Chapter 21: Punctuation PotpourriCopyright © 2013

Punctuation Conversation https://www.facebook.com/grammarly

In this chapter, we’ll review some basic rules of punctuation that you’ll find helpful in your writing. Punctuation includes all those little marks like commas, periods, semicolons, and colons that are used to help direct readers through an essay the same way traffic devices like red lights, stop signs, and yield signs help to direct cars along the roads.

Punctuation: Road signs for sentences1. Periods Abbreviations

Question Marks Exclamation PointsSemicolons ColonsParentheses DashesApostrophes ContractionsPlurals

Period

As everyone knows, periods mark the end of sentences. You can see lots of examples in this paragraph. Periods signal that the writer has completed her thought for one sentence and is ready to move on with a different thought for the next sentence. The period asks the reader to pause for a second before continuing. You can sense the pause when periods are used throughout the sentence as the following Grammarly cartoon illustrates:

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Some sentences make a statement; others are a command or order. Both end with periods. For example:

Please tell the advisor that I’ve signed up for my classes.

To get to the museum, take the third right at the light.

Most questions, of course, end in a question mark, but there are a few cases when you even use a period after a question. Grammar people call them Indirect Quotes. Here are some examples:

Direct Quote The nurse asked: “Have you completed your blood test?”

Indirect Quote The nurse asked if I had completed the blood test.

Direct Quote She wondered: “Have you completed the required paperwork?”

Indirect Quote She wondered if I had completed the required paperwork.

Abbreviations

It gets a little more complicated when you use periods with abbreviations. Abbreviations shorten words you use a lot to save time. Often you signal an abbreviation by putting a period at the end. Here are some examples:

Time: He left class at 10:00 a.m. The Pharaoh was born in 1520 B.C.E.

Titles: Mr. Ms. Dr.

You can shorten or abbreviate lots of words, but be careful about doing this in formal essays—it’s usually not allowed:

Full Title Abbreviatio

When it’s okay to use in a college essay

nMeasurement feet ft. only when

you’re reporting data—60 ft.

Time minutes min. only when you’re reporting data—60 min.

Streets avenue ave. only in addresses, do not abbreviate streets, avenues, etc. in your essay

Some abbreviations have been used so often, periods are no longer used. Again, be careful when you use these in your college essays.

Full Title Abbreviation

When it’s okay to use in a college essay

States Colorado CO Use only in addresses in a business letter:Jack Porta2160 17th St.Longmont, CO80501

Mileage miles per gallon

mpg Use only when you’re reporting data—60 mpg.

Streets Avenue Ave. Use only in addresses in a business letter, do not abbreviate streets, avenues,

etc. in your essay

Some abbreviations shorten words by using the first letter of each name in a title. Some of these abbreviations have been used so often that periods are no longer needed. It’s even okay to use these abbreviations in your college essay. Here are some examples:

Abbreviation

Full Title

ATM Automatic Teller MachineFBI Federal Bureau of InvestigationAIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency SyndromeLASER Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

RadiationTV TelevisionAM [or] A.M. A time signal when the hour is before noon: 9:00 AMPM [or] P.M. A time signal when the hour is before noon: 4:20 PMUSA [or] U.S United States of America

Money Write out cents and use numerals for amounts less than a dollar. Use a dollar sign and decimal point for amounts of more than a dollar. Example: The raise of 50 cents brought his wage to $7.75 an hour.

Your professor may have a preference about which abbreviations are okay to us. If you’re in doubt, make sure to ask her.

Grammar Challenge : Acronyms

An Acronym is a special type of abbreviation in which you take the first letter of several words to spell a new word that stands for something. Here are some examples:

AIDS : acquired immune deficiency syndrome NATO : North Atlantic Treaty Organization Scuba : self-contained underwater breathing apparatus Laser : Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation UNICEF : United Nations International Children's

Emergency Fund

Notice that because these abbreviations spell words, they don’t use periods after each letter. And it’s okay to use them in your college essays.

A Famous Acronym used by American Soldiers in World War II

One of the more interesting Acronyms was developed by the U.S. soldiers during World War II. The war required a massive effort, including the army’s mind boggling bureaucracy, which moved at its own pace and oftentimes for random reasons. In response to the frustration of getting things done with this bureaucracy, American soldiers developed the term, SNAFU, which has come to mean a confused or chaotic state; a mess. But SNAFU was originally an Acronym. What did it mean to our troops? Situation Normal All F**ked Up. Today, SNAFU is popular as Internet slang, having, of course, the same meaning. Our soldiers would be proud.

