chapter 22

22.1 The Scientific 22.1 The Scientific RevolutionRevolution

In the mid-1500s, scientists begin In the mid-1500s, scientists begin to question accepted beliefs and to question accepted beliefs and

make new theories based on make new theories based on experimentationexperimentation

The Roots of Modern ScienceThe Roots of Modern Science The Medieval ViewThe Medieval View

• Most knowledge in Most knowledge in the Middle Ages the Middle Ages comes from the comes from the Bible and Bible and Greek/Roman Greek/Roman sources.sources.

• Supports Supports geocentricgeocentric theorytheory—moon, sun, —moon, sun, planets revolve planets revolve around eartharound earth

The Roots of Modern ScienceThe Roots of Modern Science A New Way of ThinkingA New Way of Thinking

• Renaissance prompts new ways of Renaissance prompts new ways of thinking (1300-1600)thinking (1300-1600)

• Scientific Revolution—new way of Scientific Revolution—new way of viewing the natural world—based on viewing the natural world—based on observation and inquiryobservation and inquiry

• New discoveries, overseas exploration New discoveries, overseas exploration open up thinkingopen up thinking

• Scholars make new developments in Scholars make new developments in astronomy and mathematics.astronomy and mathematics.

A Revolutionary Model of the UniverseA Revolutionary Model of the Universe

The Heliocentric The Heliocentric TheoryTheory• Widely accepted Widely accepted

geocentric theory geocentric theory challenged as challenged as inaccurateinaccurate

• Copernicus develops Copernicus develops the heliocentric theorythe heliocentric theory—planets revolve —planets revolve around the sunaround the sun

• Later scientists Later scientists mathematically prove mathematically prove Copernicus to be Copernicus to be correctcorrect

NicolausCopernicus

A Revolutionary Model of the UniverseA Revolutionary Model of the Universe

Galileo’s DiscoveriesGalileo’s Discoveries• Italian scientist Galileo Italian scientist Galileo

Galilei makes key Galilei makes key advances in astronomy.advances in astronomy.

• He makes discovery He makes discovery about planet surfacesabout planet surfaces

• supports heliocentric supports heliocentric theorytheory

• 4 moons of Jupiter 4 moons of Jupiter (Jupiter has 8 moons)(Jupiter has 8 moons)

• Sun spotsSun spots

Galileo Galilei

Conflict with the Conflict with the ChurchChurch• Church attacks Church attacks

Galileo’s work, fears Galileo’s work, fears it will weaken it will weaken people’s faithpeople’s faith

• Pope forces Galileo Pope forces Galileo to declare his and to declare his and other new findings other new findings are wrongare wrong

Cristiano Banti's 1857 painting Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method A Logical ApproachA Logical Approach

• Revolution in thinking leads to development of Revolution in thinking leads to development of scientific method—a series of steps for forming scientific method—a series of steps for forming and testing scientific theoriesand testing scientific theories

Bacon and DescartesBacon and Descartes• Thinkers Bacon and Descartes help to create Thinkers Bacon and Descartes help to create

scientific methodscientific method• Bacon urges scientists to experiment before Bacon urges scientists to experiment before

drawing conclusionsdrawing conclusions• Descartes advocates using logic and math to Descartes advocates using logic and math to

reason out basic truthsreason out basic truths

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) René Descartes (1595-1650)

Newton Explains the Law of GravityNewton Explains the Law of Gravity

Newton’s TheoriesNewton’s Theories• English scientist Isaac English scientist Isaac

Newton develops theory Newton develops theory of motion—states some of motion—states some forces rule motion of forces rule motion of planets, matter in planets, matter in space, and earthspace, and earth

• LAW OF GRAVITYLAW OF GRAVITY

Isaac Newton in 1689

Newton Explains the Law of GravityNewton Explains the Law of Gravity

Newton’s Theories Newton’s Theories (continued)(continued)• Motion in space and Motion in space and

earth linked by the law earth linked by the law of universal gravitationof universal gravitation—holds that every —holds that every object is universe object is universe attracts every other attracts every other objectobject

• Newton views the Newton views the universe as a vast, universe as a vast, perfect mechanical perfect mechanical clockclock

Isaac Newton in 1702

The Scientific Revolution SpreadsThe Scientific Revolution Spreads

Scientific Scientific InstrumentsInstruments• Scientists develop Scientists develop

microscope, microscope, barometer, and barometer, and thermometerthermometer

• New instruments New instruments lead to better lead to better observations and observations and new discoveriesnew discoveries

microscopethermometer

simple mercury barometer


Medicine and the Medicine and the Human BodyHuman Body• Andreas Vesalius Andreas Vesalius

improves improves knowledge of knowledge of anatomyanatomy

Andreas Vesalius


Medicine and the Medicine and the Human Body Human Body (continued)(continued)• Edward Jenner Edward Jenner

produces world’s produces world’s first vaccination—first vaccination—for smallpoxfor smallpox

1802 caricature of Jenner vaccinating patients who feared it would make them sprout cow like appendages.


