. According to Stetar

(2000:30), South African universities dominate on the continent as far as research output is

concerned. Furthermore, the country has a fairly well-developed tertiary education

infrastructure, with its 21 public universities, 15 technikons and numerous colleges (Kishun,

1998:60). There are also a large number of private colleges, some offering degrees in

collaboration with institutions abroad, as well as a number of private universities.

Most neighbouring countries have only one university each. As a result of the massification of

higher education in these countries, a large number of their school leavers will seek tertiary

education in South Africa which, in terms of the Education and Training Protocol agreement,

treats SADC students as >home students= (Kishun, 1998:62).

2.4.4 Global connectedness emerging in technikon education

The CTP recognises the need for technikons to play a greater role in global education. In view of

this, the former established an international unit, tasks of which include:

* representing technikons at international exhibitions

* representing technikons in government departments

* providing a central contact office for governments, international institutions,

organisations, agencies and students

* preparing international marketing material for the technikon sector

* identifying international scholarships, joint partnerships, funding opportunities and

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scholarships for technikons

* identifying and strengthening linkages with international higher educational institutions

* assisting with course selection, counselling and advice, application services, the student

visa application process and links to all technikons for international students and

exchange staff

The CTP also has affiliation with the following international organisations: the IIE, the

International Association of Universities (IAU), the American Council of Education (ACE) and

the University Mobility in the Indian Ocean Rim (UMOR) (CTP, 2001c).

The CTP has also been instrumental in a number of recent visits to technikons from international

delegations such as the American Association of Community Colleges (AACC), the UK

University Administrators and the People=s Republic of China. In addition, the CTP maintains

links with UNESCO (CTP, 1999:9-10).

Individual technikons have also signed partnership agreements with foreign tertiary institutions;

regularly send staff members abroad to study, do research or read papers at international

conferences; receive international visits from academics and students; send students abroad for

experiential training; and maintain international contact through membership of international

academic and professional bodies and by subscribing to international journals. Port Elizabeth

Technikon=s MBA Unit, for example, regularly receives visits from international business

experts to evaluate the Unit=s programme, to ensure that it maintains international validation

(Faculty of Management, 2000:5). A number of technikons are also investigating the possibility

of establishing international offices.

2.5 CONSEQUENCES OF GLOBALISATION AND ITS IMPACT ON HIGHER

EDUCATION

Given the inevitability of globalisation, as discussed earlier, it can be assumed that the

phenomenon impacts on many sectors of society. Abedian and Biggs (1998:(xi)) identify the

economic, social, cultural and political spheres as being affected. Jeannet (2000:30) adds to this

the public service sectors, citing areas such as health and pension funds as examples. Of

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particular relevance to this study, however, are the effects of globalisation on higher education.

A large number of authors refer to this sector as being affected in major ways. A number of

main consequences of globalisation, as identified by various authors, are discussed in the rest of

this section, while specific negative and positive effects of the phenomenon are identified further

down in Section 2.6.7. Each of the following consequences is first discussed in general, and then

applied to higher education.

2.5.1 Human-machine-units interacting in networks, resulting in changing thought

patterns

Various authors point out that mankind has entered what is termed the >global network society=

(Castells, 2001c:203; McAuley, 2001:86; Soludo, 2001:50; Tehranian, 1999:50; Van Dijk,

1999:220; Zimmerli, 1998:1). (This concept is defined in Section 2.6.3 as a theoretical

approach.) According to Zimmerli (1998:2), human beings are experiencing what German

historian Koselleck called a >saddle time=, i.e. a period of time, usually between 20 to 40 years, in

which the basic conception of the world and of reality as such is undergoing a paradigm shift.

What this shift entails is learning to live and think in networks. Zimmerli (1998:3,9) believes

that what brought about this change was the technological creation of virtual reality. The latter is

defined as the technological replacement of the real world by an artificial environment, and by

the possibility to enter this artificial environment and >live= in it as if it were the >real= reality.

Everard (2000:81) reinforces the view that modern networks are shaping the thought processes of

human beings, pointing out that new cultures of thought are emerging. Everard argues

(2000:160) that the Internet is a cultural artefact, and as such encodes a worldview or

philosophical outlook. New habits of thought emerge from the way in which the Internet

structures information. Verwey (2001:87) supports this view: >The emergence of new

technology does not simply augment existing modes of life, it changes our perceptions of reality

and allures basic symbols that express life=s deeper meaning.=

Hypertext also represents a shift in the author/reader hierarchy, such that readers will

increasingly set their own narrative sequence - a role formerly reserved for the author. In

addition, the reader becomes the focus for the production of meaning, thus the author/reader

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distinction will become increasingly blurred, as it has already done in contemporary literary

philosophy (Everard, 2000:161).

Zimmerli (1998:15) introduces the concept >human being-machine-system= to explain the new

reality created by virtuality and networks. He explains the notion of human being-machine-

systems as follows: >The more we are part of huge networks and the more we become de-centred

in this sense of the word, the less we are acting just as human beings.= Zimmerli argues that it

does not make sense to apply the old instrumentalist notion of >tools= to the Internet, as humans

have become both nodes in the net and users of nodes in the net. This implies that human being

beings always act in human being-machine units or subsystems. He extends this view further by

introducing the term >human-being-machine-system= stressing the interaction and interrelation of

humans and the different nets in which they participate (Zimmerli, 1998:15).

Haraway (1991:1) uses the term >cyborg= to refer to the same concept. A cyborg is a cybernetic

organism, a hybrid of machine and organism. In the context of modern communication

technology, cyborgs are entities made up of people and information technology machines. In

this sense, the machine loses its properties as an >it= that can be animated or dominated. The

machine becomes part of a person=s embodiment and processes (Haraway, 1991:149,180).

Verwey (2001:76) suggests that machines may ultimately replace humans to become human-

machine equivalents. >In future, talking head and agent technologies can evolve from tool to

apprentice, to assistant, to master, ultimately replacing human beings completely.=

A new society consisting of human-machine-units interacting in networks, has major

implications for higher education. While tertiary institutions need to prepare students to use

technology to function in networks, these institutions themselves need to learn to function in

such networks, to avoid isolation and to foster growth. In this regard, Hall (2001:228,231)

argues that the model of networks and a new economy (see Section 2.5.3) can be transferred

directly to higher education in the form of e-education and virtual universities. According to

Sadlak (1998:103), virtual reality makes the term >university without walls= a pragmatic reality,

making possible the building of connections and partnerships, and of borderless learning.

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With regard to preparation to use technology to function in networks, Pelton (2000:9,11-12) calls

for massive and timeous retraining of employees, especially senior and middle managers, whom

he believes know little about new communication technology and the cybernetic world. He

believes that in this new context there are more people to be educated in the next 35 years than

have been educated up to this point in history (Pelton, 2000:8). Castells (2001b:161) adds to this

view, by calling for emphasis on adult education and on-line vocational education, to incorporate

the whole population in the new technological system, and to avoid deepening the current age

divide in this area. He suggests distance learning based on the Internet or television, and

community technological education centres to upgrade technological literacy of the population in

the short term (Castells. 2001b:161). Everard (2000:161) calls for education that stresses

intertextuality over linearity, to teach individuals multimedia or semiotic literacy, as opposed to

mere text literacy.

The encouragement of new forms of learning is also called for in the context of technological

networks. Du Plooy (2001:91) argues that educators should concentrate on heuristic or

discovery approaches to learning. Such approaches involve the promotion of creative thinking,

developing analytical skills, knowledge-applied-in-practice skills and experiential enquiries.

Students should be encouraged to develop personalised abilities to problem-solving, which shifts

the focus from merely skilled workers to knowledge workers. The latter require skills in making

diagnoses, exploring and comparing options, applying divergent thinking, making decisions and

evaluating the effects of these decisions.

2.5.2 Cultural integration

It is argued that the increase in mobility and connectivity characterising globalisation results in

the spread of a global culture and fading boundaries. There are two viewpoints in this regard.

There are those (e.g. Claassen, 1999:30; Dahl, 1998; Thussu, 2000:197; Urry, 1998:7) who are

of the opinion that a multinational hybrid culture is being shaped, increasing cultural

homogeneity.

Tehranian (1999:50) emphasises the role of global media in the establishment of this

homogeneity. He argues that the infrastructure of a global consciousness is fast growing through

media events and a pop culture orchestrated by transnational media networks. What is

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developing is an intended or unintended global, postmodernist subculture (Tehranian, 1999:51).

Dahl (1998) agrees that the modern media content, characterised by a never ending stream of

popular and mass culture oriented programming, is responsible for shaping this hybrid culture,

adding that the latter has banned alternative views and discussions from the consciousness of the

mass audience. Thussu (2000:197) argues that the hybrid culture blurs the boundaries between

the modern and the traditional, high and low culture, and national and global culture.

The second viewpoint is that of multiculturalism, which is based on heterogeneity rather than

homogeneity. Chaney et al. (2000:9) define multiculturalism as knowledge of more than one

culture and the ability to move between cultures in a comfortable manner. Parhizgar (2000:2)

argues that increased connectivity brought about by the Internet and demographic movements

among nations has provided new opportunities to assimilate different cultures, races, genders,

age groups and religions, in a new form of international understanding, namely multiculturalism.

This cultural integration results in increased diversity and an opportunity for improved respect

and understanding of different cultures.

The global connectedness which already exists in higher education puts tertiary institutions in a

position to promote multiculturalism, and to assist in alleviating some of the problems associated

with the new hybrid global culture mentioned above. A number of authors call upon tertiary

institutions to internationalise education to promote global understanding. This implies

increased international content in education programmes, but also the promotion of international

exchanges.

Pelton (2000:146) calls for education which is engaged in global sharing. According to Humfrey

(1999:(i)), at the highest level, the benefits of international education could be global education

and harmony. Ludeman (2001:5) calls for the inclusion of international themes in curricula, as

well as foreign exchange programmes for students and staff. Kaunda (2001:2) suggests

internationalisation of the curriculum, and foreign language study, as ways to enhance global

education. Callan (1998:55) adds open and distance learning, international work placements,

international credit recognition and transfer, and the promotion of multilingualism as ways to

promote global sharing and multiculturalism.

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2.5.3 A new economy

Several authors refer to the emergence of what is termed the >New Economy= or >Knowledge

Economy= (e.g. Castells, 2001a:2; Van Dijk, 1999:129; Verwey, 2001:81; Mowlana, 1997:15;

Soludo, 2001:50).

According to Verwey (2001:81), the New Economy is triggered by the globalisation of business

on the one hand, and the networking of information technology on the other.

The New Economy can be variously described as a capitalist economy; a network economy; an

economy based on knowledge and information; or an economy based on new communication

technology (Castells, 2001a:2; Mowlana, 1997:15; Soludo, 2001:50; Van Dijk, 1999:43;

Pelton, 2000:115).

According to Castells (2001a:10), the New Economy is organised into networks throughout the

world. According to Soludo (2001:50), a networked society and state which are centred around

informational capitalism are replacing industrial capitalism and national policies. This gives rise

to flexible forms of organisation and management, characterised by rising productivity, growth

and global competition (Castells, 2001b:152). Added to this is a continued push for efficiency

and the extension of the global managerial philosophy to government and quasi-government

institutions (Jeannet, 2000:28-30).

Information has become one of the most important products in the modern economy (Van Dijk,

1999:129) . The New Economy is, in essence, a mind-based economy (Castells, 2001b:159).

Castells (2001b:159) argues that knowledge and information are the keys to productivity. He

regards modern-day development as the capacity to process knowledge-based information

efficiently, and apply it to production and to the enhancement of quality of life.

According to Mowlana (1997:15), the new knowledge-based economy gives rise to the following

effects: the increasing flow of information and information-based products and services among

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nations; the growing economic importance of information and related products and services

within and between nations; the increasing cultural and political significance of information and

related products and services; the emergence of new information-based products and services

that do not correspond to traditional categories; the increasing difficulty in enforcing intellectual

property rights at an international level; and the growing convergence of international

intellectual property issues with other international issues.

According to Castells (2001b:154), the New Economy is powered by new communication

technology, especially the Internet. Many of the networking operations of the New Economy

occur online. These on-line activities are referred to as e-commerce (Castells, 2001a:10).

Verwey (2001:82), however, reasons that e-commerce is not about technology, but the

application of technology that facilitates communication, supports business processes, and

optimises the marketing and branding capabilities of the Internet.

Mersham and Skinner (2001a:162) define e-commerce as an exchange of information or value

across a trusted electronic network for business-to-consumer and business-to-business purposes.

Castells (2001a:10) states that 80% of these transactions are business-to-business, and 20

business-to-consumer.

Pelton (2000:115, 118, 128) predicts phenomenal growth in e-commerce for the next decade or

two. He points out that Electronic Funds Transfer is 20 times the entire annual product of all the

countries in the world, and predicts that this will grow from the $80 trillion per month in 2000 to

$200 trillion per month in 2005. He also predicts that, by the year 2010, the global economy

may reach $100 trillion a year in turnover, with 25 or more of the activity being in the category

of international trade.

The emergence of the New Economy has serious implications for tertiary institutions. Several

authors call upon tertiary institutions to participate in the Knowledge Economy through the use

of technology and strategic alliances.

Gibbons (2001:2) argues that both the socially distributed knowledge production system and

dynamic competition associated with the new global context, influence and are operative in

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higher education in a manner that has many similarities with industry. Tertiary institutions are in

competition with one another for resources and students - nationally and internationally - and

have discovered that they can be players in the global search for solutions to complex problems

by becoming part of the distributed knowledge production system, which moves them closer to

the marketplace. These institutions need to introduce new information and communication

technology, and keep up with rapid changes in this field. Those institutions which do not, will

not survive in collaborative knowledge production groupings (Gibbons, 2001:6-7). Gibbons

(2001:8) calls upon tertiary institutions to move from institutions that are essentially closed, and

in which change is viewed primarily as a matter of the more efficient use of internal resources, to

ones which grasp the potential of expanding their resources through collaboration.