Grammar Challenge : Acronyms Have a Storied History

Acronyms go way back. Before computers, typewriters, ballpoint pens, or even the printing press, when people had to inscribe everything by hand, they had a strong motivation to shorten what they had to write. Acronyms helped, and because they spelled new words, people found them interesting. One of the most fascinating examples of ancient acronyms was that the Church inscribed INRI (pronounced Enree) above depictions of the crucifix. INRI is an Acronym. The letters in Latin stand for the following words: Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum (Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews). — I and J in Latin are often mixed.www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/INRI.html

Crucifixion, Painting by Matthias Grunewald, 1515, with INRI above

• Here are helpful websites where you can learn more about periods and abbreviations. http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/period.htm http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/abbreviations.htm

Punctuation: Road signs for sentences Periods Abbreviations2. Question Marks Exclamation Points

Semicolons ColonsParentheses DashesApostrophes ContractionsPlurals

Question Marks

We all know to put a Question Mark ? at the end of questions we ask in our writing:

1. What is waiting period for applying for the job?2. Why do you ask?3. How do I get to campus?

With questions, you don’t need to have full sentence to add a Question Mark, just a question:

Right? The store at the corner? Who has the right answer? Do you want one slice? two slices? Three slices? (Notice that

you don’t use capitals before each of the short questions strung together.)

You also use a Question Mark when a question is added in the middle or at the end of a sentence.

The essay is due Monday, isn’t it? She does excellent word, doesn’t she? You do know, don’t you, that the deadline has passed?

There are a few times when it might seem like you’re asking a question, but you don’t use a Question Mark.

I wonder if he’s coming with us. Mark asked when daylight savings started.

Exclamation Points

We all know that Exclamation Points ! are used to show emphasis, emotion, or strong command.

Don’t go there! Watch out! What in the world are you doing!

You don’t need to have full sentence to add an Exclamation Point.

Yes! Surprise!

Even though Exclamation Points helps to show strong emotion, make sure you don’t overuse them. Often the writing, itself, shows the emotion, making an Exclamation Point unneeded and overkill.

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• Here are helpful websites for learning more about Question Marks and Exclamation Points. http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/question.htm http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/exclamation.htm

Punctuation: Road signs for sentences Periods Abbreviations

Question Marks Exclamation Points3. Semicolons Colons

Parentheses DashesApostrophes ContractionsPlurals

Semicolons

1. The primary way semicolons ; are used is to connect two sentences that are related. Semicolons take the place of periods, but while a period separates two sentences, a semicolon brings them together, focusing the reader’s attention on their relationship. Notice that we’re not talking about commas. Some people try use commas to connect sentences, but that doesn’t work in a formal essay; you need a period or semicolon.

Here’s an example of how a semicolon connects two related sentences:

Correct A long time ago, students used typewriters for their essays; today, they use computers.

Correct A long time ago, students used typewriters for their essays. Today, they use computers.

Incorrect A long time ago, students used typewriters for their essays, today, they use computers.

By using a semicolon, the writer focuses the reader’s attention on the relationship between typewriter use in the past and computer use today. If you don’t see that close connection, don’t use a semicolon; use a period.

2. A second way you can use semicolons is with transition words, like however, therefore, furthermore and in addition. Here are some examples:

I like ice cream; however, I don’t like the calories.

Your point is well taken; furthermore, there are unforeseen consequences in adopting the opposing resolution.

Both the semicolon and the transition word show a relationship between the two sentences.

Here’s an important point. You must use semicolons to connect two full sentences. You cannot use semicolons to connect phrases or subordinate clauses (see chapters 16, 17, and 19). Here are some examples.

Correct (two sentences)

A long time ago, students used typewriters for their essays; today, they use computers.

Incorrect (subordinate clause)

Even though a long time ago students used typewriters for their essays; today, they use computers.

Incorrect (phrase)

Unlike a long time ago; students use computers today.

One exception in the semicolon connecting two full sentences rule is in quotes.

