Chapter 2 The Technical Core Learning and Teaching Presented by:Kathleen Merchant Instructor: Dr. Lauren Larsen Chapter 2 The Technical Core Learning and Teaching Presented by:Kathleen Merchant Instructor: Dr. Lauren Larsen Educational Administration EDU 547 Thursday, January Introduction Structural Levels of an Organization Parson(1960), one of the first to suggest that there are three (3) levels of structures in an organization: Technical core-is the structure of organizational activity where the actual product of the organization is produced; in the school is exemplified by the teaching and learning in the classroom. Managerial-is responsible for administering the internal affairs of the organization and also act as the mediator between the organization and environment Institutional- the bridge between the organizationa and environment, most notably to provide legitimacy for the organization. *Note the managerial level is the prime focus of this book Learning Learning -occurs when an experience produces a constant change in an individual's knowledge or their behavior. There are three (3) general theories of learning: Behavioral-changes in behaviors, skills and habits; Cognitive- emphasizes internal mental activities such as thinking, recollection creating and problem solving; and Constructivist-are interested in how persons make meaning of events and activities. Therefore, learning is viewed as construction of knowledge. Every theoretical viewpoint has various implications for teaching Behavioral Perspective on Learning Skinner and his believers strongly believe that antecedents and consequences help cultivate behaviors. This perspective clearly concentrates on behaviors. This viewpoint defines learning as changes in an individuals behavior-with little worries for mental or internal process of thinking. Skinner and his believers strongly believe that antecedents and consequences help cultivate behaviors. This perspective clearly concentrates on behaviors. This viewpoint defines learning as changes in an individuals behavior-with little worries for mental or internal process of thinking. Behavioral Perspective on Learning cont. Behavior is what a person does in a given circumstance. It can also be viewed as being squashed between two environmental factors Antecedents Consequences Can be referred to as A-B-C Outcomes of the behavior Consequences Reinforcements Positive/Negative Behavioral Perspective on Learning cont. Kinds of Reinforcement and Punishments Behavioral Perspective on Learning cont. Antecedents-behaviors that precede a behavior Provide information about which behaviors will lead to positive/negative consequences Cueing is the provision of antecedent stimuli just prior to a specific behavior Note nonjudgmental cues are most effective Prompting-provision of additional cues subsequent to the first one Always fade prompts -dont encourage students to reliant Teaching Applications of the Behavioral Approach Guiding principles Give lucid and systematic praise Recognize genuine accomplishments Recognize positive behavior in the fashion that student value Adapt the punishment to fit the behavior Specific examples of the application of behavioral theory to the classroom teaching: Functional behavioral assessment, learning objectives and direct instruction(examples of application behavioral theory) Guiding principles Give lucid and systematic praise Recognize genuine accomplishments Recognize positive behavior in the fashion that student value Adapt the punishment to fit the behavior Specific examples of the application of behavioral theory to the classroom teaching: Functional behavioral assessment, learning objectives and direct instruction(examples of application behavioral theory) Teaching Applications of the Behavioral Approach cont. (Positive Behavior Support based in a Functional Behavioral Assessment-FBA) Helps both regular & special education teachers to successfully deal with problematic behaviors Problem behaviors most of the time fall into four(4) categories: Garner attention from others Escape from some unpleasant situation Get a desired item/activity Meet sensory needs Teaching Applications of the Behavioral Approach cont. The benefits of conducting FBAs Allows a better understanding of the problem behavior Utilizes a variety of methods/procedures to obtain information about A-B-C to ascertain the reason/function Findings enable schools to develop an intervention package As soon as a determination is made of the function of the behavior Develop a plan to support positive options Teaching Applications of the Behavioral Approach cont. Positive Behavioral Support(PBS) IDEA requires PBS for SWD and those at risk PBS-designed to replace problematic behaviors with newer ones There are many benefits of PBS Decrease in school-wide disciplinary problems Reduce problem behaviors (supported by FBA) Teaching Applications of the Behavioral Approach cont. Learning Objectives Instructional objectives are clear and highlights the teachers educational goals for the student Mager (1997),noted that a good objective has three(3) parts: (a) Intended student behavior (b) Conditions that behavior will occur (c) Acceptable criteria for acceptable performances Recent studies tend to favor both combine specific and broad objectives Instructional objectives are clear and highlights the teachers educational goals for the student Mager (1997),noted that a good objective has three(3) parts: (a) Intended student behavior (b) Conditions that behavior will occur (c) Acceptable criteria for acceptable performances Recent studies tend to favor both combine specific and broad objectives Teaching Applications of the Behavioral Approach cont Direct Instruction Direct instruction apply well when teaching students basic skills Science facts Mathematics computations Reading vocabulary and grammar rules However there are noted cautions which are: Creativity Complex problem solving Emotional growth Teaching Applications of the Behavioral Approach cont Direct Instruction Six (6) teaching functions of effective teaching: Review/check previous Introduce new material-small group instruction Provide guided practice-probe students-re-teach if necessary-80% percent accuracy rate Provide feedback/corrections Provided opportunity for independent work Recap-weekly/monthly(test often-re-teach ) (Rosenshine, 1988; Rosenshine and Stevens, 1986 ) Teaching Applications of the Behavioral Approach cont. Direct Instruction There are a few cons as it relates to direct instruction: Employs- Lower level objectives Lower level teaching methods Hinders student independence-thought and actions Students are viewed as: empty and waiting to receive knowledge rather than the builder of knowledge All in all, guided and independent practice with constructive feedback are essential to the direct instruction model. There are a few cons as it relates to direct instruction: Employs- Lower level objectives Lower level teaching methods Hinders student independence-thought and actions Students are viewed as: empty and waiting to receive knowledge rather than the builder of knowledge All in all, guided and independent practice with constructive