Thomas and Chevreau (1995:335) call on tertiary institutions to employ technology to cooperate

with one another, suggesting the use of telecommunication networks; adapted software; joint

access to databases; joint experiments and papers; joint development of CD-Roms; teleloading

of courses and seminars; and tele-assistance.

Ludeman (2001:3) suggests that partnerships in higher education should involve the government

and business community as well. Business partnerships will allow tertiary institutions to provide

an education that is in line with the global economy, while the business community will benefit

from graduates who are internationally competent. He furthermore suggests partnerships across

disciplines and divisions (Ludeman, 2001:3).

2.5.4 Changing role of the nation-state

Much of the literature on globalisation shows concern for the decrease in power of governments,

and the collapse of the nation-state. Factors such as the new media (Van Dijk, 1999:223) and the

New Economy (Abedian & Biggs, 1998:(xi)) are said to undermine the sovereignty of states.

According to Castells (2001c:194), national economies have been largely replaced by

globalisation, which has become the new framework for management, production and

consumption.

McAuley (2001:241) refers to the >erosion of power of national governments which have to share

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power with transnational corporations. The ability of a national government to control its

economy is being reduced either through participation in trading blocs or through the activities of

transnationals.=

Dahl (1998) argues that the classical congruence of nation, state and democracy is in a process of

dissolution. >The pressures of deregulation have forced states to give up protective barriers, and

sovereign powers, on a large scale to provide the underlying economy with sufficiently large

markets. More and more powers of the nation-states are transferred to intergovernmental

institutions.= Abedian and Biggs (1998:(xi)) agree that economic globalisation reduces the degree

of freedom that foreign states have, with fiscal policy formulation no longer as free as it used to

be.

The above view is, however, subject to debate. Some authors reject the view that the nation-state

is disappearing, while others acknowledge a loss of power, but foresee a change in the role and

function of government. Van Dijk (1999:223) suggests that a concentration of politics in a

surveillance-state, party-state or infocratic state is a possible outcome of globalisation, while

Everard (2000:(i)) argues that in today=s climate of change and uncertainty, people are turning to

nationalism, and engaging in regional conflict over identity. Claassen (1999:30), in turn,

observes that the nation-state has always co-existed with international markets. Everard

(2000:(i)) argues that, while the state=s role in the goods and services economy may be

diminishing, its role in the identity economy is stronger than ever. Carnoy (2001:30) makes the

point that the nation-state will disappear only if it fails to redefine itself to meet the conditions it

faces in a globalised environment, and to become efficient in new ways that are appropriate to

the New Economy.

Gelb (2001:74-75) believes that national states remain the main agents integrating national

economies into international markets, and that states that are strong will do well and become

stronger. Those which are weak may be unable to respond to global capital, weakening them

even more. The implication is that globalisation promotes growing inequality among states, just

as it promotes inequality among individuals within and across national borders.

According to Everard (2000:55), globalisation has lead to a shift in decision-making, both from

72

the nation-state to transnational actors, and from the public sector to the private sector. Thus,

any decline in the role of the state should be read more as a relative decline as other actors - such

as multinational corporations and NGOs - take up additional roles. What has emerged is a

symbiotic relationship between the state and the global system, an interdependence resulting in

cyborgisation (see Section 2.5.1). In this regard, governments will move towards managing

contractual arrangements with private suppliers of public goods, rather than supplying those

services themselves (Everard, 2000:10,44,81).

Everard (2000:81,95) sees the role of the state as continuing to protect the unwired from the

negative consequences of globalisation. Governments will also still have an important role to

play, through providing an environment for business, while looking after the interests of the

domestic polity.

Castells (2001c:194), who adopts the often-used slogan >think local, act global=, argues from the

perspective of interaction between the global and local. He sees an important role for the state in

the articulation of the local lives of people and the global economic system, through regional and

local development strategies. He assigns to the government the responsibility of establishing the

basic infrastructure for the country, to prevent it from marginalisation from the global economy

(Castells, 2001c:195).

A number of authors assign to tertiary institutions the responsibility of assisting in nation-

building and measures to prevent marginalisation of Third World communities from the global

economy. Sadlak (1998:236) suggests that the challenge of new education network possibilities

is to take advantage of the new possibilities of the Internet, while tackling the consequences of

marginalisation and underdevelopment. Tarusikirwa (2001:10) reinforces this view in calling for

an entrepreneurial approach by Third World tertiary institutions to seek donor support and joint

ventures. Tarusikirwa (2001:8) particularly stresses partnerships between tertiary institutions in

developing countries and those in developed countries, with the Third World institution

providing expertise in local culture, diversity and management styles, while the First World

partner provides technical knowledge, communication networks, and a resource and finance

base. Gibbons (2001:9) adds to this view by suggesting that collaboration can provide for an

avenue in which indigenous knowledge can be put to use. Moja and Cloete (2001:245) in this

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regard, call for the development of appropriate guidelines for public-private and Third-First

World partnerships.

Higher education which enhances local diversity and contributes to nation-building, while

simultaneously taking cognisance of global demands, is especially important in South Africa,

with its unique position of undergoing a complex local transition at a time when it is increasingly

faced with the forces of globalisation.

The country is dealing with reconciliation, addressing inequalities and poverty, and building

democracy, while under pressure to globalise (Netshitenzhe, 2001:78-79). Consequently, the

government is confronted by the question of how to combine formal democracy, an open,

growing economy and people-centred development. What complicates matters is that South

Africa is having to build a nation at a time when the nation-state has become less important in

the world. >The globalising forces minimise differences and national borders at a time when

South Africa is needing to build unity and recognise differences among its diverse population of

40 million people who speak eleven languages, who have been systematically organised along

racial lines, and who vary widely across divisions of culture, gender, social class and region=

(Walters et al., 1997:3-4).

These unique circumstances imply that tertiary programmes in South Africa should be structured

in a way that enhances local diversity, in addition to meeting the demands of globalisation.

2.6 THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF GLOBALISATION

Globalisation and its related concepts, such as global communication and the Information Age,

can be studied from a number of theoretical perspectives. An overview of perspectives advanced

in recent literature, and which could be applied to tertiary institutions, is given here. Aspects of

these perspectives will be elaborated on in Chapter 3, which outlines the theoretical perspective

chosen for this study.

2.6.1 Rejection of the Global Village metaphor

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Several authors liken the current global system to the Global Village metaphor launched by

Marshall McLuhan in the 1960s (e.g. Mowlana, 1997:17; Monye, 2000:3; Paolini, 2001:6;

Serfontein, 2001:84; Thussu, 2000:80; McAuley, 2001:77; Toonen, 1998:23; Daniels et al.,

2000b:31).

However, there are also those who question the notion of a Global Village, which proposes that

the world is shrinking. Hamelink (1995:121) calls the Global Village a fashionable image which

offers an inadequate description of the real world. He suggests that the world is actually

expanding. >There is more world than ever before in history: more people, more nations, more

conflicts. It is certainly true that advances in communication and transport technology have

made contacts among people and nations a reality. Yet it is also true that around the world most

people stay at home.= While acknowledging that people may have a window on the outside

world through the mass media and telecommunication, Hamelink (1995:2) argues that most

people live their lives within the boundaries of the >local village=. This view is echoed by Silver

(1999:80), who believes that the vision of an online Global Village runs counter to one of the

fastest growing areas of the Internet - community networks. The latter are local, place-specific

computer networks.

Frederick (1993:119-120), while acknowledging that McLuhan=s prediction was partially right,

points out that huge stretches of territory on earth are not connected to the Global Village. Nor

does the part that is connected, with its continuing battle of opposing belief systems, represent a

true neighbourhood. Nor did McLuhan make provision for the growth in influence of non-

Western cultures and the resulting multicultural impact on global communication. Fishwick

(1999:2), in turn, argues that the concept of Global Village ignores tribalism, regionalism,

nationalism, love of language and fear of change. >People are reluctant to give up their cultural

cocoons for a piece of the Electronic Revolution.=

Metaphorical alternatives to the Global Village are offered by a number of authors. Mersham

and Skinner (2001b:18) introduce the idea of >a vast, indistinguishable urban slum= which they

believe perhaps better describes the situation that has emerged from globalisation. According to

Tehranian (1999:59), McLuhan=s Global Village is >looking more and more like a neofeudal

manor with a highly fortified and opulent castle (centres of industrial, financial and media

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power) surrounded by a vast hinterland of working peasants clamouring for survival and

recognition=. Grunig (1999:14) suggests that, rather than a Global Village, the world has become

>a specialised, fragmented society accompanied by an increasingly specialised media system=.

There are also those theorists who believe that the Global Village has already come into being,

and that the current global communication system has moved beyond it. Van Dijk (1999:8-9)

suggests that a global system characterised by convergence and interactivity has replaced the

evolutionary phase of the Global Village. Pelton (2000:2) also believes that the Global Village is

being replaced by a new paradigm. This paradigm is discussed in the next section.

2.6.2 A new paradigm: the Worldwide Mind

According to Pelton (2000:2-3), the Global Village has given way to what he calls the

>Worldwide Mind= and the >ever-growing yet ever-shrinking e-Sphere=, brought about by

cyberspace and the exploding pattern of global change. He introduces the terms >jerk=, >chaos=,

>planetary consciousness=, >Telepower= and >Teleshock= to explain the world human beings are

living in at the beginning of the 21st century.

Jerk is a term derived from physics, to define an increasing rate of acceleration. Cyberspace

technologies are creating a jerk in society, the impact of which is bigger than that of the

agricultural and industrial revolutions combined (Pelton, 2000:9-10). According to Pelton

(2000:3), human history has moved from a linear and continuous development to a nonlinear and

discontinuous progression that suggests that human beings live in a state of chaos. >We have

jumped to warp speed and the social, economic and cultural problems that invariably result are

both challenging and frightening to contemplate. The gaps in human history that once spanned a

millennium may now occur in a generation or less.= This development sprang out of nowhere, as

a product of cyberspace thinking of the Worldwide Mind (Pelton, 2000:4).

The e-Sphere is reshaping mankind=s thinking, resulting in a planetary consciousness or

Worldwide Mind (Pelton, 2000:(xii), 5). >Now we are not a village that sees the same image, we

are a Worldwide Mind that can think and interact together.= This latter ability is what Pelton sees

as the great strength of Telepower. The negative side of Telepower - the >enormous social

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disruptions and problems it also creates= - is what he calls Teleshock. >Teleshock will ultimately

create a virtual sense of intellectual claustrophobia inside our very consciousness= (Pelton,

2000:4).

O=Hara-Devereaux and Johansen (1994:407,414) support the viewpoint that cyberspace is

reshaping mankind=s thinking and creating a new sense of community, stating that information

technology has become the circulatory and nervous systems of emerging new organisations.

They argue that the key forces that define the successful global enterprise are: dispersed,

collaborative, mutually supporting networks of individuals and teams; a deep commitment to

continual learning about technological and organisational innovation; and a broad and deepening

sensitivity to the fundamental role played by cultural values. In this new community, the idea of

management as control will disappear, and teams will become an essential unit of organising

(O=Hara-Devereaux and Johansen, 1994:403,406,413-414).

2.6.3 The network approach

Zimmerli (1998:15) believes that the perspective of thinking and living in networks is moving

the discourse of globalisation beyond post-modernism.

McAuley (2001:80) reinforces this view by identifying the network perspective as the most

recent and increasingly most popular school of thought in internationalisation. Van Dijk

(1999:2), in turn, suggests that the 21st century should be called the Age of Networks, pointing

out that networks will be the nervous system of future society. The Network Society replaces the

>mass society= which is a term for the type of society that developed during the Industrial

Revolution, when large concentrations of people came together in industrial towns and trading

centres (Van Dijk, 1999:23).

Van Dijk (1999:220) defines the Network Society as a form of society increasingly organising its

relationships in media networks, which are gradually replacing or complementing the social

networks of face-to-face communication. This means that social and media networks are shaping

the prime mode of organisation and the most important structures of society.

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According to McAuley (2001:86), networks are often characterised by sets of exchange

relationships between individuals or organisations. Within the relationship, the exchange

components can be a product or service, information, and financial or social elements.

Van Dijk (1999:220) identifies a network structure existing in the economy, in politics and in

society at large. A network structure not only pervades these spheres, but increasingly connects

them all. Finally, a network structure connects all levels of society, usually called micro-, meso-

and macro-levels, or the private and public spheres.

Different types of global networks are suggested by a number of authors. Tehranian (1999:50)

identifies two types of networks, which interact to form a global network - hard and soft. The

former consists of transportation, telecommunication and tourism, whereas the latter - which

provides the programmes that negotiate and integrate the competing interests and values of the

global players - include global broadcasting, advertising, education and exchanges of

information.

McAuley (2001:86) suggests the following three types of networks:

* those based on production networks. These occur within and between organisations.

* personal networks. These involve friendship and are based on trust.

* symbolic networks. These are related to collective community values.

As can be deduced from Van Dijk=s above-mentioned definition of the Network Society, he

draws a distinction between media networks and social networks. He points out though that the

traditional dividing lines between these are getting blurred. Media networks do not replace

social networks and face-to-face communication, but are added to them. And on the Internet,

interpersonal, organisational and mass communication come together (Van Dijk, 1999:220,222).

Tehranian (1999:50) argues that localisation processes create their own hard and soft networks,

the agents of these being nationalist, religious and cultural movements, and leaders voicing local

interests and views.

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McAuley (2001:86) identifies two roles of networks, which are a common theme in many

definitions: as interaction at a formal organisational level between businesses, and as a social

interaction or exchange between individuals. It is inevitable, however, that the two dimensions

will overlap. Thus, the Network Society creates a spider=s web of influences covering both

formal and informal networks (McAuly, 2001:87).

