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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 South Korean Culture

The industrialization and urbanization of South Korea have brought many

changes especially in its capital city, Seoul, especially in economics and lifestyle

sector. Historically, Korean culture is influenced by the RRC, but Korea was able to

develop a unique identity and distinct culture. Although, South Korea and North

Korea share the same traditional culture, since the division of Korea in 1945, each

country manages to develop different forms of its culture.

Scientific progress and technology are consider important by the South Korea

government. With the support of the government, South Korean is usually among

the first to experience innovative technology. From technology side also give its

contribution to South Korean culture development especially in scientific

development. As reported in www2.cnrs.fr, “The priorities currently identified by

the government for scientific and technological research are the fields of bio

technology, healthcare, engineering sciences, new materials, aerospace, nuclear

energy, oceanology, and advanced technologies. The country‟s long-term economic

ambitions are now solidly anchored in a range of state-driven scientific R&D

programs, and are generously funded by both the private and public sectors. Major

part of South Korea‟s scientific development strategy was the creation in 1999 of the

“21st Century Frontier R&D program”, launched as part of a national plan called the

“Long-term Vision for Science and Technology Development toward 2025.” (Tearse,

2008)

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2.1.1 Demographics

According to www.cia.gov, by July 2013 South Korea has 48,955,203

populations while most of them live in the capital city, Seoul, with 9,778 million of

the population live there. Other cities, Busan with 3.439 million; Incheon 2.572

million; Daegu 2.458. million and 1.497 million live in Daejon. They use Korean

language as their national language and learn English in junior high and high school.

South Korea is homogenous in ethnic groups. 43.4% of South Korean have no

religion, while other 24.2% are Buddhist, 31.6% are Christian and 0.9% are other or

unknown. The population is well balance between 24.475.182 of female and

24.480.021of male population.

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2.1.2 Literature

According to “Tale of Hong Gildong” by Kyun Ho, the Korean alphabet,

also known as Hangul was created during the Joseon Dynasty in 1443. The modern

name Hangul (한글) was created by Ju Sigyeong in 1912. Hangul is a featural

alphabet of 24 consonant and vowel letters. Modern literature is often linked with

the development of hangul, which helped spread literacy from the dominant classes

to the common people, including women. Hangul, however, only reached a dominant

position in Korean literature in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a

major growth in Korean literature (Ho, 2011).

2.1.3 Foreign Influences

Initially was influenced by the United States and Japan, mostly during and

after the Japanese occupation, in recent years South Korea has been absorbed other

foreign countries culture. Many people enjoyed other culture by accepting and doing

it in daily basis, especially for films and foods. It is not hard to find kinds of western

food and coffee chains in South Korea. As written in New York Times by Ben

Schott, coffee shop is one of the most favourite place for South Korean to work,

study or socialise so the, to make it short they call it “Coffice‟. Furthermore,

the Korean language has had a huge influx of English words, sometimes called

as Konglish. Konglish is the use of English words in a Korean context. Moreover,

South Korean has been highly influenced by foreign styles both in fashion and music

(Schott, 2010).

2.1.4 Art

According to Asia Society, Korean art has been highly influenced

by Buddhism and Confucianism, which can be seen in the many traditional paintings,

sculptures, ceramics and the performing arts (Lee, 2013). Moreover, according to

Center of Foreign Languages and Culture, post-war modern Korean art started to

flourish in the 1960s and 1970s, when South Korean artists took interest in

geometrical shapes and intangible subjects. Establishing a harmony between man and

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nature was also a favorite of this time. Because of social instability, social issues

appeared as main subjects in the 1980s. Art was influenced by various international

events and exhibits in Korea, and with it brought more diversity (http://uic.edu.hk,

2014).

