Chapter 2

Sources of Innovation

Chapter

2

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Segway Human Transporter

• The Segway HT: A self-balancing, two-wheeled scooter.

• Invented by Dean Kamen• Kamen held more than 150 U.S. and foreign patents• Has received numerous awards and honorary degrees• Never graduated from college

• Developing the Segway• DEKA has a balance of “ideation” and “execution” people• Philosophy of “kissing frogs”: produce and evaluate a

wide range of potential solutions.• Segway required numerous external partnerships• By 2003, had been adopted primarily for commercial and

industrial applications.

Segway Human Transporter

Discussion Questions:1. What factors do you think enable Dean Kamen and his

company, DEKA Research, to come up with novel innovations like the IBOT or Segway?

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Kamen's philosophy of "kissing frogs"?

3. What role did external organizations play in helping Kamen translate his creative inspiration for the Segway into a commercial innovation?

Overview

• Innovation can arise from many different sources and the linkages between them.

創新的意義創新的定義：• Smith(2000)認為發明是「發現新技術原理之過程」，創新是「將發明轉換為基本的商業形式的發展過程」。

• 創新與發明常被混淆 , 發明係指前所未有的 , 是強調「絕對」的新 ;而創新則強調「相對」的新

創新的意義 (續 )

• 結合兩種 (或以上 )現有的事情 ,以較新穎的方式產生• 一個新的理念 (idea)由觀念化至實現的一組活動• 新設施的發明與執行• 對於新科技的社會改革過程• 對於一個新理念 ,由產生至採用的一連串事件• 組織、群體、或社會新改變的接受• 既有個體的新修飾或新組合• 對於既有型式而言 ,新的東西或事情• 對於採用個體而言 ,新的理念、實務、或事項• 個人或使用者認知是新的

創造力因素

發明發明

是新科技的概念或是產品的產生。( 一種產品、一種製程、一種未知系統 )

蒸氣引擎、電晶體、影印機

源自於人類創造力和想像力的結果。源自於人類創造力和想像力的結果。偶發的或靠機會或為了需求反覆嘗試偶發的或靠機會或為了需求反覆嘗試

發明

科學的發現時間落差

商品化專利保護

市場行銷

Creativity

• Creativity: The ability to produce work that is useful and novel.• Individual creativity is a function of:

• Intellectual abilities (e.g., ability to articulate ideas)• Knowledge (e.g., understand field, but not wed to paradigms)• Style of thinking (e.g., choose to think in novel ways)

• Personality (e.g., confidence in own capabilities)

• Motivation (e.g., rely on intrinsic motivation)

• Environment (e.g., support and rewards for creative ideas)

Creativity

• Organizational Creativity is a function of:• Creativity of individuals within the organization• Social processes and contextual factors that shape how

those individuals interact and behave

• Methods of encouraging/tapping organizational creativity:• Idea collection systems (e.g., suggestion box)• Creativity training programs• Culture that encourages (but doesn’t directly pay for)

creativity.

妨礙組織學習能力

•組織學習能力是建立在 :吸收以往失敗教訓的基礎上 ,累積經驗 ,創造並移轉新的知識。

•妨礙組織學習能力的三大主兇 1.有限理性 2.防衛性行為 :組織儀式 ,群帶關係及迫害妄想證

3.不良的組織設計

包括產品、服務或是製程的革新創造，並將其導入市場予以使用或商業化。

創新創新 不一定是嶄新的或初創的只要是組織第一次使用

是一種獨特性的任務 ( 熊彼得 ,1928)

過程包括整合現存的技術與發明，或是改善生產、製程、系統等。 (Jain&Triandis1990)

效果可以由市場化的形式來衡量，藉由在市場上是否有人願意收購或市獲得接受的程度，決定此創新是成功或失敗。

Transforming Creativity into Innovation

• Innovation is the implementation of creative ideas into some new device or process.