A word of advice: Don’t overuse Semicolons

Even though semicolons work well to show a relationship between two sentences, and they add variety to your writing, if overused, they’ll annoy the reader. Like using unnecessarily big words, semicolons make it seem like you’re showing off. Resist the urge to use any more than one semicolon per page in your essays.

3. A third way you use semicolons is when a sentence already needs commas for one reason and, without using semicolons for a second reason, you might confuse the reader. Here are some examples:

Kristen is from Los Angeles, California; Brian is from Seattle, Washington; and Jesus is from Portland, Oregon.

Standing at the front on each side of the bride and groom were Reid, the bride’s brother; Aaron, the groom’s brother; Lindsay, the bridesmaid; and John, the best man.

Normally, you would use a comma to divide each item in a series, but because there’s already a comma after the city in the first example, and after each of the people in the second example, you need a semicolon to make sure the reader knows the next item is coming in each list.

Colons

Like semicolons, colons : must be used after a complete sentence, but colons have a different purpose. One editor described colons as a gate: they invite the reader to go through and read what’s on the other side. And unlike semicolons, what’s on the other side need not be a complete sentence. Here are some examples:

Giving examples

I have two favorite classes: history and math.

Introducing an idea

“In three words I can sum up everything I've learned about life: it goes on.” ― Robert Frost

Introducing a list

Our meeting has the following agenda:1. Treasurer’s report2. Election of officers3. Proposal to have recycling bins on campus4. Proposal to have a fundraiser in the spring5. Other

Introducing a quote

Here’s my favorite Buddhist saying: “We are not punished for our anger. We are punished by our anger.”

Here’s an important rule about colons: Don’t use a colon unless it’s after a complete sentence.

Correct (full sentence followed by a list)

My favorite recipe for Tiramisu includes the following ingredients: egg yolks, sugar, milk, heavy cream, vanilla extract, mascarpone cheese, brewed coffee, rum, and cocoa powder.

Incorrect (not after the verb)

My favorite recipe for Tiramisu includes: egg yolks, sugar, milk, heavy cream, vanilla extract, mascarpone cheese, brewed coffee, rum, and cocoa powder.

Incorrect (not after an incomplete sentence)

My favorite recipe for Tiramisu: egg yolks, sugar, milk, heavy cream, vanilla extract, mascarpone cheese, brewed coffee, rum, and cocoa powder.

When you’re using quotes in your essays, only use semicolons after full sentences. Use commas after verbs like wrote and said.

Use a colon after a full sentence introducing a quote.

I agree with a line from a John Lennon song: “Life is what happens while you are busy making other plans.”

Use a comma after a verb introducing a quote.

John Lennon wrote, “Life is what happens while you are busy making other plans.”

Here are some other ways you use colons:

After an opening or salutation in business letters and email—use a comma in informal letters and email

Formal letter and email Dear Ms. McDougal:

Informal letter and email Hey Eric,

To separate hours from minutes in giving time (Notice that am and pm are so common they don’t need periods.)

1:15 pm

10:10 am

Dialogue in plays and movies

Poole: Hal, there's something about the mission that we weren't told. Something that the rest of the crew know and that you know. We'd like to know whether this is true.

Hal: I'm sorry, Frank, but I don't think I can answer that question without knowing everything that all of you know.

Bowman: He’s got a point.

Dialogue from 2001: A Space Odyssey

Astronauts, Bowman and Poole, as seen by the HAL 9000 computer in the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey

http://onlyhdwallpapers.com/space/2001-a-space-odyssey-hal9000-desktop-hd-wallpaper-746256/

2001: A Space Odyssey is considered to be one of the greatest science fiction movies of all time. The movie dates from 1968 and imagines the world in the distant future of 2001. The film was produced and directed by Stanley Kubrick and written by the great science fiction writer, Arthur C. Clarke. The story concerns a series of encounters between humans and mysterious black monoliths that are apparently affecting human evolution, and a space voyage to Jupiter tracing a signal emitted by one such monolith found on the moon.

The two astronauts on this voyage are joined by the HAL 9000 computer, who has full control over their spaceship. Upon making an error, “HAL” (a take-off—one letter removed from IBM) has a “mental breakdown,” deciding that since he cannot make an error, it must be the astronauts that are the problem and proceeds to attempt to get rid of them so the mission can be successful.

In both cinematography and special effects, the film was the foundation for all the science fiction movies that followed.