Korean television shows, especially the short form dramatic mini-series

called "dramas", have also become popular outside of Korea, becoming another

driving trend for wider recognition. The trend has caused some Korean actors to

become better known abroad. The dramas are popular mostly in Asia. The stories

have tended to have a romance focus, such as Princess Hours, Winter Sonata, Full

House, and Secret Garden. Historical/fantasy dramas have included Dae Jang

Geum, The Legend, and Dong Yi an.

Until the 1990s, trot and ballads are popular music that dominates South

Korea (http://uic.edu.hk, 2014). According to “K-Pop: A New Force in Pop Music”

by Yoon-mi Kim and Haeoe Hongbowon, as time goes by, pop music in South Korea

keep growing and is much influenced by the western music. Korean pop music pre-

modern first appeared in the 1930s due to the entry of Japanese pop music which also

affect the initial elements of pop music in Korea. Japanese occupation of Korea also

makes Korean music genre can‟t be evolving and just follow the development of

Japanese pop culture at the time. In the 1950s and 1960s, the influence of western

pop music started to go with the many musical performances held by the U.S.

military bases in South Korea (Yoon-mi Kim, 2011). As South Korea music

developing over time, in the 2000s RnB music as well as Hip-Hop mixed with

American RnB and Hip-Hop elements is becoming a hits and it is the year also for

the “Hallyu” wave, which is to the spread of Korean pop culture globally in various

countries around the world, especially through music.

Grooming and going to plastic surgeon is not a rare thing in South Korean

society and also, it is not a hard thing in South Korea to find men dressed up. Most

of South Koreans are tend to look for the best, as they think that appearance is the

most crucial thing for any business. As reported in The Oxonian Globalist, the

turning point is when the South Korean President, Roh Moo-hyun‟s 2005 operation

to get a double-eyelid, has boosted up South Korean perception about being “pretty”,

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especially men (Robb, 2012). They tend to look and follow their public figure style

in order to look perfect and be acceptable in society.

2.2 Korean Pop Culture

In 1992 marks the beginning of modern pop music in Korea which gave a

new color to the genre of rap music, rock, techno. This trend also produced many

music bands and other quality musicians until now. Pop music 90s tends wing dance

and hip hop. In the 2000s talented newcomers began to appear. R & B music as

well as Hip-Hop is oriented to the American print artists sort of MC Mong, 1TYM,

Rain, Super Junior, Big Bang is quite successful in Korea and overseas, not

something that is rare for boy bands such as Big Bang or Super Junior had sold out

shows in many oversees countries such as Japan, Indonesia, France, Peru, etc.

K-pop, stands for Korean Pop ("Korean Pop Music"), is a type of popular

music that originated from South Korea. Hallyu or Korean Wave is the term given to

the spread of Korean pop culture globally in various countries around the world, it

also triggers people to learn the Korean language and Korean culture, especially in

music. Many artists and groups have penetrated the Korean pop music in the country

boundaries and popular in foreign. It is also reported in The Telegraph, that PSY‟s

Gangnam Style video became the most popular clip ever on YouTube with more than

900 million views (and still increasing at the rate of about nine million a day). It

became the first Korean pop song to top the British charts, crossing over into

mainstream culture as establishment figures jumped on to the bandwagon

(McCormick, 2012).

K-Pop is known for its catchy tunes. It has various element of electronic

dance music, such as dubstep, trance, and electro arranged in conventional pop song

structure and it is well accepted by society. In addition to taking off in Asia in a big

way, K-Pop has found some popularity in the United States, as proved by gaining

millions of worldwide viewer each day through their video music on youtube.

Strongly promote the visual and performance of each member in a group,

every girl or boy bands have their own management to manage and set them to be as

perfect as possible as a public figure. Many of K-Pop fans have even made them as a

role model or style icon in South Korea society. These icons go to gym or

dermatologist to make them more perfect each day, and it is part from their daily life.

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Even then, many of those Hallyu Stars were willing to do several plastic surgeries in

order to have perfect figure. Moreover, many male idols also done plastic surgeries.

Fig. 2.1 Super Junior‟s Kyuhyun has done several times of plastic surgery.