2.6.4 Communication as ecology

Rush (1999:68) argues that human beings work within and towards a >global eco-communication

system= to bring themselves into balance (understanding) with the rest of the universe through

continual adjustment (communication of information). In this regard, she envisions >eco-

communication=, which stands for ecology of communication, as the mutual communicative and

informative relations among human beings, as a species, and between them and their

environment. With reference to global communication, Rush (1999:68) suggests that theory and

research should be ecologically based, inclusive and diverse, to bring global intersections to the

Information Highway. This will ensure that the voices of silenced groups are heard, and intersect

with the broad agenda of human issues, giving sustainable knowledge.

Mowlana (1997:235-236) supports the notion of eco-communication, and proposes what he

terms >the unitary theory of communication as ecology=. He believes that ecology offers a useful

framework, not only for the well-being or deterioration of the planet and physical environment,

but for principles that can be applied to the cultural as well as the media environment. The

ecological perspective argues for sustainable development, and a communication system that

satisfies human needs without diminishing the prospects of future utilisation. Mowlana uses the

term ecology in the broad sense, to include all the symbolic environments in which human and

technological communication take place.

This theory can be used to explain the process of information and technological innovation, as it

relates to communication between human beings and their environment, and among people and

nations. It explains global communication in terms of a quest for satisfactory human interaction,

rather than viewed through the lens of technological growth (Mowlana, 1997:235).

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Mowlana (1997:236-237) proposes the following as the major ecological dimensions:

* ecology of goods and commodities, such as industrial and manufacturing items

* ecology of services, which includes banking, insurance and education

* ecology of warfare, meaning all the military and security hardware, software and the

infrastructure therein

* ecology of information, encompassing such processes as cultural industries and mass

media

* ecology of habitat, comprising such areas as demography, housing, physical environment

and pollution

* ecology of ethics and morality, referring to specific normative discourse such as religion,

mores, laws and social contacts

These dimensions are not spatial, but relational and integrative. This means that human beings

interact with these environments separately on a one-to-one basis, but also with all six in an

integrated form. The six environments also interact with one another and with human beings, in

an integrated manner. The implication is that the world=s cultural, economic and political

environments cannot be understood completely without turning the attention to this unitary

phenomenon in terms of communication and culture. Thus, the notion of self, society and

universe, is very much shaped by this ecological view, and the way humans perceive language,

literacy, arts, sciences and, in short, reality (Mowlana, 1997:37).

2.6.5 The Global Mindset as a managerial paradigm

Jeannet (2000:10-11, 33-41) identifies five different mindsets, which can be followed as

managerial paradigms:

* Domestic Mindset - this is characterised by a reliance on one market as the key reference,

and is the mindset most managers are born with. Domestic mindsets rely on a single

reference point, their domestic markets, for judgements. The problem with this mindset is

that executives following it, usually have more difficulty absorbing developments and

ideas from other parts of the world.

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* International Mindset - this is characterised by one or a few experiences in another

country. There are different levels of international mindsets, depending on the level of

international exposure. The International Mindset with a limited but in-depth exposure is

not identical to the more extensive Global Mindset.

* Regional Mindset - this includes experience across a score of countries and is

characterised by a deep understanding of a number of individual, but similar countries,

such as those in Latin America, the EU or the SADC.

* Multinational Mindset - this is characterised by successive assignments in different

countries. The difference between this mindset and the next one, the Global Mindset,

stems from the fact that the multinational mindset operates on a multidomestic basis,

having one country or market in sight at a time, and is not geared to worldwide

responsibility, where different rules apply.

* Global Mindset - this is defined as a state of mind able to understand a business, an

industry sector, or a particular market, on a global basis. An individual with a global

mindset has the ability to see across multiple territories, and focuses on commonalities

across many markets, rather than on the differences among countries. The Global Market

is not simply a linear extension of the Multinational Mindset, but has unique dimensions

and perspectives.

The Global Mindset is the newest in the progression of mindsets over time, and will become, as

suggested by Jeannet (2000:10), a necessity in the new global era.

Other managerial paradigms regarding globalisation are discussed in Section 2.7.4.8.

2.6.6 Evolution theory and complex, dynamic systems

As pointed out in Section 2.2.4, Abedian believes that globalisation is best explained in the

context of the dynamics of social evolution, which is related to the paradigm of chaos theory.

Abedian (1998a:4) argues that new theories that deal with the emergence of complex, dynamic

systems have much to offer in explaining evolutionary tendencies in nature and in human

society. The new sciences show that evolution has both a >general direction= and a >dominant

mode of progression=.

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In general, evolution unfolds in three clusters:

* the levels of physical and chemical systems - the realm of matter

* the levels of biological systems - the realm of life

* the cluster of socio-cultural systems - the realm of society

There is a striking continuum of systems that emerges in all of these clusters (Abedian, 1998a:4).

According to Laszlo (1987:108), both evolving socio-cultural and natural systems tend to grow

in size, develop more intricate relations among their components and create more massive and

flexible modes of interaction among them. This process unfolds through three key evolutionary

stages (Laszlo, 1987:31-34):

* the formation of catalytic cycles. These cycles tend to interlock, leading to the formation

of cross-catalytic hypercycles.

* the emergence of dynamic systems. The formation of hypercycles allows dynamic

systems to emerge at successively higher levels of organisation.

* evolutionary convergence. Two or more systems converge at one level and jointly create

a suprasystem at the next level. This convergence does not mean growing similarity

among systems, but rather adds diversity and richness to the new system.

Evolutionary convergence has direct relevance to the emerging global human society. In line

with the above-mentioned evolutionary steps, such a global society would arise from convergent

tendencies among diverse human societies via the formation of self-maintaining hypercycles at

the global level. This is in accordance with the general direction of the evolutionary path of

complex, dynamic systems (Abedian, 1998a:5).

Unlike the traditional sciences, the new theories do not view evolution as a deterministic process

gravitating towards equilibrium with a fair measure of stability and predictability. Instead, the

new sciences argue that dynamic systems have a property of divergence. Different strings of

events may therefore unfold, all within the confines of possibilities and limits of the laws. Each

sequence in turn generates new sets of limits and possibilities, allowing the formation of diverse

systems.

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The resultant systems, however, are not stable, and can be critically disturbed. This alternation

of stability and instability is what drives the evolutionary process (Abedian, 1998a:5).

Laszlo (1987:35) points out that, when critically destabilised, systems enter a transitory phase

characterised by indeterminacy, randomness and some degree of chaos. Abedian (1998a:5) adds

that the transitory phase ends when the system settles into a new organisational mode, often at a

higher level of organisation. It is therefore as a result of instability followed by phases of critical

instability, that evolution unfolds, climbing through progressive levels of organisation from the

physical to the biological, and to the human and social. This constitutes the dominant mode of

the evolutionary process (Abedian, 1998a:5).

2.6.6.1 The globalising world in a transitory state

The above view implies that societies and the world at large are in a transitory phase, moving in

the direction of a higher order. The view that mankind evolves through the alternation of

stability, critical instability, and an eventual climb to a higher level of organisation, structural

complexity and dynamism, as suggested by Abedian (1998a:5), explains much of the chaos the

world is experiencing at the start of the new millennium: violent protests, an unstable economy,

an uprising of religious fundamentalism and terrorism, ethnic strife, unemployment, crime, etc.

Mowlana (1997:19) reinforces this idea that mankind has entered a challenging transitory period

of transformation, calling the current reality >unsettling=. This is evident in the unpredictability

of international events and the insecurity of the major powers.

Abedian (1998a:7) argues that the current stage of global integration is that of interdependent

hypercycles of contemporary societies of developed, underdeveloped and emerging economies.

>In line with the salient features of transitory periods, today=s interdependent socio-economic

world order is characterised by indeterminancy, some degree of chaos and randomness. The

existing state of interdependence has highly asymmetrical and, at times, harmful effects on some

of its members= (Abedian, 1998a:7).

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Abedian (1998a:10,24) views the current transitory phase as being characterised by two

processes: >integrative= and >disintegrative=. Integrative forces help expand the web of global

connectedness, while disintegrative forces contribute to the system=s instability and

environmental imbalances. Thus, the integrative forces can be used to explain the positive

consequences of globalisation, while the disintegrative forces explain contemporary negative

impacts of globalisation. Specific integrating and disintegrating forces, as identified by various

authors, are discussed in the next section.

2.6.7 Integrating and disintegrating forces of globalisation

Several authors agree with the above-mentioned viewpoint that globalisation in its current form

is a double-edged sword, imposing positive as well as negative influences - or what Pelton calls

Telepower and Teleshock - on the world community.

Mills (2001:1) suggests that globalisation poses risks as well as opportunities: >We are facing a

world which is both fragmenting and integrating, with a more fragmented (for the state system)

process of self-determination contrasting with a more integrated global economy and

environment. Garcia-Guadilla (2001:2) agrees that globalisation holds a promise of benefits, as

well as risks. She argues that two scenarios/outcomes are possible: globalisation can create a

Global Apartheid, characterised by great disparities in wealth, power and information; or

globalisation can be oriented to human development, if accompanied with a considerable degree

of collective effort, wisdom and caution, with new forms of life being supportive in collective

learning.

Castells (2001b:152) points out that reactions to the forces of globalisation take different forms,

ranging from reactive movements fighting the process, to alternative projects enacted by

proactive movements.

Reactions to globalisation can be classified in different ways. Banting (1995) suggests four

categories of people on the basis of how they tend to respond to economic globalisation:

Global Sceptics and Globalists regard globalisation as desirable, with Globalists viewing

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globalisation as a more radical change than Global Sceptics. Orthodox Keynesians - named

after British economics theorist Maynard Keynes (Krugman, 1998) - and Traditional Leftists

are not in favour of globalisation, with Traditional Leftists viewing globalisation as a more

radical change than Keynesians, who view globalisation merely as an extension of normal trends.

A typical reaction of Globalists would be to introduce social policy which facilitates change, by

enhancing flexibility in labour markets and reducing the emphasis on passive income support

programmes, and to prioritise education of citizens so that they can compete effectively. A

typical reaction of Global Sceptics would be to insist on reform processes that reflect domestic

choices.

Orthodox Keynesians are less convinced than Global Sceptics that existing adjustment processes

in the economy will work effectively, and emphasise the need for more expansive macro-

economic policies to increase the aggregate demands in external economies and to reduce the

slack in the labour market. The Traditional Left, who see globalisation as a major threat to

equality, social justice and democracy, would typically react by resisting further integration into

the global order on unrestricted terms (Banting, 1995).

According to Conradie (2001:72-73), Globalists and Global Sceptics will probably react by

trying to make the most of the potential benefits of globalisation. The orthodox Keynesians and

the Traditional Left are likely to react to the negative impacts or risks associated with

globalisation.

In the following outline of positive and negative forces of globalisation, the effects of the global

communication network are included. As Sadlak (1998:102) points out: >In the context of

globalisation it is hard to omit new information and communication technology which gives a

practical dimension to being Aglobal@ ...= Furthermore, it has been pointed out earlier in this

chapter that global communication is one of the greatest contributors to the process of

globalisation. Thus, the concepts globalisation and global communication, are in many

instances used interchangeably.

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2.6.7.1 Integrating forces

The following discussion reflects some of the perceived positive effects, benefits and

opportunities of globalisation. It could be seen to represent the view of the Globalists and Global

Sceptics as outlined above, but also extends to other forms of globalisation, in addition to

economic globalisation.

2.6.7.1.1 Increased connectivity and information flow

According to Pelton (2000:127), globalisation allows for >open standards= for telecommunication

and networking. >This is a type of connection architecture that allows local differences and

specialisation, but defines a process that can still achieve a harmony of linkages and world

cooperation=. One of the benefits of this increased connectivity is that is has resulted in

coordinated production processes (Abedian, 1998a:24).

Verwey (2001:82,83) identifies disintermediation - the elimination of intermediaries - as a major

benefit of new communication technology, as it increases access to the means of communication

and to information and knowledge. Van Dijk (1999:7) states that perhaps the most promising

social perspective of the new media is their potential for fruitful interplay between face-to-face

and online mediated communication. He argues that the quantity and quality of social

relationships may improve as technology allows users to stay in touch easily. Furthermore, the

richness of the mind may increase from the diversity of impressions human beings gather

through the new media (Van Dijk, 1999:2,3).

Van Dijk (1999:2) also mentions that new technology allows for registration to security and

alarm systems, resulting in a sense of increased connectivity, freedom and security.

Furthermore, Verwey (2001:84) mentions increased connectivity for marginalised individuals,

such as the financially or physically disabled, and those in rural areas.

2.6.7.1.2 Empowerment of the individual

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Verwey (2001:88) believes that the Age of Communication is a revolution of human potential

and opportunity. >New communication and information technologies offer dramatic possibilities

for personal growth - for developing personal senses of mastery, for forming new kinds of

relationships and for communicating in immediate and even intimate ways.=

Economic advancement is one of the potential benefits of globalisation. According to Abedian

(1998a:8), humanity=s ability to generate wealth has reached new heights as a result of economic

globalisation. There are suggestions that increased global trade and investment raise real income

levels, and that the modernity that comes with economic prosperity increases opportunity for

countless millions (Elliott, 2001:89).

Furthermore, disintermediation leads to a lowering of costs. According to Pelton (2000:117,

129), the application of cyberspace allows for >consumer self-help= and >international consumer

bypass=, increasing access to lower-cost information services and holding the potential of

lowering consumer prices worldwide. Thussu (2000:232) mentions that e-commerce has

drastically lowered transaction costs and facilitated direct marketing worldwide.

Entrepreneurship is also encouraged by globalisation and interactive communication. Verwey

(2001:84) states: >By placing mass communication in the hands of the people, along with tools

for creating information, entertainment and education products, entrepreneurial opportunities are

being advanced.= She argues that the low cost of entry to interactive communication opens up

knowledge-based economic opportunities to people. >It is a powerful levelling factor, both

socially and economically, which allows individuals, small business or organisations to

cooperate with, compete against, or impede the efforts of, much larger players= (Verwey,

2001:84).

2.6.7.1.3 Increased awareness and global understanding

Parhizgar (2000:2) points out that global communication and demographic movements across

nations have provided new opportunities to assimilate different cultures, races, genders, age

groups and religions into a new form of global understanding, namely multiculturalism.