Adapted from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(film)

View 2001: A Space Odyssey official trailer: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E8TABIFAN4o

• Here are some helpful websites for learning more about Semicolons and Colons. http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/semicolon.htm http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/colon.htm

Punctuation: Road signs for sentences Periods Abbreviations

Question Marks Exclamation PointsSemicolons Colons

4. Parentheses DashesApostrophes ContractionsPlurals

Parentheses

The most important part of a sentence is the Subject and Verb (chapter 13). You can also build up the sentence by adding Support: Adjectives, Adverbs, Phrases, and Clauses (chapters 14-17). Start with a simple sentence:

• NASA’s Curiosity rover still has a long way to go.

Adding supporting information:

• On the first anniversary of its landing on Mars, NASA’s Curiosity rover still has a long way to go.

So far, so good, but you can also add change the direction of the sentence with information that gives background and interest, but is not part of the mainstream sentence: Subject\Verb and Support. There are three ways you can add extra information in a sentence: Commas, Parentheses, and Dashes. Look at each of these methods like detours on a road. You take the reader off the road to inform or entertain with extra information, then bring her back to the main road to continue her journey.

As you move from commas to parentheses to dashes the detour gets more noticeable and abrupt.

1. Commas

Think of commas as a very mild detour. You’re taking the reader off road, but the she hardly notices a change. Here’s an example:

• The Curiosity , NASA’s Mars rover, still has a long way to go in its exploration of the red planet.

The writer gives background about her Subject by explaining that the Curiosity is NASA’s Mars rover, while the primary purpose of the sentence is to tell the reader that the rover landed “still has a long way to go in its exploration of the red planet.” The first comma signals the

detour, and the second comma signals that you’re getting back on the main road.

• The rover, roughly the size of a car, ended up right where it had been aimed.

The writer gives background by explaining that the rover is roughly the size of a car, while the primary purpose of the sentence is to tell the reader that the rover landed “right where it had been aimed.” The first comma signals the detour, and the second comma signals that you’re getting back on the main road.

Commas signal a detour maybe for a scenic overlook

Scenic detour at the Great River Road in Wisconsin. http://library.byways.org/assets/66481

You can also use Commas to give background information about a person whom your reader may not know:

• For now, science is secondary as Curiosity crawls across a barren, largely uninteresting landscape. “Pretty much pure driving, pedal to the metal,” said John P. Grotzinger, the mission’s project scientist.

Using a comma, the writer adds to the sentence by letting the reader know that John P. Grotzinger is the mission’s project scientist. (Notice that if the background information is at the beginning or the end of the sentence, you only need to use one comma.)

2. Parentheses

Parentheses also interrupt the sentence to give extra information, but are a quieter break than commas. It’s as if you’re whispering to the reader, letting her know that while you’re giving some helpful, even interesting, information, she doesn’t really need to read that information, because it’s needed to understand the sentence.” It’s like you and a friend are at the financial aid office at college, and when the attendant hands you a financial aid form, your friend not knowing whether you’ve come with a pen, but not wanting to force a pen on you, just holds up her pen as a signal as if to communicate, “You can use my pen if you like, but if you have a pen, just get on with it.”

Oh no, another form to fill out.http://www.designdestinations.org/2011/10/kendall-college-of-art-and-design-faculty-create-cool-desk/

Here are some examples of parentheses adding extra information to sentences:

• Observations from orbit pointed to the presence of clay minerals at the base of the Mount Sharp (named in honor of Robert P. Sharp, a prominent geologist and Mars expert).

Using parentheses, the writer adds to the sentence by letting the reader know that Mount Sharp is named in honor of Robert P. Sharp, a prominent geologist and Mars expert.

You could also write:

• Observations from orbit pointed to the presence of clay minerals at the base of the Mount Sharp (the mountain is named in honor of Robert P. Sharp, a prominent geologist and Mars expert ).

No Capital No Period within the parentheses

Notice in the above example that if you enclose a full sentence in parentheses, within a larger sentence, you do not capitalize the beginning of the enclosed sentence, and you don’t use a period at the end. On the other hand, if you enclose a full sentence in parentheses, but the full sentence is stands on its own outside the main sentence, you need to both capitalize the beginning and use a period at the end. For example:

• Observations from orbit pointed to the presence of clay minerals at the base of the Mount Sharp. (The mountain is named in honor of Robert P. Sharp, a prominent geologist and Mars expert.)