Fig. 2.2 Kwanghee of Idol group ZE:A has done a major plastic surgery to his face.

Fig. 2.3 EXO‟s Luhan has done plastic surgeries to his nose, chin, and eyelid.

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In terms of style, girl band or boy band has their own image of style. Each

band is either represents the image of the band or the image of each member‟s

individual personality. Furthermore, the style is also changing rapidly according to

some specific requirement, generally for shows, releasing single, debut album or

mini album. These pictures of Big Bang below are one example of K-Pop style

transformation through their early career, 2006 until 2013.

2.2.1 Kkonminam

Kkonminam is a term used in South Korea since the mid-2000s that refers to

Flower Boy. According to “The Effeminacy of Male Beauty In Korea” by Rald

Maliangkay, kkonminam is a young men with a great sense of personal style and

fashion, popularized by pop idols, who may seem effeminate, in part because they

are often shown with make-up, such as eye-liner or lip gloss. Moreover, although

they are sometimes regarded as Korean Bishōnen, their gender is not commonly

questioned, nor their sexual orientation. Kkonminam was highly influenced by the

Japanese Bishōnen (Maliangkay, 2010). According to “Contemporary Japanese

Culture” by Sharalyn Orbaugh, Bishōnen is meaning "beautiful youth (boy)". The

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term describes an aesthetic that is a young man whose beauty (and sexual appeal)

transcends the boundary of gender or sexual orientation. It has always shown the

strongest manifestation in Japanese pop culture, gaining in popularity due to the

androgynous glam rock bands of the 1970s (Orbaugh, 2002).

Fig. 2.4 X Japan circa 1990, one of the Japanese heavy metal band that was

influenced by androgynous glam rock bands of the 1970s.

source: www.jpopasia.com

The raising of kkonminam itself came from the history of the ban on the

import of Japanese media and culture in South Korea that happened in 1945. At the

time, the Korean government banned all the Japanese culture that was coming to

South Korea. According to “Control of Japanese Culture in Korea” by Tomoko

Nakamura, the South Koreans had no access to Japanese media at all until the 1990s.

Until then, for the first time in early January 1999 the product of Japan are

acceptable in South Korea, many of South Korean teenager are able to read and

watch cartoon or manga. Since the ban on the import of Japanese media was

allowed, many of the teenagers were highly influenced by the character of manga.

Manga has influenced the reader mainly is their appearance. Not only the Korean

teenagers, the boy band and girl band and many actors in South Korea are being

influenced by the bishōnen phenomenon. Mostly, the teenagers in South Korea are

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really looking up to their favorite idol, the most common thing is that they like to

follow their idols hairstyle. The South Korean actors that are well known for their

„Kkonminam‟ label are Lee Min-Ho, Lee Jun Ki, Bae Yong Joon.

Fig. 2.5 Lee Min Ho

source : www.fanpop.com

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2.2.2 G-Dragon

Better known by his stage name, G-Dragon, Kwon Ji Yong is South Korean

rapper, singer, producer, songwriter, dancer, and a model. According to All Kpop,

recently he won the Style Icon Top 10 and the 2013 Style Icon of the Year Award at

2013 SIA that even made him as a fashion icon in South Korean fashion scene

(http://www.allkpop.com, 2013). He began his music career at the age of 5 as one of

the member of the kids group Little Lula, and when the contract was off, he moved

to SM Entertainment which little Ji Yong was scouted while on ski trip with his

family. He specializing dance for 5 years in SM Entertainment until the age of 13.

Then, he began to gain some interest and learn in rap music, which inspired by

American rap group Wu Tang Clan.