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Multiculturalism encourages individuals to assimilate their conceptions into pluralistic ones. It

provides room for people to appreciate their value systems in congruence with other people

towards synergy (Parhizgar, 2000:20). Netshitenzhe (2001:84) adds to this view that

globalisation, combined with democratisation and equitable representation, can produce a new

paradigm for the common good of humanity.

Globalisation also increases people=s awareness of critical issues that need to be addressed, such

as environmental problems, poverty eradication and concerns for human rights, especially those

of women and children (Abedian, 1998a:9). According to Abedian (1998a:9), there is a rising

tendency to become proactive about these issues. Castells (2001b:152) adds to this that

globalisation has contributed to the rise of feminism in the last three decades, resulting in

emancipation of women as a seemingly irreversible trend.

2.6.7.1.4 Increased democracy

A number of authors (e.g. Thussu, 2000:76; McAuley, 2001:240; Mowlana, 1997:17) point out

the democratising potential of the Internet, a medium which is largely uncontrolled and not

limited by time and space. Mowlana (1997:17) notes the opportunity for increased participation

and equality offered by new media, while Van Dijk (1999:2) mentions the opportunity for

consumers to be involved in decision-making.

According to Castells (2001b:152), the last decade has witnessed an extension of political

democracy, the beginning of globalisation of human rights and the opening up of horizontal

communication channels via the Internet. This has lead to people having more say today in

public affairs than in any prior time in history.

There are conditions to achieving this democracy, though. McAuley (2001:240) mentions the

need to connect the unwired, while Allen and Miller (2001:60) add that the promise of enhanced

democratic participation through the Internet is unlikely to be fulfilled if users choose to use it >to

engage in chat-room talk about sex or to do tele-shopping=.

2.6.7.1.5 Development and alleviation of poverty

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The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) recognises the potential of globalisation

to enhance human development. The Human Development Report of 1999 (UNDP, 2001a)

states that global markets, global technology, global ideas and global solidarity can enrich the

lives of people everywhere, and bring advances for all of mankind.

Abedian (1998a:9) reinforces this view, arguing that economic globalisation creates potential for

the alleviation of poverty, provided that measures are put in place to emphasise equity between

and within nations. Progress has already been made in this regard. The UNDP (quoted by

Abedian, 1998a:8,9) reports that developing countries have, in many respects, covered as much

distance in their development during the past 30 years as the industrial world managed over one

century. The infant mortality rate has more than halved, and school enrolment more than

doubled.

Globalisation also puts emphasis on human development and equity in access to resources

(Abedian, 1998a:24). Netshitenzhe (2001:84), for example, argues that the campaign of debt

relief has highlighted Africa=s responsibility to proactively address local development issues.

2.6.7.1.6 Political cooperation and reform

One of the benefits of globalisation identified by literature is the pressure it puts on governments

to democratise and work together with other governments, especially at a regional level.

Abedian (1998a:22), for example, argues that states with authoritarian tendencies have come

under pressure to comply with the norms of democracy. This leads to reform and restructuring

of governmental institutions.

Netshitenzhe (2001:83) points out that the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold

War have undercut the platform for blind support of dictators, and created a possibility for

partnerships across the board for democracy and development. He believes that Africa, in

particular, can benefit from globalisation because of the combined pressure for intra-state good

governance in politics, economics and social issues, that goes with the move towards regional

integration, for example such as in Southern Africa. He suggests that, in partnership with Africa,

there is a move towards a new world agenda, for globalisation in the interest of the majority

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(Netshitenzhe, 2001:84).

2.6.7.1.7 Preservation of culture

Mowlana (1997:17) points out the potential of the new media to preserve indigenous culture.

Greater personalisation means that these media can be moulded into the users= images. This

implies that the new media can exist side by side with indigenous communication and culture,

rather than replacing them. By creating an alternative to the temporary dominant mass media

channels, the new forms of communication offer the promise of preserving indigenous culture in

a new form, rather than simply replacing it with an inappropriate new Western paradigm

(Mowlana, 1997:17).

2.6.7.2 Disintegrating forces

Disintegrating forces of globalisation account for much of the opposition to globalisation which

has increased in recent years. Violent protests at WTO meetings have become regular

occurrences. Meetings of the World Bank, IMF, Group of Eight (G8) industrialised countries,

World Economic Forum, World Social Forum and EU, have also been targeted. Cities such as

Seattle, Davos, Bangkok, Washington, Laaken, Prague, Gothenburg, Genoa, Qatar and Porto

Alegre have seen protests in recent years. May Day has also become a forum for protesting (Al-

Kurdi, 1995; Bergsten, 2000; Castells, 2001c:197; Financial Times, 2001; Le Quesne,

2001:66; McAuley, 2001:24; Rohatyn, 2001; Soludo, 2001:58).

ATTAC (the Association for the Taxation of financial Transactions for the Aid of Citizens), an

umbrella organisation for the antiglobalisation movement, was formed towards the end of the

1990s. This organisation, based in Paris, France, has 28 branches worldwide, and stages regular

demonstrations. Among the goals of ATTAC are to fight free economies, imperialism, Third

World debt, tax havens, financial crime and free capital. ATTAC also champions the so-called

Tobin Tax, a levy on international capital transactions, with proceeds to fight poverty in

developing countries (ATTAC Britain, 2003; Le Quesne, 2001:66).

Global protests such as those mentioned above, pertain mainly to those who see globalisation as

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essentially an economic process, and reflect the viewpoint of the Keynesians and Traditional Left

as described in Section 2.6.7.

Other forms if globalisation are, however, also subjected to disintegrative forces. The rest of this

section summarises much of the contemporary criticism against, and perceived risks associated

with, globalisation. This discussion includes disintegrating forces produced by economic as well

as other forms of globalisation.

It should also be pointed out that the criticism discussed below should not necessarily be seen as

opposition to globalisation. Even scholars who criticise globalisation in its current form, often

acknowledge the potential benefits of the phenomenon. Negative criticism put forward by those

who operate from the perspective of the Globalists and Global Sceptics should be seen rather as a

call for changes in the management of globalisation, and a reflection of the challenges

experienced in the current period of transition.

2.6.7.2.1 Job losses, exploitation of workers and financial disparity

According to McAuley (2001:244), there are concerns about job losses, as many of the world=s

super-brands shift production to countries where costs are lower. Conflict is thus rising between

the employed in the industrial and emerging countries, as they compete for job opportunities

(Abedian, 1998a:8).

Shifting factories to Third World countries gives rise to another concern, namely exploitation of

workers. McAuley (2001:241) points out cases of contractors for well-known brands employing

children to make their products, and workers working under poor conditions in factories in

developing countries. There is also concern about low wages. Abedian (1998a:25) suggests that

pressure has led to global wage convergence gravitating towards lower levels of wages, causing

sharp polarisation among labour in developed and developing countries.

It is also argued that the process of globalisation is the cause of the growing divide between the

rich and poor, as well as between developed and developing countries (Morolo, 2001; Bergsten,

2000) with rich countries exploiting poor countries, and increasing economic disparity (Rohatyn,

2001).

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According to Chompsky (interviewed by Al-Kurdi, 1995), globalisation is a class war on a

global scale with power in the hands of those who control the economic system.

The bulk of global wealth is seen to be controlled by countries such as the USA, Britain, Canada,

France, Germany, Italy and Japan (Mowlana, 1997:19), with the EU and NAFTA perceived to

dominate the global economic system (McAuley, 2001:256). Added are a number of

economically powerful conglomerates who, according to Mowlana (1997:16-17), are hurting not

only developing nations but developed countries as well, by virtue of their economic dominance.

Rich countries generate the direct foreign investment, but are also the prime recipients of it.

Africa has seen little of the available capital for foreign investment in comparison to Asia

(McAuley, 2001:256). Daniels et al. (2000b:30-31) agree that Africa does not benefit from

global free trade. They point out that free trade is not necessarily >fair trade= and that the WTO

lacks the power to enforce mutually beneficial rules.

Authors such as Castells (2001b:158) and Senker (2001:214) reject the so-called trickle down

theory - the ideology that unbridled international competition will lead to a trickle-down of

wealth and income from rich to poor - on the basis that products and processes developed

primarily for the benefit of affluent people, threaten the livelihoods of poor people in developing

countries.

Other reasons for opposition against economic globalisation include the interdependent nature of

the global economy, which can cause shocks that can destabilise the economies of individual

countries (Abedian, 1998a:22), and concern about developing countries who need access to

Western markets to pay off foreign debt (McAuley, 2001:241).

2.6.7.2.2 Cultural imperialism

Loss of cultural identity is associated with the process of globalisation. A global culture

disregarding diversity is said to be emerging, threatening local cultures.

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According to McAuley (2001:242), market-driven globalisation does not want diversity. >Its

enemies are national habits, local brands and distinctive regional tastes. Retail interests around

the globe are controlled by fewer and fewer interests. Mergers and acquisitions are realigning

commercial interests for the next wave of technology affecting the entertainment, media and

retail industries.=

The emerging global pop-culture is seen by some as an extension of American culture,

prompting critics to describe globalisation as >Americanisation= (Thussu, 2000:167) and

consumer globalisation as >Coca-Cola-isation= or >McDonaldisation= (Tehranian, 1999:46).

Others believe that globalisation promotes a wider Western lifestyle and value system.

Especially global news and entertainment networks are subjected to criticism of Western cultural

imperialism. In this regard Mowlana (1997:6) refers to >Westoxification=, a process of

encouraging its converts to adopt non-indigenous forms of behaviour.

Herbert (2001:(ix)) refers to the CNN International model of television news format and style

which is emulated throughout the world, to the detriment of local programming formats and

styles. He also points out that global news sources are uneven, with some areas having hundreds

of reporters from around the world covering stories, while other areas hardly have any

journalists. This affects the picture of the world and individual trouble spots (Herbert, 2001:2).

Thussu (2000:176) mentions that poverty forces Sub-Saharan Africa to depend on Western

media corporations, some of which provide free-to-air programmes, or programmes in a

subsidised form.

In South Africa, broadcasting law requires 50 local content on public service television (SABC),

and 30 local content on private television stations (Pearce, quoted by Mersham & Skinner,

2001b:113). Mersham and Skinner (2001b:113) point out, however, that local content laws are

becoming increasingly anachronistic in the age of satellite networks, where those who can afford

it subscribe to a big variety of channels, most of which have a foreign content.

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Another factor contributing to loss of cultural identity is domination by the English language in

global communication. Everard (2000:37,55) mentions South Africa - with its 11 official

languages, where there is, for example, very little Afrikaans and virtually no Xhosa used on the

Internet - as an example of a county where loss of cultural identity occurs. According to Everard

(2000:36,43), English, as the primary language of the Internet, also serves to create barriers to

access by those countries for whom English is not their main language.

According to UNESCO, the wide use of English on the Internet does not reflect the linguistic

variety of a world in which 6700 languages are spoken. Of the 34 countries with a rich

multilingual tradition (e.g. more than 50 languages in daily use), two-thirds are to be found

among countries of Sub-Saharan Africa, South-East Asia and the Pacific region (Thussu,

2000:183).

Even in Western countries there is concern about loss of cultural identity. According to

McAuley (2001:241), some who oppose globalisation are nationalists who dislike the influence

of foreigners in their culture. Others wish to keep cheap, mainly Asian, goods out of Western

markets.

2.6.7.2.3 Marginalisation and inequality in access to information

According to Garcia-Guadilla (2001:1), high technology has created the so-called >digital divide=,

which brings a different way of classifying countries based on inclusion and exclusion. Castells

(2001b:155) supports this view by suggesting that the world is no longer divided between North

and South, but between areas and people who are switched into or off the global network.

Marginalisation of communities as a result of unequal access to modern communication

technology is a concern reiterated by various authors. This unequal access results in a widening

disparity between the >info-rich= and >info-poor= (Garcia-Guadilla, 2001:1) or the >haves= and

>have-nots= (McAuley, 2001:240) of the global media environment. Exclusion of the information

poor also means that they are being excluded from the new Knowledge Economy.

Hamelink (1995:121) suggests that the current trends in global communication converge towards

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the disempowerment of people, contributing to >the establishment of a new world-order which is

inegalitarian, exclusive and elite-oriented=.

Van Dijk (1999:223) argues that inequality is not caused by technology, but may be increased by

an exclusive appropriation of its opportunities by a relatively minor part of the population. In

many countries there is only a small elite with new media access. In the Third World, the

majority have little access even to >old= media like the telephone, radio, television and the press,

and to essential services like electricity (Van Dijk, 1999:230).

Telephones lines are essential in less developed regions, to gain access to the global electronic

highways (Tehranian, 1999:53) . Yet the global distribution of telephony is more lopsided than

any other medium. More than half of the global population live more than 160km from the

nearest phone line (Everard, 2000:42), while in 1999 there were more telephones in greater

London than in the whole of Africa (Gordon, 1999:1). The African Internet industry is also

small by world standards. By the end of 2001, with the more developed South Africa and

northern Africa excluded, only one in 250 Africans used the Internet, compared to one out of two

in North America and Europe (Nua Internet Surveys, 2003a).

Lack of infrastructure is not the only source of inequality, however. Everard (2000:36) points

out additional sources such as expensive online time, unreliable low bandwidth lines, slow

modems, uneconomical computer systems and currency problems, especially as far as Africa is

concerned. McAuley (2001:247) also mentions factors like diversity of languages, centralist

management and the climate as factors inhibiting the growth of Internet in some countries. In

sunnier climates, where outdoor life is more important, adoption of the Internet has been slower.

And in Asia the diversity of languages has slowed down the progress of the Net.

Castells (2001a:17) predicts that by 2006, connectedness in all advanced countries will be almost

universal. But in the world at large, only three of the population was connected in 2001,

compared to over 45 of households in the USA and Scandinavia.