Capital Period

You can also use Parentheses instead of commas when the extra information has commas in it. Having commas for different reasons can be confusing, and parentheses neatly solve the problem. This is especially true with dates. Here’s an example:

Too many commas

On the first anniversary of when it first landed on Mars, August 5, 2012, NASA’s Curiosity rover still has a long way to go.

Better On the first anniversary of when it first landed on Mars (August 5, 2012), NASA’s Curiosity rover still has a long way to go.

Dashes

Unlike commas and parentheses, Dashes show a big break in the sentence. Dashes take the reader in a new and often unexpected direction. You’re telling the reader: “Hold up and read this before going on. It might surprise you.” Dashes are more dramatic.

http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/dashes-versus-colons

Dashes signal a more important, surprising detour in the road, that a reader must travel before resuming his journey.

Bridge collapse Interstate 5 in Washington State. Survivor: “I can’t believe we’re alive.”http://www.kplu.org/post/crews-begin-removing-collapsed-i-5-bridge

http://www.sistersofndblog.org/detours-road-blocks-and-construction/

Here are some examples of Dashes used to add unusual information:

• The rover’s first day — or sol, the term for a Martian day — began in the early morning of Aug. 6, 2012.

The writer uses Dashes not only to add extra information, but also he believes that a Martian day having a completely different name — a sol — may be surprising to the reader.

• At the site, the first rock Curiosity drilled, struck the jackpot — clays.

The writer uses Dashes not only to add extra information, but also to stress the importance of finding clays. Using Dashes sets the reader up for the scientist’s conclusion that “[Clays] in this part of Mars formed in watery conditions that were surprisingly Earthlike. ‘Unquestionably, Mars was a habitable planet in its ancient past,” Dr. Grotzinger said.’”

• Because Curiosity is driving at a careful pace — up to 100 yards a day — the journey will take eight or nine months.

The writer uses Dashes not only to add extra information, but also because he believes that Curiosity’s exceptionally slow pace — only 100 yards a day — may surprise the reader.

Here are some helpful websites for finding out more about Commas, Parentheses and Dashes.

http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/dashes-parentheses-and-commas

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/parentheses.htm

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/dash.htm

Punctuation: Road signs for sentences Periods Abbreviations

Question Marks Exclamation PointsSemicolons ColonsParentheses Dashes

5. Apostrophes ContractionsPlurals

Apostrophe

Apostrophes look like little floating commas (’), but they have different jobs than commas.

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Possessives (showing ownership)

People, animals, and other nouns often own things. Apostrophes show that ownership. Grammar people call these Possessives. Here are some examples:

• Kisha’s sports car (Kisha owns the sports car.)• Eric’s touring bike (Eric owns the touring bike.)• Deena’s interesting book (Deena owns the interesting book.)• The college’s new football stadium (The college owns the new

football stadium.)

Most of time—with a singular noun—you add: apostrophe-s (’s) to show ownership, and if the noun is plural, add: s-apostrophe (s’). For example:

Singular Noun The girl’s book One girlPlural Noun The girls’ book Two or more girls

Singular Noun The cat’s pajamas One catPlural Noun The cats’ pajamas Two or more cats

As usual, English has exceptions. There aren’t that many, but it’s good to know them. Here are the exceptions you most often see.

1. Nouns that already end in (s).

The first exception is that a few nouns already end in (s), like James, Kansas, and Thomas. Should you just add an apostrophe by itself, or an apostrophe-s? Strangely, you can go either way and be right, but we like just adding an apostrophe by itself. It’s easier and less messy. For example:

• James’ mountain hike• Kansas’ capitol city is Topeka• Thomas’ financial situation is improving

2. Nouns that end in (y)

Nouns that end in (y), when you replace the (y) with (ies) to make the plural can be tricky:

Singular Plural• country countries

To show ownership with these plural nouns, after you drop the (y) and add ies, add an apostrophe on the end after the s. For example:

Singular Noun The country’s laws One countryPlural Noun The countries’ laws Two or more countries

3. People’s names that end in y

With people’s names that end in (y), keep the (y) — don’t add ies — when you make the plural. For example:

Singular PluralKennedy Kennedys

(one Kennedy) (Two or more Kennedys)

You do the same with plural names to show ownership. Notice that you don’t add ies to make the plural or the possessive . For example:

Singular Noun Kennedy’s boat shop One Kennedy owns a boat shop.