feedback are essential to the direct instruction model. A Cognitive Perspective on Learning During the middle 1900s cognitive science was inactive, however; by the end of the second World War cognitive research emerged Evidence surfaced to prove that individuals do more than just respond to reinforcement and punishment Immense realization-learning is an active mental process Raised awareness-how knowledge was presented and recalled A Cognitive Perspective on Learning Knowledge-what a person knows and this will determine the following: Pay close attention to Perceive Learn Remember Forget Knowledge definitely directs new learning * Read the text page 54 gives a excellent example Kinds of Knowledge Recognized by the Cognitive Perspective of Learning General knowledge Domain-specific knowledge Categories of knowledge Declarative-can be declared(e.g. words lectures and books) Procedural-knowing how to execute Conditional- knowing when and how to apply either of the above Information Processing Model (refer to page 57) Sensory Memory-SM Meaning is constructed from objective reality/exiting knowledge Perception Working Memory-WM New information is held for short time and is combined with knowledge-long term memory (limited capacity) Rehearsal & Chunking) Learn (save o) Long Term Memory-LTM The capacity is unlimited Three(3) kinds of(LTM) episodic, procedural & semantic Permanent Storage retrieve/Recall Temporary Storage Stimuli Information Processing Model Storing and retrieving information in long-term memory Elaboration-adding meaning to fresh information, this is done by connecting it with already existing knowledge Organization-makes it easier to learn/remember Context-influences learning, the physical and emotional features-helps with prodding a persons memory Note* All of the above aid with the integration of new information with previous information Storing and retrieving information in long-term memory Elaboration-adding meaning to fresh information, this is done by connecting it with already existing knowledge Organization-makes it easier to learn/remember Context-influences learning, the physical and emotional features-helps with prodding a persons memory Note* All of the above aid with the integration of new information with previous information Teaching Applications of the Cognitive Approach Underlining/highlighting-popular amongst graduate students Taking Notes-focuses attention, aids with encoding information, increasing the likelihood of the information being transferred into LTM Visual Tools-assist with the structure/organization of learning material Mnemonics-systematic procedure for improving memory(e.g. jingles & rhymes) A Constructivist Approach to Learning Constructivism-the learner constructs knowledge for his/her self (individual & social) Types of constructivism: Psychological/Individual-concerned with individual knowledge, beliefs, self-concept or the learners identity Vygotskys social aka second wave learning believed that cultural tools play a pivotal role in cognitive development Radical-argues that knowledge is not a mirror of the external world-experiences affects ones thinking/thinking affects ones knowledge *Piaget argued that the major goal of education help children learn how to learn How is Knowledge Constructed? Reality and truths of the outside environment directs its construction-the way things are Internal processes-organization, assimilation and accommodation-develops and grows with cognitive activity Directed by internal and external -develops through interactions (cognitively and socially) How is Knowledge Constructed? cont. Situated learning argues the notion that the real world is not the same as learning in school. Referred to as enculturation- norms, skills and behaviors Not-individual cognitive structure but a formation of community Situated learning argues the notion that the real world is not the same as learning in school. Referred to as enculturation- norms, skills and behaviors Not-individual cognitive structure but a formation of community Teaching Applications Constructivist Approaches Extraction of ideas and prior experiences Assistance with elaboration/restructure current knowledge elicit Engagement in difficult, but meaningful activities Application of knowledge in various and authentic contexts Utilization of a variety of assessment strategies to gauge students development Mark Windschitl (2002). *Authentic task and activities-complex circumstances Constructivist Approaches to Teaching Inquiry Learning Process (Introduced by John Dewey,1910) Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning-teacher introduces a brain-teasing event, question and problem Requirements of students Devising a hypothesis-to explain problem, data collection, inference, and reflection Note* a good balance between content-focused and problem based learning might be the best teaching approach for elementary and secondary students Arends (2000). Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning-teacher introduces a brain-teasing event, question and problem Requirements of students Devising a hypothesis-to explain problem, data collection, inference, and reflection Note* a good balance between content-focused and problem based learning might be the best teaching approach for elementary and secondary students Arends (2000). Constructivist Approaches to Teaching cont. Cognitive apprenticeship-allows the beginner an opportunity to be taught(by master) a number of skills. Six characteristics of apprenticeship models: Observation-modeling of the task(teacher) Support-coaching/tutoring-feedback Conceptual folding-gradually fades Continuous articulation of knowledge-by the student Reflection-by student to evaluate their pre and post performance Exploration/application of new skills learned Constructivist Approaches to Teaching Cooperative Learning Face to face communication Positive interdependence Individual accountability Collaborative skills Group processing Jigsaw and Scripted cooperation Remember *Monitoring of the group enables the teacher to conclude if the group is viable Constructivist Approaches to Teaching Cooperative Learning and Inclusive Classrooms Requires careful planning and preparation especially for SWD Probability of not being beneficial for gifted students Disadvantage for SWD(e.g. social rejection) Smith argued research has that cooperative learning is not always effective for students with learning difficulties (as cited in Hoy & Miskel p. 81) In closing Knowledge is not a copy of reality. To know an object, to know and event, is not simply to look at it and make a mental copy of it. To know an object is to act on it. To know it to modify, to transform the object, and to understand the process of this transformation, and as a consequence to understand the way the object is constructed. Jean Piaget Knowledge is not a copy of reality. To know an object, to know and event, is not simply to look at it and make a mental copy of it. To know an object is to act on it. To know it to modify, to transform the object, and to understand the process of this transformation, and as a consequence to understand the way the object is constructed. Jean Piaget