According to Asiae, he participated in the release of the Korean hip-

hop Flex album in 2001, becoming the youngest Korean rapper at just 13 years old

(http://www.asiae.co.k, 2012). He later got the contract to another label, YG

Entertainment. As reported in Sports Chosun, he has been trained for five years, G-

Dragon met his future fellow Big Bang member, Dong Young Bae better known by

his stage name Taeyang. Both began a hip-hop duo called “GDYB” and made

several singles. According to Sport Chosun (2006) after six years of training, Kwon

made several featured appearances on other artists' albums and even released several

singles with Dong Young-bae under the name "GDYB". G-Dragon made his official

debut as the leader of the group Big Bang in 2006, after six years of training under

YG Entertainment, with Dong Youngbae and three other members, T.O.P, Daesung,

Seungri (http://foto.sportschosun.com, 2006). He made several mini album and full

album with Big Bang in the last 7 years, G-Dragon also made a solo career and had

made some solo album in 2009.

Heartbreaker is his first solo album, and Korea reported that, the album sold

over 200,000 copies and won as the Album of the Year from the 2009 Mnet Asian

Music Awards (http://en.korea.com, 2014). In November 2010, YG Entertainment

announced the collaboration album from G-Dragon and bandmate T.O.P. According

to 10asiae, “GD&TOP” was released on Christmas Eve, and debuted at number one

on the Gaon Chart with pre-orders of 200,000 copies, and eventually sold 130,000

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copies (http://gaonchart.co.kr/, 2011). G-Dragon and fellow member T.O.P also

featured in English artist Pixie Lott's upcoming Japanese album.

On August 24, 2012, G-Dragon released mini album “One of a Kind”.

According to Billboard, the album also places first on the Billboard World Album

Chart and entered the Billboard 200 Chart at 161 for the week (www.billboard.com,

2012). As of the end of 2012, the album has sold over 200,000 copies, making it the

highest selling solo album in Korea since the release of Heartbreaker in 2009, also by

G-Dragon. On November 30, 2012, he won as Best Male Solo Artist at the 14th

Mnet Asian Music Awards. On January 31, 2013, he also won Record of the Year

award for "One Of A Kind" at the 22nd Seoul Music Awards. Moreover, in January

2013, he was the first Korean solo Artist to embark 4 dome tour in Japan (When

before replace the 3 dome tour in March) and the 1st Solo World Tour.

Other than have interest in music, G-Dragon also famous for his love for

fashion. He even interest in majoring fashion. Known as most fashionable one

among his group in Big Bang, G-Dragon has influenced fashion trends in South

Korea have garnered him awards such as the "Style Icon of 2008" and in 2008 he got

the award by Arena Magazine for “Most Influential Men of 2008”. Also, as reported

by Daily News (2011) the rapper also topped Forbes listing of "Most Hardworking

Idol",

and made into its list "Korea 2030 Power Leaders"

(http://www.dkpopnews.net/, 2010).

Furthermore, famous by his chameleon style, G-Dragon began to get public

attention since the beginning of his debut album Heartbreaker by dyed his hair to

blond. Many fans are going all G-Dragon, and the other breaking style that caught

people‟s attention is his “Seaweed” hair as fans called it while promoting the Big

Bang‟s 2012 album, Alive.

Fig. 2.6 G-Dragon‟s blond hair in his early solo career.

source: www.allkpop.com

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Fig. 2.7 G-Dragon‟s “seaweed” hair.

source: www.subeta.net

G-Dragon‟s style has changing rapidly, time by time, both his fashion and

hair style. In his early career as seen photo below, he was more into RnB to Hip-Hop

style and his style develop over time into more various kind of style, mostly

influenced by street style to dandy, punk rock star, a bit Hip-Hop, etc.