Plural Noun Kennedys’ boat shop Two or more Kennedys own a boat shop.

4. Irregular Nouns

Some nouns are irregular; that is, you don’t add (s) for the plural. You know they’re plural by the way they’re spelled. For example:

Singular Plural Singular Plural child children sheep sheepdeer deer woman womenmouse mice foot feet

For these irregular nouns, add apostrophe-s to show ownership. For example:

Singular Noun Child’s garden One childPlural Noun Children’s garden Two or more children

5. Hyphenated and Compound words

Hyphenated words, like mother-in-law, can be tricky to make plural. You have to ask yourself: What is the main word and what is a supporting word? Then you add (s) to the main word to the make the plural. For example:

Singular Plural • mother-in-law mothers-in-law We’re talking mothers

not laws, so make mother plural.

• editor-in-chief editors-in-chief We’re talking editors not chiefs , so make editor plural.

However, to show ownership, you add the apostrophe to the last word, not the main word. For example:

Singular Noun Mother-in-law’s story

One mother-in-law(Notice that with hyphenated words, the apostrophe-s comes after the last word, not the first.)

Plural Noun Mothers-in-law’s stories

Two or more mothers-in-law(Sine you showed plural with mothers, all you need is an apostrophe-s after law.)

This is also true with compound words, like United States Post Office. To show ownership, add the apostrophe after the last word in the group. For example:

Noun Showing Ownership Utah Jazz Utah Jazz’s uniforms My half sister My half sister’s weddingNorma and Roseana Norma and Roseana’s restaurant

One point concerning Norma and Roseana: When you write, “Norma and Roseana’s restaurant,” you’re saying they own one

restaurant. However, if you write, “Norma’s and Roseana’s restaurants,” you’re saying they each own a restaurant.

Contractions

You can also use Apostrophes to show that you’ve left out some letters within a word or when combining several words. Grammar people call these combined words Contractions. Here’s a list:

Contractions Full word(s)aren't are notcan't Cannotcouldn't could notdidn't did notdoesn't does notdon't do nothadn't had nothasn't has nothaven't have nothe'd he had; he wouldhe'll he will; he shallhe's he is; he hasI'd I had; I wouldI'll I will; I shallI'm I amI've I haveisn't is notit’s it is; it haslet's let usmightn't might notmustn't must notshan't shall notshe'd she had; she

wouldshe'll she will; she shallshe's she is; she hasshouldn't should not

Contractions Full word(s)that's that is; that hasthere's there is; there hasthey'd they had; they wouldthey'll they will; they shallthey're they arethey've they havewe'd we had; we wouldwe're we arewe've we haveweren't were notwhat'll what will; what shallwhat're what arewhat's what is; what haswhat've what havewhere's where is; where haswho'd who had; who wouldwho'll who will; who shallwho're who arewho’s who is; who haswho've who havewon't will notwouldn't would notyou'd you had; you wouldyou'll you will; you shallyou’re you areyou've you have

http://grammar.about.com/od/words/a/EnglishContractions.htm

Troublesome Contractions

Some English teachers don’t like students to use contractions in their essays. Others allow most contractions—no problem. If you’re not sure about how your professor views contractions, don’t be afraid to ask. It’s still the best way to find out.

Having said that, some contractions are better than others, and some are just plain bad. Here are a few types to avoid in your writing.

1. Contractions with a noun and the to be verb. Examples:

• Dancer’s• Weston’s• Girl’s

The problem with these contractions is that the reader will not know whether you’re using the apostrophe to show ownership or a contraction. Here’s what we mean:

The dancer is pay? Weston is car?

Dancer’s pay Weston’s car

The dancer owns the pay? Weston owns the car?

To avoid confusion, only use apostrophe-s with a noun to show ownership. Then spell out the contractions with a noun and to be verb (The dancer is sharp; Weston is happy with his car.)

• Contractions that just don’t sound right

Some contractions, although legal, don’t sound right, are hard to pronounce, and should be avoided. These include:

Contraction Weakness Use insteadI’d’ve A mouthful of a contraction for I

would haveI would have

There’re Confusing contraction for there are there areCould’ve Informal contraction for could

have (never use could of!)could have

Would’ve Informal contraction for would have (never use would of!)

would have

Grammar Challenge: Why are there contractions?