2.6.7.2.4 Social decline

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The disruption of social order and resulting social decline (Verwey, 2001:82,88) is another

possible disintegrating factor. According to Verwey (2001:88), societies caught up in the

exhalation of technological progress may find that the rate of technological change exceeds the

rate of social adjustment, resulting in a high cost to society in terms of social decline.

The freedom and democracy of those participating in the Communication Revolution could also

be affected. Van Dijk (1999:2) argues that technology is susceptible to control from above,

which could threaten democracy. Hamelink (1995:11) believes that the new media operate

through censorship, deceit and information glut, which obstruct people=s independent formation

of opinion and undermine their capacity to control decisions that affect their daily lives. He also

points out that the inundation of information which consumers of the new media experience, can

make them feel powerless. Van Dijk (1999:19) suggests that freedom could be endangered by a

decrease in individual privacy. At the same time, safety seems to decrease as those who

consume the new media have become dependent on yet another technology (Van Dijk, 1999:2).

The 1999 Human Development Report of the UNDP (2001a) also refers to human insecurity

being increased by globalisation, as the spread of global crime, disease and financial volatility

outpaces actions to tackle them.

The new media can also become a substitute for face-to-face interaction, adversely affecting

relationships and social networks. Furthermore, the richness of the human mind may be reduced,

because the diversity of impressions gathered through the new media is sometimes offered out of

context in schematic and fragmented frames (Van Dijk, 1999:3,15).

2.6.7.3 Arguments against some of the criticisms discussed above

Arguments against some of the criticism discussed above are provided here.

Firstly, in the light of criticism against globalisation on the basis of unequal access to

information, one has to question to what extent those who do have access to the Internet, in fact

use it, to empower themselves with knowledge. In the opinion of the author, much of the

literature consulted ignores the entertainment value of the Internet and other new media and the

extent to which users use this at the cost of other potential benefits.

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For example, in 2001 a survey in Europe indicated that the majority of websites visited by

Germans in the month of June were pornographic sites. The same survey indicated high

proportions of pornographic site users in the United Kingdom (UK), France, Italy, Norway and

Sweden. Furthermore, it was found that students, professionals and manual workers were more

likely to visit these sites (Nua Internet Surveys, 2002).

According to Pelton (2000:8), the dangers of a global society hooked on total escapism and

virtual lives carried out in cyberspace, are not illusionary. >Health clinics in California are

treating severe cases of Internet addiction, and in the world of true virtual sex, the problem will

only escalate.= Pelton (2000:8) also points out the problem of >cyberdistracted= employees as

another challenge in the Information Age.

Secondly, with regard to the gloomy picture painted above about the marginalisation of Africa,

Berger (quoted by Mersham & Skinner, 2001b:110) is of the opinion that Africa and its media

need not be >victims= of the Information Age. New information technologies offer numerous

opportunities for media to cut their production costs, add value to their products, expand their

markets and consolidate their independence. In addition, the number of dial-up Internet access

subscribers in Africa rose by 20% during the first 18 months of the new millennium (Nua

Internet Surveys, 2003a). Internet access is still largely confined to the capital cities, but a

growing number of countries are introducing points of presence in secondary cities (Mersham &

Skinner, 2001b:121). Having overtaken landline installations, mobile phone usage is also

increasing in Africa (Nua Internet Surveys, 2003a).

Kraak (2001:94-95) criticises the viewpoint that the world is divided into those who are

integrated and those who are disintegrated into the Network Society and New Economy, arguing

that this view ignores the >middle= society. Kraak believes that the core and periphery do not

constitute the total society, for in between is the middle society, which constitutes the bulk of

economically active citizens who are not knowledge workers. Kraak argues that older forms of

economic and social organisation continue from the past into the present, alongside the leading

networks - both in the advanced and the developing countries. These >older= forms of

organisation are not displaced by the network society, but continue to exist alongside it.

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As far as cultural imperialism as a disintegrating force is concerned, Strelitz (2001:49) points out

that qualitative studies of local media consumption provide an important counter to this claim.

These studies show that the way local audiences interact with global media does not confirm the

claim of cultural homogenisation of global media, and provide a corrective to this pessimistic

view. Conradie (2001:30) agrees with this standpoint by suggesting that the outcome of

localisation - taking place simultaneously with, and as a result of globalisation - is people

becoming more attached to their primary cultural group, be it ethnic, religious or linguistic, or a

combination of these.

It is also interesting to note that contemporary criticism against globalisation is not new.

According to Castells (2001b:152), fears similar to the current fear of uncontrolled use of

technology - for example in the field of genetic engineering - existed in all rapid social transition

periods. Everard (2000:121-128) draws a parallel between criticism against information

technology, and criticism against writing as found in the writings of Plato. Plato was concerned

that education standards would suffer as a result of overdependence on writing, as people would

lose their memory as they became too dependent on being able to look up something. Plato was

also concerned that there would be insufficient information security, that authorship could not be

verified, that people would stop interacting with real people and that writing would become a

shallow distraction with no real purpose.

2.7 THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN STRIVING TOWARDS A POSITIVE

OUTCOME OF GLOBALISATION

The integrating and disintegrating forces of globalisation discussed in the previous section

suggest different possible future scenarios as a result of globalisation, depending on the

management of it. If not managed effectively, globalisation could lead to further fragmentation

and conflict in the world. However, if managed effectively, the phenomenon could have a

constructive outcome. From the perspective of complex, dynamic systems, the degree of chaos,

instability and shock currently experienced worldwide can be seen as a sign that the global

system is in a period of transition, adjusting and moving to a new order. The new order could be

a higher order characterised by increased equality, harmony and cooperation, if the global

community implements measures to move globalisation in this direction. As already suggested,

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this means that the management of globalisation should be oriented towards human development.

2.7.1 Globalisation oriented towards human development: a view to the future

Several authors offer a view to the future once stability returns to the global system, and the

higher order which supporters of the theory of dynamic, complex systems propose, has been

attained.

Abedian (1998a:24) predicts that the ultimate outcome of the present-day social order evolving

to a higher-level system of organisation and structural complexity, will be a global

commonwealth of nations, based on the principles of fiscal federalism. He foresees fundamental

reform of governance structures such as the UN and Bretton Woods institutions.

The new global society may also have a greater sense of ethics and responsibility. Zimmerli

(1998:15) believes that responsibility is enlarged considerably when participating in the global

Network Society. In this regard he predicts that a whole range of new applications of moral

responsibility will be introduced, and that philosophers, in their roles as ethicists, will be even

more in demand than before.

Abedian and Zimmerli=s views on the systemic outcome of current global forces are in line with

the viewpoint of Effendi (1980[1931]:40-41), who envisaged back in 1931 the eventual

emergence of a world commonwealth of nations, a willing cessation of war and the regulation of

all nations by a single code of international law. In this global community all economic barriers

would have been permanently demolished, and the interdependence of Capital and Labour

definitely recognised. This community would be devoid of militant nationalism, religious

fanaticism and racial animosity, and an abiding consciousness of world citizenship would exist.

It can be deduced from the emerging and recommended paradigms discussed earlier and further

down in Section 2.7.4.8.1, that mankind is moving towards greater recognition of the

interconnectedness of human beings on the one hand, and human beings and nature on the other;

greater compassion and understanding of the socio-emotional and spiritual needs of human

beings; and greater emphasis on cooperation, harmony and mutual respect. In the light of this

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deduction, it may very well be that the vision of Effendi is within reach.

In this regard, it may be argued that the current protests against, and criticism of, globalisation

should be welcomed, as these produce pressure on the relevant global role players to make

adjustments which may propel the world towards the higher order that supporters of the theory of

dynamic, complex systems and chaos theory speak about.

The world may very well need the Keynesians and Traditional Left, who may provide the

impetus for change and growth.

This implies that the following prediction by Pelton (2000:4-5), may indeed be within the reach

of the global community:

>Telepower (of the e-Sphere, as explained in Section 2.6.2) will eventually reveal to us:

Our links and relationship to what humankind has called God.

Our intellectual limits in understanding the universe.

Our need to confront the chaotic force of entropy and the meaning of exstrophy, the other

side of entropy.

Our ultimate destiny as a species.=

2.7.2 The potential role of higher education in managing globalisation

Higher education has the potential to play a pivotal role in managing the process of globalisation

and preparing society to adapt to it. In this regard Sadlak (1998:100) points out that education in

general, and higher education in particular, has been an important factor in laying the

foundations for the evolution of society towards the globalisation of economic activity, the

growing importance of knowledge and the increasing democratisation of political systems. It is

expected that tertiary institutions will also play a prominent role in the future evolvement of

globalisation and in reflecting on how the process affects society. This is because universities

are conducive to the gestation and development of theories, ideas and innovations (Sadlak,

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1998:107). Sadlak (1998:104) adds that it is not too presumptuous to claim that there is more

international content within an average university than within a globally operative corporate

organisation. This derives from the very nature of higher education, learning and academic work

which imposes the seeking of relevance and confirmation not only in local or national, but also at

global levels.

There are, however, conditions attached to tertiary institutions acting as leaders in the process of

managing globalisation towards a positive outcome. A number of such conditions are discussed

next.

2.7.3 Conditions for higher education to participate in managing globalisation towards

human development

Whether or not tertiary institutions succeed in laying a foundation for the evolution of society

towards global integration, knowledge production, democracy and human development, depends

on how these institutions themselves react to the process of globalisation. Given the inevitability

of the process, and the fact that globalisation is unlikely to slow down, higher education itself

needs to globalise. This is particularly true for tertiary institutions in the Third World. Kishun

(1998:67-68), however, warns that engaging in globalisation does not imply that tertiary

institutions should submit to its forces in an uncritical manner, but requires active participation,

based on research, and clear national policy.

In this regard, Castells (2001d:206-212) argues that the ability to manage seeming contradictions

between the traditional functions of tertiary institutions and their new role in the Network

Society will determine the capacity of Third World countries to become part of the dynamic

system of the new world economy. Traditionally the main functions of tertiary institutions were

the generation and transmission of ideology; selection and formation of the dominant elites;

production and application of knowledge; and educating the skilled labour force. However, in

the new context, the demand for higher education has reached the status of a social need, which

means that tertiary institutions have become part of the development process. This is particularly

challenging to tertiary institutions in Third World countries, who need to participate in a drive

for modernisation and development, while simultaneously striving to preserve cultural identity.

For these countries, Castells (2001d:217-219) recommends development policies which

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acknowledge the central role of higher education in modernisation and development, while at the

same time taking into account the scientific and education functions of this sector, and which

allow for international aid to pass through the territory of higher education. In addition, he

recommends setting up linkages between less developed and more developed tertiary institutions,

and the establishment of joint research centres and education programmes between

technologically advanced private firms (either national or multinational) and national

universities, supported by international organisations.

Garcia-Guadilla (2001:11) suggests three possible outcomes for Third World tertiary institutions

in a globalising world, depending on whether or not they meet the challenges pointed out above:

* localism with irrelevance. This will be the outcome of tertiary institutions who refuse to

adapt to globalisation, or who are unable to connect to global knowledge networks.

These institutions will have little capacity to be useful in developing their own

communities, and will probably not survive in the long run.

* globalisation with subordination. This will be the outcome of tertiary institutions which

connect to globalisation merely through consumption of knowledge, but without

producing knowledge specific to their own needs and the needs of their communities.

* globalisation with interaction. This will be the outcome of tertiary institutions which

participate in globalisation in an interactive way, by absorbing knowledge, and also

producing knowledge relevant to their communities.

2.7.4 The potential role of higher education in counteracting the disintegrating forces of

globalisation

It can be deducted from the previous section that tertiary institutions which practise globalisation

with interaction are in a position to assist in managing globalisation towards human

development. In on other words, they have the potential to assist in counteracting those

disintegrating forces of globalisation pointed out in Section 2.6.7.2, and a move towards the

attainment of a higher order of societal consciousness.

The following discussion outlines some of the recommendations and suggestions put forward by

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theorists to counteract the disintegrating forces of globalisation. These suggested measures

include the views both of theorists who explain globalisation primarily from an economic

perspective, and those who approach globalisation from a more holistic perspective. Each

measure is related to higher education. This discussion can also be seen as a reflection of

restructuring and reform processes advocated by Globalists and Global Sceptics, who typically

accept globalisation as inevitable.

2.7.4.1 Research followed by multilateral dialogue

It follows logically that the first step towards changing the form and management of

globalisation should be recognition of the destabilising effects of the phenomenon. This should

be accompanied by a willingness to take proactive steps to minimise the destabilising effects of

globalisation. Bergsten (2000) calls for an >honest recognition that there are costs and losers= and

for >more openness and transparency in the world financial system=.

It is suggested that the next step should be research, to determine the reasons behind destabilising

forces. Bergsten (2000) argues that, as much of the criticism of globalisation reflects ignorance

of the facts, research should be carried out to determine the impact of globalisation. Rohatyn

(2001) suggests that the facts behind the anti-globalisation protests be determined. Verwey

(2001:88), in turn, calls for a redirection of research focus in critical communication research,

especially as regards the supposed disintegration of the public spheres experiencing a loss of the

sense of location in cyberspace; a shift from collective behaviour to cyberaction and from

systems to networks; and quality of life in the age of digital culture.

Tertiary institutions, by virtue of their research function, could play a significant role in

determining the impact of globalisation, the reasons behind the anti-globalisation movement, the

psychological and sociological effects of the Network Society on groups and individuals, etc.

It is proposed that research be accompanied with and followed by, dialogue between role players.

According to Pelton (2000:127), debating issues pertaining to globalisation could assist in

resolving the conflict which exists between global trading networks and corporations, and

political, religious and cultural leaders. Again, tertiary institutions could occupy a central role in

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initiating and participating in forums of discussion to find solutions to problems associated with

the forces of globalisation.

2.7.4.2 A people-centred approach

A humanist approach to managing globalisation is called for by a number of authors. This

involves a paradigm which allows for: >the achievement of social justice, and the

acknowledgement of interdependent human society= (Abedian, 1998a:9); multinational

corporations that >observe basic standards of human decency= (Financial Times, 2001); >better

social safety nets= (Bergsten, 2000); >the politics of language and identity= being addressed

(Everard 2000:68); and a >new kind of globalisation that serves the interest of humanity=

(Netshitenzhe, 2001:85).