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Fig. 2.8 G-Dragon on Dazed&Confused Korea cover

source: www.sourcherry.com

Fig. 2.9 Vogue Korea anniversary issue

source: www.bigbangupdates.com

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Fig. 2.10 G-Dragon on his music video “Coup d‟etat”

source: www.xiahpop.com

Fig. 2.11 “Crooked” music video that shoot in London, UK

source: www.bigbangupdates.com

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2.3 Dandy

According to Dandyism: Beyond Fashion by Chevalier d‟Hamilton, Dandy or

dandyism first appear historically in late 18th

- and early 19-th century in Britain. By

definition the dandyism is a man who takes an excessive interest in their physical

appearance as an important thing to be kept, in a cult of self, as well as talks softly in

refined language to others and carry themselves in nonchalance attitude. This modern

practice of dandyism first appeared both in London and in Paris right in the

revolutionary era of 1790s. Despite coming from a middle-class background, a

dandy who was self-made gentleman likes to dress elegantly and tried hard to imitate

an aristocratic lifestyle (http://www.gbacg.org/, 2012).

According to the “Beau Brummell: This Charming Man” movie by Philippa

Lowthorpe, it is a trend that doctrines maintain that all humans are equal in

fundamental worth or social status (Lowthorpe, 2006). Furthermore, according to

“On Englishness in Dress” by Aileen Ribeiro, dandyism is including nostalgic

adherence to pre-industrial values, such as the ideals of “the perfect gentleman” or

“the autonomous aristocrat”, therefore, the connection between clothing and political

protest had become an English characteristic, in particular (Ribeiro, 2002).

Charles Beaudelaire who was a French poet in his essay “The Painter of

Modern Life” said, "These beings have no other status, but that of cultivating the

idea of beauty in their own persons, of satisfying their passions, of feeling and

thinking .... Contrary to what many thoughtless people seem to believe, dandyism is

not even an excessive delight in clothes and material elegance. For the perfect dandy,

these things are no more than the symbol of the aristocratic superiority of his mind."

(Beaudelaire, 2010)

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2.3.1 Early Dandyism

Dandyism had been influencing man all around London and Paris. Some

public figures were notably known for brought this social trend to political

protestation. Beau Brummell is one iconic and an original dandy in British society,

which he was not born from the aristocratic background. According to The Dandy:

Brummell to Beerbohm by Ellen Moers, he established the mode of dress for men

that rejected overly ornate fashions for one of understated, but perfectly fitted

and tailored clothing. This look was based on dark coats, full-length trousers rather

than knee breeches and stockings, and above all immaculate shirt linen and an

elaborately knotted cravat (Moers, 1960). Moreover, according to “, he is famous for

introducing and establishing as fashion, the modern men's suit, worn with a necktie

(Cassin-Scott, 2006).

Fig. 2.12 Picture of Beau Brummell by Richard Dighton (1805).

source: www.commons.wikimedia.org

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According to “Menswear” by John Hopkins, among the most notable dandies

of their ages are George „Beau‟ Brummell, Oscar Wilde and Robert de Montesque.

Closely associated with the wearing of fine tailored clothing, contemporary dandies

proudly continue a long-standing tradition of sartorial individuality (Hopkins, 2011).

2.3.2 Dandy’s Signature Style

According to “Dandyism: Beyond Fashion” by Chevalier d‟Hamilton there

are three types of dandy, the Classical Dandy, the Romantic Dandy, the Sportive

Dandy. The Classical Dandy applies Brummelian techniques to his dress, which is

following the step by step on how Beau Brummell set up his dress. The Romantic

Dandy dresses illustrate a particular mood to his audience, and the Sportive Dandy

incorporates elements of sports such as riding or hunting into his daily ensemble

(http://www.gbacg.org/, 2012).

Fig. 2.13 Lord Byron set the example for Romantics, as Brummel did for dandies.

source: www.audio-poems.com

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2.3.2.1 Men

According to Colin McDowell “The Man of Fashion: Peacock Males and

Perfect Gentlemen”, George Bryan (Beau) Brummel brought a new ethic of taste and

restraint. In a word: refinement. “The prototype of modern dress, if the Beau was

plain, he was perfectly plain.” said Colin McDowell. Moreover, the original style of

dandy came from Beau Brummel‟s aesthetic. Brummel brought to the masculine

essentials; an unadorned blue jacket with brass buttons, waistcoat, breeches, shirt and

neck cloth, the emphasis was on cut, fit, style and cleanliness. His only complexity

was in his laboriously tied white muslin, (not silk) cravat (McDowel, 1997).