• Requires combining creativity with resources and expertise.• Inventors

• One ten-year study found that inventors typically:1. Have mastered the basic tools and operations of the field in which they

invent, but they will have not specialized solely on that field.

2. Are curious, and more interested in problems than solutions.

3. Question the assumptions made in previous work in the field.

4. Often have the sense that all knowledge is unified. They will seek global solutions rather than local solutions, and will be generalists by nature

• Such individuals may develop many new devices or processes but commercialize few.

Transforming Creativity into Innovation

• Innovation by Users• Users have a deep understanding of their own needs,

and motivation to fulfill them.

• E.g., Laser sailboat developed by Olympic sailors

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創新模型• 線性模型—產品創新模型• 有兩種 :

• 科技推動

• 市場拉動

研究發展 製造 行銷 使用者使用者

行銷 研究發展 製造 使用者使用者

Theory in Action

The Birth of the Snowboarding Industry• First snowboards not developed by sports equipment

manufacturers; rather they were developed by individuals seeking new ways of gliding over snow• Tom Sims made his first “ski board” in wood shop class.• Sherman Poppen made a “snurfer” as a toy for his

daughter – later held “snurfing” contests• Jake Burton added rubber straps to snurfer to act as

bindings

• By 2001 there were approximately 5.3 million snowboarders in the United States

Transforming Creativity into Innovation

• Research and Development by Firms• Research refers to both basic and applied research.

• Basic research aims at increasing understanding of a topic or field without an immediate commercial application in mind.

• Applied research aims at increasing understanding of a topic or field to meet a specific need.

• Development refers to activities that apply knowledge to produce useful devices, materials, or processes.

技術的類型羅威爾史提(Lowell W. Steele,1989)

創造一應用 (Creation-aplication) 的層面

基本研究

應用研究

發展

創造

設計工程

生產工程 製造

工程

品質工程

製造加工

CIM產品服務

應用產品 製程 市場

應用工程

實體配銷

界面Interface

1. 在創造與應用階段之間無法截然劃分 (Clear and cut) ，重疊地帶又可稱為 兩階段之間的界面 (interface) 。2. 每一種技術，都代表一個專業領域，不同領域之間則牽涉到界面的管理。3. 在技術的創造與應用過程中，如果對於不同領域技術之間的界面管理不當， 易造成技術片斷性 (fragmentation) 的問題，而缺乏技術的整體感。4. 在創造階段的技術管理若不事先考慮應用階段技術的配合，將易造成所開發 出來的技術不能完全適用於市場，使得管理績效大打折扣。

Transforming Creativity into Innovation

• Research and Development by Firms• Most firms consider in-house R&D to be their most

important source of innovation.

Transforming Creativity into Innovation

• Research and Development by Firms• Science Push approaches suggest that innovation

proceeds linearly:Scientific discovery inventionmanufacturing marketing

• Demand Pull approaches argued that innovation originates with unmet customer need:Customer suggestions invention manufacturing

• Most current research argues that innovation is not so simple, and may originate from a variety of sources and follow a variety of paths.

發明與創新之關係

發明創新

是一種事件是一種過程

意謂著構想與將構想開發或是商業化之間重要的關聯。

科技創新Bright,1969

包括技術概念的創始、必要知識的獲取、轉換成可適用的硬體或程序、重視導入社會、技術普及和產生的影響。

科學與技術的連結

科學科學

技術技術

探討自然法則，並發覺關於世界、全宇宙以及所有生活事件的基礎知識。

科學知識可以應用在生活中 當討論科學時科學的發現

當談論科技時

科技的創新

科學的發現將引導創新和發明新科技亦將協助新科學的發現

當科學、科技、市場相互連結時

人類生活

影響

創新循環的構成要素

Transforming Creativity into Innovation

• Firm Linkages with Customers, Suppliers, Competitors, and Complementors• Most frequent collaborations are between firm and their

customers, suppliers, and local universities.