Why do we have contractions? It’s because leaving out letters saves time, and we all like to save time. Contractions go way back—more than a thousand years. Our ancestors also liked to save time, leaving out letters in their speech and writing. It’s the same today with text messaging. Our reasons are the same as our ancestors who lived so long ago: to save time. Here are some modern day examples of contractions in texting:

Text Contraction Full word(s)u YouGerd Negative way of saying

“Oh my God” (OMG)L8R Laterplz PleaseNoob Noobie or newcomerO RLY Oh, reallysup What’s upwut (or) w/e WhateverCoo Cool

People in the 1300s used different contractions, but the idea is the same. At that time, people spoke Middle English. Modern English wouldn’t come along for another 500 years. Here’s a short of contractions our ancestors liked to use.

Full word(s) Middle English Modern EnglishIt is Tis It’sWill not Wont (wol not) Won’tIt was Twas It’sIs not Nis Isn’tWas not Nas Wasn’t

(Wondering where the apostrophes are? The little floating comma did not come into use until sometime in the 1500s. People got along pretty well without it. But as Shakespeare wrote in his comedy, Love’s Labour’s Lost (1588): “You finde not the apostraphas, and so misse the accent.”) Shakespeare is telling us that without apostrophes, you might mispronounce the word.

Here’s a helpful website for finding out more about Apostrophes and Contractions. http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/apostrophe.htmhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/621/01/

Punctuation: Road signs for sentences Periods Abbreviations

Question Marks Exclamation PointsSemicolons ColonsParentheses DashesApostrophes Contractions

6. Plurals

Good news! It’s not difficult to make most nouns plural: just add an s.

Singular PluralTiger TigersCar CarsBook Books

Of course, English also has a number of exceptions, most of which your ear will guide to the correct spelling. Here’s a list:

1. The noun already ends in (s)

When the noun ends in (s) or (x), you add (es) to make the plural. Examples:

Singular PluralBox BoxesBus BusesKiss Kisses

2. Nouns that end in (y)

When nouns end in a consonant followed by (y), you replace the (y) with (ies) to make the plural. For example:

Singular Plural• country countries• baby babies• pony ponies

On the other hand, when nouns end in a vowel followed by (y), just add (s) to make the plural. For example:

Singular Plural• day days• toy toys• essay essays

3. Irregular plurals

Some nouns are irregular; that is, you don’t add (s) for the plural. You know they’re plural by the way they’re spelled, or from what’s going on in the rest of the sentence. Here’s a short list:

Singular Plural Singular Plural child children sheep sheepdeer deer woman womenmouse mice foot feetpeople people mouse micegoose geese person people

Some irregular plurals can be tricky because they follow the old Latin spelling. Because these words get their plural form from Latin, to get them right, you’ll need to look them up. In Google, type “plural of nucleus,” for example. Here’s a list:

nucleus nuclei syllabus syllabiphenomenon phenomena datum dataappendix appendices mouse micecriterion criteria crisis crises

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It’s especially tricky when the noun ends in (o) because the plural for some words add (s) and other words add (es). Don’t ask why! For example:

Singular Plural• potato potatoes• hero heroes• memo memos• stereo stereos

You just have to look these words up. For example in Google, type “plural of potato,” and you’ll quickly get the correct spelling.

Here’s a website with a more complete list of irregular plurals: http://www.esldesk.com/vocabulary/irregular-nouns

4. Hyphenated and Compound multiple words

As we wrote earlier, hyphenated words, like mother-in-law, and compound multiple words, like Secretary of State, can be tricky to make plural. The key is that all of these compound words have a main word and supporting words. You add (s) to the main word to the make the plural. For example:

Singular Plural • mother-in-law mothers-in-law We’re talking mothers

not laws, so make mother plural.

• editor-in-chief editors-in-chief We’re talking editors not chiefs , so make editor plural.

• Secretary of State Secretaries of State We’re talking Secretaries not States (countries), so make Secretary plural.

Here’s a website with a more complete list of how to form plurals with Hyphenated and Compound words: http://www.mtdesk.com/Forming+plural+compound+nouns

Here’s a helpful website for finding out more about how make plural nouns. http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/plurals.htm

Parting thoughts on Punctuation…

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