Figure 2.14 The Beau Brumell way of dressing up according to “Beau Brumell: This

Charming Man” movie by Philippa Lowthorpe (Lowthorpe, 2006).

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2.4 Unisex Apparel

Unisex apparel is clothing which can be worn by both male and female

genders, and is to eliminate sexual distinctions in terms of clothing by not

distinguishing between male and female. The pattern and the silhouette of the clothes

have to having both male and female characteristics. Basically, the common

apparel of unisex apparel are shirt and pants. According to, Victoria and Albert

Museum, during the mid-1960s Clothing became increasingly unisex as men and

women shopped at the same boutiques for similar items and also, the term "unisex"

was coined in the 1960s to describe a new style of clothing that specially designed to

be worn by both genders. This term was initially born along with the rise of

“Peacock” revolution (http://www.vam.ac.uk, 2011).

According to “Costume History and Style” by Douglas A. Russell, although,

there was French designer Paul Poiret to be one of the first designer who design

pants for women, the rise of women wearing men‟s clothing became more popular in

the 1920s when corset was rejected by women and they transformed more into

masculine look, the women‟s right movement had a strong effect on it (Russell,

1982). According to “Women Who Changed the World” by Ros Horton and Sally

Simmons, Coco Chanel is one example of strong figure in this movement by wearing

trousers, did not wear corset and cut her hair. It made her to be the most influential

woman in fashion, and the icon of emancipation and freedom of women‟s fashion

(Ros Horton, 2007).

Fig. 2.15. Coco Chanel with Duke Larino

source: www.missyvintageblog.com

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Moreover, according to “Fashion: The Whole Story” by Marnie Fogg, the

trend began during the early 1900s and continued to grow until by the late 1990s.

Women wearing pants is not only for daily or casualwear but also to work. Some

iconic figures who wearing pants, regularly, are Katherine Hepburn and Marlene

Dietrich (Fogg, 2013).

Fig. 2.16 Katherine Hepburn (left) and Marlene Dietrich (right).

The trend women wearing menswear nowadays has become more common,

as the increasing number of public figure especially in K-pop waves, many of the girl

idols often seen wearing some piece from designer‟s menswear collection. For

instance, 2NE1‟s leader, CL was wearing piece from Versace‟s menswear collection

spring/summer 2013 and Givenchy‟s Rottweiler sweater from its fall/winter 2011

menswear collection.

Fig. 2.17. CL was wearing designer‟s menswear collection on-and-off screen.

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As well as for men, wearing opposite‟s gender wardrobe or wearing piece

that can be worn for both men and women was already appeared since ages ago. For

instance, leggings have been worn by both men and women throughout the centuries

in various forms. According to “Patterns of Fashion: The Cut and Construction of

Clothes for Men and Women 1560-1620” by Janet Arnold, from the Renaissance

period in 13th

to 16th

centuries, the hose which were a form of leggings were

commonly worn by men around Europe. The used of legging throughout the years

are for protection and warmth. In the 1960s legging became more popular, as

trousers but much tighter (Arnold, 1985).

Fig. 2.18. Sir Walter Raleigh in paned trunk hose, 1602.

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Some of the popular celebrities such as Kanye West and G-Dragon are also

wearing designer‟s womenswear collection.

Fig. 2.19. Kanye West in Celine‟s Womenswear Spring/Summer 2011 collection.

Fig. 2.20. G-Dragon rocked the stage in Marc Jacobs‟s Womenswear collection.

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Moreover, as fashion influenced by the increasingly advanced era, the

number of unisexwear designer has risen over time. Celebrity like Lady Gaga is one

who wears unisexwear couture collection by Rad Hourani.

Fig. 2.21. Lady Gaga in Rad Hourani Unisexwear couture collection.