Hamelink (1995:121) suggests that, concurrent with the destabilising effects of the global

communication system runs >an aspiration of citizenship in a world community which is

egalitarian, inclusive and people-centred. In this community people are the most important

element.= He adds, however, that this aspiration will be realised only if people are determined to

empower themselves.

Education is central to a people-centred approach in society. In the humanistic tradition

education is connected with democracy and the development of the individual. Both adult and

popular education are fundamental to a democratic society (Korsgaard, 1997:18,20).

Higher education enables individuals to empower themselves, but also provides the gateway into

the global market. In the context of globalisation, all nations are faced with the fact that

education is a decisive factor in international competition. In this context, tertiary institutions

are faced with the challenge to train people skilled for the world of competitiveness, but also to

provide opportunities for adults to continue a process of further learning throughout their lives

(Korsgaard, 1997:16-19).

Du Plooy (2001:99) also assigns to tertiary institutions the responsibility to contribute through

their teaching, learning and research endeavours, to what the South African President refers to as

a >caring, people-centred society= (GCIS, 1999:foreword). She calls for human development to

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be placed on the South African research agenda, and encourages scholars to analyse, initiate,

adapt and manage change in the area of human resources (Du Plooy, 2001:98-99).

2.7.4.3 Global restructuring

Hardt and Negri (2000:(xi)) call for reconstruction of what they term >Empire=, the sovereign

power that governs the global order, to take advantage of the liberating possibilities of the forces

of globalisation. This will entail the invention of new democratic forms and a new constituent

power which can take the world beyond Empire (Hardt & Negri, 2000:(xv)).

Soludo (2001:56) calls for a new global management framework and reformed multilateral

arrangements to mediate the unsustainable consequences of globalisation. He suggests a >global

governance structure to properly mediate conflicts, resolve market failure and devise and

implement social insurance mechanisms to carry every location along=.

This view is echoed by a suggestion from Abedian (1998a:26) for >a fundamental paradigm shift

towards governance of a global society, accompanied by appropriate institutional restructuring,

in order to reach effective global integration=. To this end, effective transnational policy

coordination is needed, together with a clear division of roles and responsibilities among the

global, national and subnational spheres of government (Abedian, 1998a:25).

Bergsten (2000) suggests that the global trading system should be liberised in a multilateral way

to head off potentially destabilising regional steps. Restructuring of the Bretton Woods

institutions, which comprise the World Bank and IMF (Bretton Woods Project, 2002), is also

called for. It is suggested that these organisations include representatives of the developing as

well as the developed world, and representatives of NGOs, as well as the private sector

(Rohatyn, 2001).

Higher education plays a part in the reconstruction of a new global order through the promotion

of equality, human development and ethics, and through research on the impact of globalisation

on a new world order.

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Du Plooy (2001:99) argues that the reconstruction of a new world order starts at home,

particularly through higher education and research. Social upliftment through education depends

on whether or not such education is guided by moral and ethical principles. A core teaching aim

of any educationalist should be to find ways in which the foundation of a common moral order

can be remedial.

Morolo (2001) particularly stresses the need for theorisation on, and reflections about, and

analyses of issues related to a new world order from the perspective of developing countries.

She encourages research on globalisation and its impact on the establishment of a new global

order from a Southern perspective, calling on researchers to consider comparative South-South

analysis, and alternative theoretical frameworks to deal with issues such as:

* civil society, labour movements, business, the state and international regulation

* probable international arenas for political and economic representation, intervention and

regulation

* the role and weight of developing countries in such forums, as well as possible

alternatives

* differential integration through technology and labour

With regard to South Africa and the new global order, Morolo (2001) calls for research on:

* the continental and regional role of South Africa in the context of globalisation

* South Africa as an agent of globalisation in the region and as a victim of globalisation

vis-à-vis the global market

2.7.4.4 Global regulation and ethics

A number of authors call for international regulation to prevent exploitation in the context of

globalisation. McAuley (2001:246) suggests that exploitation of workers of large multinational

companies in developing countries raises ethical questions, and proposes that super-brands adopt

responsible manufacturing policies. Senker (2001:216) calls for international regulations to

control inappropriate exploitation of technology. This would involve stricter and more coherent

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regulation of international finance, trade, agriculture and industry, in the interest of the world=s

poor.

Van Dijk (1999:117) calls for new legislation in global communication and information, arguing

that current legislation is still based on obsolete technological boundaries, and lacks provisions

to regulate global communication and protect rights such as ownership and intellectual property.

Pelton (2000:125) shares the view that comprehensive worldwide protection of intellectual

knowledge, information and entertainment should be introduced. He proposes international and

national regulations related to international trade in professional services, copyrights, patents,

intellectual property, transborder data flow and international broadcasting, in addition to labour

safety and employment rules. He also calls for the protection of the security and privacy of

cyberspace citizens, as well as fraud protection in global financial systems, especially in the area

of electronic funds transfers. Added to this, he proposes new treaties and international

agreements to address such issues as protection of the legal rights of individuals and smaller

corporations engaged in international trade, and insurance and risk protection against

international disasters, technoterrorism, revolutions and property loss or seizures (Pelton,

2000:127).

Van Dijk (1999:4) notes concern for the lack of discussion about ethics in information and

communication technology. Everard (2000:134,161) agrees that there are ethical and practical

questions with regard to the Internet yet to be solved, and cites information, security and

authentication protocols as examples. Everard (2000:134), however, sees as a solution an ethics

of personal responsibility. >In a postmodern world it has become crucial for each person to take

responsibility for his own actions. In a world of surfaces, responsibility can no longer be

abrogated to a universal value system. This implies a recognition of each individual as an active

participant in society, with responsibilities to all members of society.=

Everard (2000:133) points out that, in popular discourse, the Internet is often presented as a

dangerous and anarchic space. He is of the opinion, however, that the Internet merely reflects

wider society, which implies that there will be distasteful elements. Consequently, he believes

that any controls applied in cyberspace must reflect those currently in force within the wider

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society (Everard, 2000:131, 134).

Mowlana (1997:243-245) proposes a global code of ethics to regulate global relations, assigning

new ethical responsibilities to the mass media. The following is a brief summary of the four

considerations of this proposal:

* prevention of war and promotion of peace. If the global media can mobilise for war and

exacerbate tensions, then they could also do the reverse.

* respect for culture, tradition and values. The global media could assist in this regard by

promoting respect and tolerance for the world=s manifold cultures.

* promotion of human rights and dignity. Communication institutions could play a role

by publicising violations of human rights and international conventions.

* preservation of the home, human association, family and community. The international

media could do more to promote interaction among people and publicise more local,

decentralised solutions to common problems.

Tertiary institutions can offer a contribution in this regard by incorporating the above-mentioned

principles in education programmes. Moreover, these institutions could encourage research and

theoretical reflection on issues relating to global ethics. In addition to speaking out against

exploitative practices of multinationals, the higher education sector could contribute to, and

promote, public debate on topics related to global equality, regulation in information and

communication technology, legal rights, etc.

As education lays the foundation for the future, it could be argued that the incorporation of moral

and ethical principles in education programmes at tertiary level promotes a more ethical future

global structure. With specific reference to South Africa, Du Plooy (2001:95) argues that the

education system should instil into learners the importance of moral responsibility towards

others. She calls for a reorientation in teaching and research at tertiary institutions, from

>neutron-bomb thinking=, according to which material things are regarded as more important than

respect for individuals and society, to increased emphasis on spiritual and norm-based

considerations. Du Plooy (2001:95,99) argues that in the new context, priorities in higher

education have changed from the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, resulting in products

such as professionalism and managerialism, to developing people with academically and

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commercially-driven skills and capacities, based on moral and ethical principles. Working

towards a social goal of obtaining equity before the law, and enabling students to debate and

defend this core issue, are probably the most desirable outcomes of tertiary education for the

future.

Ethical principles are also called for in the management of higher education. In this regard, the

South African Minister of Education calls on councils and management structures to run tertiary

institutions according to the following principles: selflessness, integrity, objectivity,

accountability, openness, honesty and leadership (Du Plooy, 2001:95).

2.7.4.5 Effective government framework

It is suggested that governments reclaim the sovereignty lost to business executives and the IMF

and WTO (Financial Times, 2001). Carnoy (2001:30-31) identifies a number of requirements for

nation-states to redefine themselves in the new global economy. Global capital should be

attracted, and general capital should be generated at home. Secondly, the new state should be

able to reincorporate separated workers in the new forms of community. This means creating a

competent, flexible bureaucracy that can deliver appropriate government services to a diverse

constituency. Furthermore, the state should help create an infrastructure to make technology

more widely available to economically marginalised groups. This will increase knowledge

production, an important element in creating the conditions for economic growth.

Carnoy (2001:31) describes the new efficient (network) state as follows: >A state made of shared

institutions, and enacted by bargaining and interactive iteration all along the chain of decision-

making: national governments, co-national governments, supra-national bodies, international

institutions, governments of nationalities, regional and local governments and NGOs. Decision-

making and representation take place all along the chain, not necessarily in the hierarchical,

prescriptive order.=

Abedian (1998a:22) believes that stabilisation in the global system requires a carefully crafted

balance between policy coordination and freedom of markets at national and international levels.

Much of this has to do with governance issues. In this regard, Abedian (1998a:23) assigns the

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responsibility to governments to provide the necessary framework of rules and cooperative

arrangements to ensure stability and prevent abuses of monopoly and other market failures.

Critical policy issues ranging from international trade to health and environmental matters, as

well as taxation and human rights, should be resolved. Verwey (2001:87) reinforces this view by

calling for public policy to reconstruct social norms and order in the Age of Communication.

Through their research function, tertiary institutions could assist in the above by recommending

new governance strategies, policies and structures, to stem the demise of the nation-state.

Morolo (2001), for example, argues that in South Africa, in particular, a strong and

interventionist state is needed to drive the process of democratic and economic transformation

needed to address inequalities resulting from discrimination in the past. She assigns to

researchers the task of addressing issues such as consequences of the end of the welfare state;

international regulation; processes of transition, consolidation and ensuring democratic

participation; and the changing role of the state.

The higher education sector is also in a position to assist the government in its development

endeavours. This can be done firstly by highlighting the fragmentation that occurs as a result of

the exclusion of communities from the Knowledge Economy. Secondly, through their education

function, tertiary institutions are instrumental in empowering marginalised communities to

participate in knowledge production which may lead to economic growth. However, Garcia-

Guadilla (2001:3) points out that education is important not only because of its contribution to

economic development, but also because of its role in strengthening the social-economic cultural

dimensions of a country as a whole. She argues that a society is considered to be developed to

the extent to which its citizens manage to overcome not only material but also intellectual,

human and ethical poverty. In this sense, knowledge should be regarded as a democratic source

of power. The advancement of science and the culture of communities are based on knowledge

and information, which are the raw material of higher education. In this context, she assigns to

tertiary institutions the responsibility of implementing innovative processes to solve the real

problems of involved communities (Garcia-Guadilla, 2001:3).

2.7.4.6 Improved regional strategies

Castells (2001c:197-200) identifies a number of requirements for successful regional

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development strategy in the global economy. The first is connectivity. This begins with

transportation and communication, and should be information-technology based. Next is support

to entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs in the informal sector should be encouraged to mobilise their

activities into higher value-added activities, resulting in more small and medium businesses.

Entrepreneurs need venture capital to finance innovation, and they need to be kept informed

about financial markets, technology and information in order to manage their businesses.

Furthermore, power should be decentralised to local and regional governments, in order for

regions to have the legal power, as well as the fiscal and personnel resources, to achieve these

aims. Another requirement is to eliminate dysfunctional corruption, and to maintain a policy of

government transparency. Governments should adopt quality of life as a development policy,

and establish strategic alliances between local, regional and national governments, and private

businesses and international institutions.

Soludo (2001:55-58) argues that Africa is not doomed in the New Economy, and suggests that a

new consciousness and organisation are required to deal with globalisation. >Africans need to

work in coalition with other partners globally to press for changes in the global rules of the game

that hurt them.= Soludo (2001:58) believes that African countries require >explicit national

ideology and vision anchored in entrepreneurship, outward-orientation, equity and

competitiveness. Furthermore it requires national and sub-regional arrangements to deal with the

adjustment costs associated with the integration process - especially threats to jobs and

restructuring investments.=

This view is supported by Netshitenzhe (2001:84), who suggests that Africa should take

advantage of the movement towards new world governance, and can benefit from it by

cultivating alliances across the globe, among others with mass democratic organisations.

Higher education can assist in many regards to promote regional restructuring. According to

Garcia-Guadilla (2001:11), developing countries have the strongest need for tertiary institutions

that could contribute to national development, produce research relevant to local needs and

participate in the strengthening of civil society.

With regard to connectivity, tertiary institutions should utilise new communication technology,

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and train students to use this technology. As far as support to entrepreneurs is concerned, tertiary

institutions can assist by incorporating entrepreneurship in education programmes. This is, in

fact, technikon policy, as pointed out and elaborated on in Chapter 4. Specific recommendations

regarding curriculation in the area of entrepreneurship are also mentioned in Chapter 4. Tertiary

educationists could also assist towards the elimination of dysfunctional government practices and

corruption, by speaking out against it and by recommending and publicising alternative practices.

According to Kriger (2001), the trend towards international collaboration in research opens up

tremendous possibilities for research institutions to participate in addressing economic,

environmental and social development issues, both nationally and globally. Tertiary institutions

in the Third World need to take advantage of these possibilities. In this regard, the higher

education sector in South Africa could assist in the push towards equity for Africa in the global

arena. South African academics could assist in making the voice of Africa heard through

research publications abroad, participation in international conferences, international exchange

programmes, etc. The continent=s position on the global agenda could also be strengthened

through cooperation and strategic alliances between tertiary institutions in South Africa and

those on the rest of the continent, allowing for shared resources and collaboration in research and

publications. In particular, Morolo (2001) encourages research and theoretical reflection on

processes which influence democratic participation, for example processes of identity formation

such as race, class and ethnicity; social and cultural differentiation and the resulting processes of

inclusion and exclusion; gender, society and the individual; and ideologies. Kishun (1998:67-

68) also calls on tertiary institutions to encourage research to stimulate critical thinking and

enquiry about the complexity of issues and interests that bear on the relationship among nations,

regions and interest groups.