Transforming Creativity into Innovation

• Firm Linkages with Customers, Suppliers, Competitors, and Complementors• External versus Internal Sourcing of Innovation

• External and internal sources are complements• Firms with in-house R&D also heaviest users of external

collaboration networks

• In-house R&D may help firm build absorptive capacity that enables it to better use information obtained externally.

Transforming Creativity into Innovation

• Universities and Government-Funded Research• Universities

• Many universities encourage research that leads to useful innovations

• Bayh-Dole Act of 1980 allows universities to collect royalties on inventions funded with taxpayer dollars• Led to rapid increase in establishment of technology-transfer

offices.

• Revenues from university inventions are still very small, but universities also contribute to innovation through publication of research results.

Transforming Creativity into Innovation

• Universities and Government-Funded Research• Government-Funded Research

• Governments invest in research through:• Their own laboratories

• Science parks and incubators

• Grants for other public or private research organizations

Transforming Creativity into Innovation

• Private Nonprofit Organizations• Many nonprofit organizations do in-house R&D, fund

R&D by others, or both.

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創新模型 ( 續 )• 同步聯合模型

1-29

創新模型 ( 續 )• 互動模型

1-30

創新模型 ( 續 )• 互動模型

Innovation in Collaborative Networks

• Collaborations include (but are not limited to):• Joint ventures

• Licensing and second-sourcing agreements

• Research associations

• Government-sponsored joint research programs

• Value-added networks for technical and scientific exchange

• Informal networks

• Collaborative networks are especially important in high-technology sectors where individual firms rarely possess all necessary resources and capabilities

Innovation in Collaborative Networks

• Technology Clusters are regional clusters of firms that have a connection to a common technology

• May work with the same suppliers, customers, or complements.

• Proximity facilitates knowledge exchange.• Cluster of firms can attract other firms to area.• Supplier and distributor markets grow to service the

cluster.• Cluster of firms may make local labor pool more valuable

by giving them experience. • Cluster can lead to infrastructure improvements (e.g.,

better roads, utilities, schools, etc.)

Innovation in Collaborative Networks

• Likelihood of innovation activities being geographically clustered depends on:

• The nature of the technology• e.g., its underlying knowledge base or the degree to which it can

be protected by patents or copyright, the degree to which its communication requires close and frequent interaction;

• Industry characteristics• e.g., degree of market concentration or stage of the industry

lifecycle, transportation costs, availability of supplier and distributor markets; and,

• The cultural context of the technology • e.g., population density of labor or customers, infrastructure

development, national differences in how technology development is funded or protected.

Innovation in Collaborative Networks

• Technological spillovers occur when the benefits from the research activities of one entity spill over to other entities. • Likelihood of spillovers is a function of:

• Strength of protection mechanisms (e.g., patents, copyright, trade secrets)

• Nature of underlying knowledge base (e.g., tacit, complex)

• Mobility of the labor pool

Research Brief

Knowledge Brokers• Hargadon and Sutton point out that some firms (or

individuals) play a pivotal role in the innovation network – that of knowledge brokers.

• Knowledge brokers are individuals or firms that transfer information from one domain to another in which it can be usefully applied. Thomas Edison is a good example.

• By serving as a bridge between two separate groups of firms, brokers can find unique combinations of knowledge possessed by the two groups.

Discussion Questions

1. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of a) individuals as innovators, b) firms as innovators, c) universities as innovators, d) government institutions as innovators, e) nonprofit organizations as innovators?

2. What traits appear to make individuals most creative? Are these the same traits that lead to successful inventions?

3. Could firms identify people with greater capacity for creativity or inventiveness in their hiring procedures?

4. To what degree do you think the creativity of the firm is a function of the creativity of individuals, versus the structure, routines, incentives, and culture of the firm? Can you give an example of a firm that does a particularly good job at nurturing and leveraging the creativity of its individuals?