Education programmes in Africa should also be adapted to encourage African participation in

globalisation. This is particularly true for communication-related programmes. A UNESCO

report on communication education in East Africa (Ochilo, 1996:4), for example, stresses the

need for curricula to be broad and flexible enough to take into account international needs,

continental needs, regional and sub-regional needs, national needs and community needs. The

same report emphasises the centrality of communication in various spheres of human

development processes such as the promotion of democracy and human rights, transparency and

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good governance (Ochile, 1996:5).

2.7.4.7 Emphasis on development

It is suggested that both business and government, as well as NGOs and international

organisations, become increasingly involved in development. McAuley (2001:246) suggests that

multinationals with factories in the Third World should make investments in these countries to

improve working conditions, while Rohatyn (2001) assigns the task of addressing the impact of

globalisation in developing countries to the new Bretton Woods that is being suggested. It is

also suggested that poor countries who cannot pay rich countries= wages, should be helped, as the

purpose of globalisation should be to raise everyone=s living standards (Financial Times, 2001).

The establishment of an infrastructure for modern electronic communication in the Third World

is also called for. This could assist in the re-balancing of information flow between the >haves=

and the >have-nots= (Herbert, 2001:43). However, Van Dijk (1999:230-231) argues that the first

priority for development should be the diffusion of reliable electricity and >old= media, and the

improvement of literacy by traditional means.

Castells (2001b:164-166) calls for a >Technological Marshall Plan= - a programme of First World

intervention in Third World information development, on the same gigantic scale as that

occurred during the original Marshall Plan intended for the post-war reconstruction of West

Germany (Kraak, 2001:109). Castells=s main rationale for this plan is the need to implement a

strategy of development aimed at modernising Third World information technology

infrastructures and human capital formation on the basis of massive Western governmental,

multinational and NGO aid.

Firstly, an Internet infrastructure should be built. Internet access community centres can be

erected in small towns, and NGOs, business, government and international institutions can help

building ad hoc networks for specific projects (Castells, 2001b:160-163.) Mowlana (1997:16)

agrees that modern communication technologies should be extended to rural areas, as economic

development in these areas not only affects national economic performance, but also helps

determine how well a nation fares in the global economy.

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Everard (2000:38) supports the viewpoint that international cooperation is required in the

establishment of an Internet infrastructure, as developing countries on their own do not have the

resources to build a modern telecommunication infrastructure from scratch. Furthermore,

technical standardisation is needed, as Africa=s colonial legacy has left it with problems of

technical incompatibility, which result in greater expenses for already stressed economies

(Everard, 2000:41).

Castells (2001a:11-12) also calls for the application of the Internet for development purposes.

He proposes the introduction of Internet-based agriculture, Internet-based services, Internet-

based-health and Internet-based education in developing countries. Castells (2001b:162)

suggests an international development policy which is developmental, rather than remedial.

In addition, Mowlana (1997:242) stresses that communication technology and more information

do not guarantee greater international understanding, and proposes greater emphasis on the

development of communication at a dualistic level - the technical means as well as

communication itself. Furthermore, there should be emphasis on relations among individuals

along social and psychological channels, rather than only on relations among nation-states and

transnational actors (Mowlana, 1997:240).

Tertiary institutions can play a prominent role in ensuring that development remains on the

global agenda, by researching and publicising the plight of the poor, and the imbalances created

by a lack of technological infrastructure in Third World countries. Through their research and

education functions, they also play a vital role in development at local and regional levels.

Technikons, for example, are required to conduct applied research to contribute to the economic

growth, social development and reconstruction of South Africa (CTP, 1998:1). Part of the

research philosophy adopted by technikons is also to address disadvantaged communities and the

issue of equity (CTP, 1998:7).

Gihwala (1995:73) argues that, with their orientation towards applied research, technikons are

crucially placed to carry out research that can lead to solutions of inherited political, social and

economic problems, while at the same time stimulating development, growth, knowledge and

ultimately wealth creation. Gihwala (1995:72) offers the following as some examples of

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development-related research projects which could be taken up by technikons in South Africa:

* development of appropriate techniques for the production of food crops

* research on alternative sources of energy

* research on health matters affecting disadvantaged communities

* research into housing problems of the poor

* development of appropriate and relevant teaching methods

2.7.4.8 Appropriate managerial paradigms

According to Conradie (2001:70-71), organisations need to respond pro-actively by trying to

exploit the benefits of global technological forces. This requires a timeous broadening of

perspective.

2.7.4.8.1 A holistic, global perspective

According to Verwey (2001:84), a new worldview is replacing the existing worldview on which

modern society is based. The old worldview is materialistic, reductionistic, exploitative and

manipulative, whereas the new view promotes a more holistic and ecological viewpoint,

reinstating the human spirit and transcendent values. This new view corresponds with what

Toffler and Toffler (1997:(viii-ix)) term the >Third Wave= of change in civilisation brought about

by the contemporary Knowledge Revolution. According to Harman (quoted by Verwey,

2001:83), this paradigm shift is the result of two major forces: a cultural shift from separateness

to whole systems thinking, cooperation and harmony, and from an external authority to an inner

knowing, wisdom and authority, and a growing realisation that modern society does not work,

and is not sustainable in the long run. This corresponds with the view of Halal (quoted by

Verwey, 2001:83) who believes that the world is experiencing a transition to a holistic global

perspective, characterised by information technology, human-centredness, sustainable

development, decentralisation and cooperation.

The above calls for a shift in both the managerial paradigm and the form of organisations.

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Verwey (2001:85-86) assigns the following characteristics to the managerial paradigm needed in

the Age of Communication: greater recognition of multiple constituencies, customers, the

community, the environment and employees; flatter hierarchies and greater emphasis on

empowerment of the workforce; decentralisation and delegation of authority; relationships

based on clear expectations, mutual support and trust; and emphasis on creating more value in

the workplace. Daft and Marcic (1998:64-65) add visionary leadership, shared information,

participatory management practices, continuous learning and the creation of a widespread desire

for achieving excellence.

Pelton (2000:15) shares the view that a shift is needed from hierarchical to horizontal systems.

He argues that the idea of management-hierarchy-in-charge is a fading paradigm, and suggests

that teams should be in charge. The emphasis should be on agile mesh networks, rather than

hierarchical and large systems (Pelton, 2000:18).

Everard (2000:81) also stresses the need for using networking as a source of strength rather than

a threat to be resisted, and a culture of change management rather than change resistance.

A change in the focus and functions of organisations is also called for. Verwey (2001:80-81)

suggests competition through increased connectivity, greater emphasis on knowledge

management, greater emphasis on corporate renewal and the creation of purposeful corporate

culture.

Brink (1998/1999:91) reinforces the view that effective knowledge management - which is

defined by Mersham and Skinner (2001b:137) as the discipline of capturing knowledge-based

competencies, and storing and diffusing them in order to add value to a business - is crucial in

the Knowledge Economy. She argues that, regardless of their end product, organisations are

dependent on this management function to give them a competitive advantage. Brink

(1998/1999:124) suggests that knowledge management should also address ethical issues such as

the protection of confidential and client information, and comply with copyright and intellectual

property rights, laws and contracts .

Lastly, Abedian (1998b:117) recommends a global mindset in public policy-making, suggesting

that policy makers in the socio-economic arena keep their eyes on the eventual systemic outcome

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and not on the immediate demands of the current transitional phase. To this end, maintaining a

global perspective is equal to having an optimistic view.

Education lays the foundation for a global mindset. Goodman (2001) suggests that the most

critical success factor for nations as they enter the 21st century will be people whose >minds are

open to the world=. Responding to the demands of globalisation in education requires out-of-the-

box thinking. He therefore calls upon education ministries and tertiary institutions to open their

societies to new forms of knowledge delivery, and to promote the international exchange of

people and ideas (Goodman, 2001). Paolini (2001:6) adds to this view, by suggesting that global

citizens should be educated to acquire a global perspective and a grasp of global interdependence

- the idea that the earth functions as a holistic entity, particularly as related to ecological and

socio-political functions. >It is important for individuals to rise above their ethnocentrism and to

understand that their worldview may not be universally shared. People need to effect a balance

between their own cultural pride and the appreciation of other cultures= (Paolini, 2001:6).

2.7.4.8.2 A global mindset in strategic communication

A global mindset is called for also in strategic communication at a global level (Chaney et al.,

2000:4; Jeannet, 2000:12,16), which covers a range of options, such as global advertising,

branding or audience strategies (Jeannet, 2000:13). Jeannet (2000:16) recommends the adoption

of a global mindset (as set out in Section 2.6.5) in response to what he calls >the inevitable global

imperative=. This global mindset requires managers to master knowledge of the background of a

country and its current economic situation; as well as an understanding and appreciation of the

overall global structure, be it in history, economics, politics or a related field. Global knowledge

is more than the summation of knowledge of the world=s top markets (Jeannet, 2000:16).

It follows from the above that tertiary institutions offering communication-related courses should

make provision in curricula to transfer knowledge of different countries and their individual

structures as well as the overall global structure, including historical, economic, political and

other substructures. In the same vein, future global communicators should be taught to make

appropriate choices between standardisation and adaptation. This is discussed next.

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The measures outlined under the following two headings form part of a global mindset, and can

also be applied to strategic communication.

2.7.4.8.3 Standardisation vs adaptation: making an appropriate choice

With regard to the implementation of global and international communication strategies, the

question emerges which of the two widely accepted core strategies, standardisation or adaptation,

should be adopted (Baker, 2000:20).

Standardisation implies using a consistent programme everywhere, and in the case of marketing,

to standardise products and services everywhere. Adaptation implies adapting a programme,

product or service, to market-specific conditions (Monye, 2000:3).

According to Monye (2000:3), there is no consensus among researchers and academics about

which strategy is more effective. Proponents of standardisation believe that there is merit in

applying a standardised strategic approach because of the emerging >global consumer= - a

consequence of increasing commonality in education background and technology. It is argued

that the emerging similarities among nations far outweigh the remaining differences.

On the other hand, adaptation allows for a programme, product or service to be adapted to the

socio-cultural, political and economic system of a particular country, as well as to different

demographics, languages, psychosocial nature, knowledge and awareness of a particular

audience (Monye, 2000:4-5).

Another argument in favour of adaptation is the trend of ethnic groups and nationalities to resist

what they see as a take-over of their cultural heritage (Baker, 2000:23). Adaptation, in other

words, counteracts cultural imperialism, one of the disintegrating forces of globalisation.

UNESCO gives a number of reasons why it is important to preserve cultural identity, namely that

it is considered a basic component of national sovereignty, a manifestation of the creativity of the

human spirit, is required by the principle of equity, and is needed to oppose political and

economic dependence and oppression (Thussu, 2000:170).

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In the case of global marketing communication, Baker (2000:22) argues that some products are

culture-bound, while others are culture-free. It is suggested that standardisation works better for

industrial and high-technology products like computers, while adaptation is better suited to

consumer products like clothing, confectionary, food and household cleaners. In this regard,

multiculturalism, as discussed under the next heading, is recommended.

2.7.4.8.4 Multiculturalism

A number of authors propose multiculturalism as a framework for the management of

international and global organisations (e.g. Chaney et al., 2000:13-16; Parhizgar, 2000:1;

Neher, 1997:2,6).

The field of multicultural behaviourism has the goals of understanding, prediction and

assimilating an individual=s conception into a pluralistic one (Parhizgar, 2000:20).

Parhizgar (2000:2) suggests that in today=s increasingly competitive and demanding international

free market economy, managers cannot succeed solely on their domestic cultural understanding

skills alone. >Nations cannot segregate themselves from the rest of the world. In addition,

demographic movements among nations have provided new opportunities to assimilate different

cultures, races, genders, age groups and religions into a new form of international understanding

- namely multiculturalism.=

The implication of global cultural alliances is that managers and employees of multinational

organisations need to understand both home and host countries= formal and informal values,

rules, structures, people=s norms and attitudes, and the real cultural criteria for solving social

issues (Parhizgar, 2000:4,7). In particular, Parhizgar (2000:20) suggests that the cultural, ethical

and legal attitudes of the whole organisation should be adapted towards globalisation.

Tertiary institutions can promote multiculturalism by teaching and promoting it on campus, as

well as through cultural and academic exchanges. Ludeman (2001:4), for example, calls on

tertiary institutions to build an international ethos on campus. As a starting point, he suggests

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on-campus cross-cultural workshops and development programmes in global education and

related areas, to educate students as well as staff. Kaunda (2001:2) also suggests sending

students and researchers abroad, and attracting more foreign students.

With reference to South Africa, Du Plooy (2001:95) argues that educators at tertiary institutions

have an ethical obligation to recognise the diverse language and cultural histories of South Africa

and to instil knowledge and respect for such diversities.

With regard to teaching multiculturalism, Chaney et al. (2000:(xi)) recommend knowledge of the

following aspects of different cultures: universal systems; cultural values; written, oral and

nonverbal communication patterns; business and social customs; negotiation strategies; and

laws affecting global business and travel. Daniels and Radebaugh (2000:103) and Daniels et al.

(2000d:255-261) add to this list, by suggesting knowledge of economic and technological

environments, family structure, religion, language, social organisation, aesthetics, material

culture, roles, political structure, and public and non-public institutions.

2.7.4.9 Renewing education programmes and emphasising lifelong learning

A strong call for timeous reform of education at all levels of society to prepare communities for

new global and technological demands, emerges from literature on globalisation.

Bergsten (2000) calls for education programmes to be created to empower all components of the

world population to take advantage of globalisation. Van Dijk=s (1999:147) view is that skills

and qualifications will be even more important than before, in the global society, and that

standards are rising. Castells (2001b:155-156), in turn, calls for reform of the school system,

educating teachers for globalisation and a multifaceted process of social learning over the

lifetime of individuals.

A number of authors call for multidisciplinary education programmes. According to Hamelink

(1995:4), universities pose an obstacle to the development of true global consciousness, by

discouraging multidisciplinary exploration, an important prerequisite to any attempt at global

understanding and knowledge. Pelton (2000:(xii-xiv)) shares this view, by calling for a move

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away from specialisation, and the introduction of multi- and interdisciplinary education and

thinking. This does not mean the abandonment of disciplines, but rather diversity in

interdisciplinary teams that can act like a >multibrain= person. This will produce a movement

towards collective consciousness which Pelton calls >Zen-like= - a thinking pattern which will

bring mankind closer to the ideas of the East (Pelton, 2000:13-16). The latter corresponds with

the paradigm of energy and connectivity, in terms of which all living and non-living systems are

connected and interdependent (Aldridge, 1997:6).

Pelton (2000:146,157) also calls for education which is more creative, self-directed and

interactive, and includes experiential learning.

Educational reform for globalisation also implies more emphasis on lifelong learning. It can be

expected that the demand for lifelong education will grow significantly as a result of the

Communication Revolution (Farrington, 1997:56). According to Leavitt (1997:188), lifelong

learners are the students of the 21st century. Those who work in the Network Society will change

jobs more often than before, will need education to adapt to new employment and will need

technology skills that are constantly updated. For tertiary institutions, this means that they need

to provide their alumni with lifelong learning opportunities to acquire the necessary employment

skills (Leavitt, 1997:189). In this regard, Leavitt (1997:182) suggests that these institutions

should employ distance education via the Internet, to provide low-cost lifelong education for

students of all ages and locations.

Although it is not the goal of this study to do an analysis of distance education, it should be

pointed out that there are authors who do not share the enthusiasm of Castells, Leavitt and others

about distance on-line education. Miller et al. (2001:145), for example, point out that

technological solutions can be costly and imperfect, as technologies sometimes fail to work.

Furthermore, this form of education does not eliminate the obstacles present among students with

a range of circumstances which attract them to distance learning, such as financial constraints,

health problems, lack of practice in the art of studying and social inequalities.

2.8 IMPLICATIONS OF GLOBALISATION FOR TECHNIKONS

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The impact of globalisation on higher education, as discussed earlier in this chapter, applies

equally to technikons. Just like firms, technikons need to remain competitive to survive in the

new South African and global environment. Technikons compete for government subsidies;

local and foreign donor support; student numbers; research output and funding; and foreign

scholarships. Financial rationalisation and competition from commercial higher education put

pressure on technikons to implement new marketing strategies, also across borders. For

example, in line with a bilateral agreement between the governments of South Africa and

Botswana that technikons would assist in educating students from Botswana - which provides

limited access to higher education - marketing of technikon courses has been extended to that

country.

Added to this is the move towards national rationalisation of higher education in the form of

merging of institutions, first proposed in 2001 and, with certain amendments, accepted by

Parliament in 2002. Some technikons are to merge with other technikons, while others are set to

merge with universities (see Section 4.2.1). Although the details of most mergers still have to be

determined, rationalisation of programmes and faculties are underway (Asmal, 2002b:annexure

A). It can be expected that some of the judging criteria will be student numbers, research output

and staff qualifications. This implies that there is added pressure on technikons to attract quality

students, improve staff qualifications and increase research output.

Technikons are also subject to competition from foreign distance educational institutions. The

development of the virtual classroom means that South Africans can earn a degree from almost

anywhere in the world, without leaving their home (Kishun, 1998:63). Distance universities in

the UK, USA and elsewhere regularly advertise their courses in South Africa.

Technikons, however, do have an advantage in South Africa=s transformation to global

competitiveness, by virtue of their emphasis on vocational and multidisciplinary education. This

makes them particularly suitable to team up with colleagues in industry and government, to

produce graduates who understand new competitive technologies and possess the practical

business and flexible creative competencies and new mental models needed for global

competitiveness (Joubert, 1995:81,85). This implies a paradigm shift for technikon staff.

>Technikon lecturers must reinvent their profession and deliver outside their functional comfort

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zones of conventional vocational teaching= (Joubert, 1995:85). The new paradigm called for can

be summarised in the following requirements:

2.8.1 Implementing change management and pursuing entrepreneurship

Moja and Cloete (2001:245) argue that in order to compete, tertiary institutions should be

managed effectively as far as staff and finances are concerned, and employ staff who are flexible,

retrainable and redeployable. Moreover, Petersen (2000:2) calls for those involved in higher

education to become change-agile, innovative and resilient, and used to uncertainty. Staff should

become new global entrepreneurs. When the local market is saturated, the global market should

be tapped (Moja & Cloete, 2001:249).

Technikons should also take cognisance of the new managerial paradigms emerging in the

context of globalisation. As pointed out in Section 2.7.4.8, this involves a worldview that

promotes a holistic and ecological viewpoint; reinstating the human spirit and transcendent

values; and a move from separateness to whole-systems thinking, cooperation and harmony. In

the management of their institutions, technikons should strive towards human-centredness and

sustainable development. Participatory management practices can be employed by creating

flatter hierarchies, by decentralisation and delegation of authority, and by mutual support and

trust. The new managerial paradigm also calls on technikons to empower the workforce,

encourage shared information, foster continuous learning for staff and to strive towards

excellence. In short, visionary leadership is what is needed by technikons in the new context of

globalisation.

2.8.2 Forming strategic alliances

According to Van Wyk (1998:(xix-xx)), international competitiveness, as well as dwindling

public financial resources, has forced tertiary institutions to seriously examine the advantages of

international collaboration in the form of partnerships and strategic alliances. It is especially in

the area of research that technikons could benefit from international alliances. Such alliances

will assist technikons in connecting to the world=s scientific networks, while at the same time

producing research specific to the needs and productive structure of South Africa (Castells,

2001d:218).

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Some technikons have already formed international alliances in the form of joint education

programmes and staff/student exchange programmes. Apart from these, collaboration at national

level is also recommended. This could be based on alliances with business and industry, other

technikons and faculties within the technikon. Kaunda (2001:6) also stresses the role that a

student affairs department can play, in collaboration with academic staff, to support the

globalisation process on campus.

2.8.3 Keeping up with technological changes

In the context of the Communication Revolution, it is crucial that technikons keep up with

technological changes, to participate in the Network Society and to train students to utilise

technology in their future careers. Pelton (2000:147) stresses the need for educational

institutions to produce cyberliterate graduates, to exploit the best new education technologies in

instruction, and to introduce education laboratories and interactive websites.

Utilising technology and keeping up with rapid changes in this field allow technikons to be part

of the competitive distributed knowledge production system, and to participate in collaborative

knowledge production groupings. Technology also provides technikons with opportunities to

participate in the establishment of cooperative alliances, both nationally and internationally, as

far as research and education are concerned.

Staff should be provided with training that allows them to keep up with technological changes.

In addition, they should be encouraged to use technology for networking, to strengthen the

position of the technikon through increased connectivity. Technology should also be employed

for knowledge management, an important management function to give technikons a competitive

advantage.

In addition, technikons should take cognisance of the potential of e-education and virtual

universities in providing borderless learning and adult on-line education.

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2.8.4 Adopting a global mindset

This mindset in technikon education involves not only a global mindset in the management of the

technikon, but also the incorporation of international components into existing education

programmes. Du Plooy (2001:97) argues that in the context of globalisation, traditional career

paths are disappearing. In this regard, both lecturers and students need to change their mindset.

Participation and the ability to work in teams that consist of rapidly changing members, working

from multiple virtual sites, mean that students must be enabled to plan their future in this

changing environment.

With regard to a global mindset, Sing et al. (2001:5) recommend that tertiary institutions should:

* regard globalisation as a continuous process

* designate a departmental leader or committee for globalisation

* globalise courses

* seek cooperation with other faculties/tertiary institutions

* maintain an enthusiastic, adventuresome attitude

* provide staff with the opportunity to develop international interests and expertise

* be open to change and the adoption of positive attitudes towards globalisation and

change

2.8.5 Renewing education programmes

The need to renew education programmes and place emphasis on lifelong learning, as discussed

in Section 2.7.4.9, applies to technikons as well. Apart from transferring knowledge, technikons

have an added responsibility to foster the new kind of thinking and the wide range of technical

competencies needed to function effectively in the new context of globalisation. Pelton

(2000:153) stresses the need to instil concepts of teamwork, critical thinking and lifelong

learning, at student level. This implies that technikons need to work with interactive technology

and Internet-based systems to develop new learning and teaming skills. These need to be

reinforced in classroom exercises and interpersonal activities, but the same activities can also be

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accomplished on cyberspace networks. Technikon programmes should also foster

interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary thinking, and encourage interactive and interdisciplinary

problem-solving projects/methods, by teaching students to pool their knowledge and experience

(Pelton, 2000:154-155).

The responsibility assigned to tertiary institutions to assist in counteracting the disintegrating

forces of globalisation, as discussed in Section 2.7.4, also impacts on education programmes at

technikons. This implies that these programmes should be revamped to instil critical thinking;

encourage understanding of, and respect for, other cultures; increase understanding of global

systems; incorporate moral and ethical principles; train students in entrepreneurship; foster

sensitivity to South Africa=s role in African development; incorporate principles of democracy;

and reflect global, African, national and local needs regarding human development. Programmes

in the wider field of communication should also foster a global mindset in strategic

communication, and teach students to make an appropriate choice between standardisation and

adaptation.

Specific requirements regarding public relations education in the context of globalisation are

pointed out in Chapters 3 and 4.

2.9 IMPLICATIONS OF GLOBALISATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION FOR THIS

STUDY

The inevitable nature of globalisation and developments pointing to globalisation emerging in

higher education in South Africa, and particularly at technikons, call for the adoption of a global

mindset for this study. Thus, the study needs a perspective that relates to that of the Globalist

and Global Sceptic described earlier. This implies an approach which does not try to resist the

forces of globalisation, but rather aims to implement proactive measures to integrate existing

local systems globally, while simultaneously striving towards preservation of local diversity and

nation-building. In other words, the slogan >think local, act global= needs to be appropriated for

this study.

The Globalist-Global Sceptic approach needs to be extended for the purpose of this study, to

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cover not only economic, but also other forms of globalisation. Furthermore, as public relations

education at technikons deals with more than economics and the corporate world, a broader

definition of globalisation, which allows for a holistic approach to globalisation, is called for.

Given the nature of public relations which, in terms of the approach adopted for this study, is

aimed at mutually beneficial relationships, understanding and cooperation, it is accepted that the

extension of the public relations function globally would imply striving towards mutual

understanding on a global basis. From this angle, it could be assumed that public relations as a

communication function has the potential to assist in the move towards increased global unity

and understanding, i.e. global consciousness. In this view, it would make sense to adopt global

consciousness, as defined in Section 2.2.6, as a goal for global public relations and as a vision for

this study.

Thus, the model for vocationally-oriented public relations education developed in this study will

be aimed at enhancing the global integration of the public relations sector, while simultaneously

counteracting the disintegrative forces of globalisation. In this regard, those measures to

counteract the disintegrative forces of globalisation - outlined in Section 2.7.4 - which relate to

this study, are accepted as a guideline for the development of this model.

Based on the above, the author has formulated the following as a working definition for this

study. While this definition could be regarded as idealistic, it provides a norm which relates to

the vision of this study.

Globalisation refers to a movement towards greater global integration in all spheres of

society - political, economic, technological, socio-cultural, educational, spiritual and

recreational - with the ultimate aim of uniting the world community in enhanced mutual

understanding, cooperation and respect for diversity, facilitating effective communication

and other transactions for the benefits of all.

The education needs arising from the impact of global forces on tertiary institutions, as outlined

in this chapter, are adopted as a guideline for the rest of this study. Furthermore, it is accepted

that an education model for public relations at technikons should contribute towards South

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Africa=s and Africa=s global integration, globalisation of higher education and nation-building in

South Africa, as outlined earlier in this chapter.

The full theoretical paradigm adopted for this study is outlined in the next chapter. The

implications of globalisation for the public relations sector are also included in Chapter 3.

Specific education needs regarding globalisation in public relations are outlined in Chapters 3

and 4. These, together with the general education needs regarding globalisation outlined in this

chapter, serve as a guideline for the development of a generic public relations education model

in Chapter 4.

The study recognises the pivotal role that technikons can play in assisting the country and

continent, and the public relations sector in particular, towards global integration.

Furthermore, the study recognises the pivotal role that public relations can play in the move

towards global consciousness and understanding. This recognition is outlined and motivated in

more detail in the next chapter.

2.10 SUMMARY

In this chapter an overview was provided of the concept globalisation as it relates to higher

education. Globalisation was defined from an economic as well as a broader point of view, and

the latter definition was applied to higher education. The developmental history of globalisation

was discussed in terms of social and economic evolution, development in telecommunication

technology, and other contributing factors such as greater mobility, political changes and

international organisations. This was related to South Africa, the rest of the African continent

and the higher education sector.

Major consequences of globalisation and its impact on higher education were outlined, pointing

out implications for this sector, and suggesting measures which could facilitate positive global

integration in higher education. Next, a discussion of theoretical approaches to globalisation was

provided, including a critical discussion of positive (integrating) and negative (disintegrating)

influences of the phenomenon. This was followed by an overview of the potential role of higher

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education to assist in overcoming the negative forces of globalisation, including suggested

measures for tertiary institutions to facilitate a positive outcome of the process.

The implications of globalisation were related to technikons, identifying measures to deal with

the phenomenon. Lastly, implications for this study were derived from the preceding part of the

chapter, and a normative working definition was formulated for this study. This section included

brief reference to the potential role of public relations in the move towards global unity and

understanding.