Discoveries in Discoveries in ChemistryChemistry• Robert Boyle argues Robert Boyle argues

that matter is made that matter is made of many different of many different particlesparticles

• Boyle’s law reveals Boyle’s law reveals interaction of interaction of volume, volume, temperature, and temperature, and gas pressure.gas pressure.

The Enlightenment in The Enlightenment in EuropeEurope

Chapter 22, Section 2Chapter 22, Section 2

All humans were naturally selfish All humans were naturally selfish and wicked, therefore and wicked, therefore governments must keep order.governments must keep order.

People should hand over their People should hand over their rights to a strong ruler. This was rights to a strong ruler. This was what Hobbes called a what Hobbes called a social social contractcontract..

Strong ruler should have total Strong ruler should have total power (an absolute monarchy).power (an absolute monarchy).

This powerful government with This powerful government with awesome power is what he called awesome power is what he called a leviathan (sea monster) a leviathan (sea monster) therefore he titled his book therefore he titled his book LeviathanLeviathan (1651). (1651).

Thomas HobbesThomas Hobbes

John LockeJohn Locke People were reasonable People were reasonable

(though still selfish) and (though still selfish) and had the natural rights to had the natural rights to life, liberty, and property.life, liberty, and property.

Purpose of government is Purpose of government is to protect these natural to protect these natural rights.rights.

Government power comes Government power comes from the consent of the from the consent of the people.people.

VoltaireVoltaire Wrote more than 70 Wrote more than 70

books of political essays, books of political essays, philosophy, and drama.philosophy, and drama.

Used satire against his Used satire against his enemies, especially the enemies, especially the clergy.clergy.

Beliefs:Beliefs:• ToleranceTolerance• ReasonReason• Freedom of religious beliefFreedom of religious belief• Freedom of speechFreedom of speech• ““I do not agree with a word I do not agree with a word

you say but will defend to you say but will defend to the death your right to say the death your right to say it.”it.”

MontesqieuMontesqieu Believed Britain was the Believed Britain was the

best-governed and most best-governed and most politically balanced politically balanced country of his own day.country of his own day.

Proposed the “separation Proposed the “separation of powers” between of powers” between executive, legislative, executive, legislative, and judicial branches of and judicial branches of government.government.

Proposed “checks and Proposed “checks and balances.”balances.”

Jean-Jacques RousseauJean-Jacques Rousseau Passionately Passionately

committed to committed to individual freedom.individual freedom.

Believed man was Believed man was born free and good born free and good but easily corrupted.but easily corrupted.

Believed the only Believed the only good government good government was the “general was the “general will” or direct will” or direct democracy.democracy.

Cesare Bonesana BeccariaCesare Bonesana Beccaria BeliefsBeliefs

• Laws existed to preserve Laws existed to preserve social order, not avenge social order, not avenge crime.crime.

• Accused should receive Accused should receive speedy trials.speedy trials.

• Torture should never be used.Torture should never be used.• Degree of punishment should Degree of punishment should

match seriousness of crime.match seriousness of crime.• Capital punishment (death Capital punishment (death

penalty) should be abolished.penalty) should be abolished.

Mary WollstonecraftMary Wollstonecraft Women should be Women should be

equally educated equally educated along with men.along with men.

Women should enter Women should enter professions professions traditionally traditionally dominated by men dominated by men like medicine and like medicine and politics.politics.

Wrote Wrote A Vindication of A Vindication of the Rights of Womanthe Rights of Woman

Mary ShelleyMary Shelley Daughter of Mary Daughter of Mary

Wollstonecraft.Wollstonecraft. Mistress and later Mistress and later

wife of poet Percy wife of poet Percy Bysshe Shelley.Bysshe Shelley.

Author of Author of FrankensteinFrankenstein in the in the summer of 1816, summer of 1816, Later published in Later published in 1818.1818.

The Enlightenment The Enlightenment SpreadsSpreads

Chapter 22, Section 3Chapter 22, Section 3

Baroque MusicBaroque Music

Representative Representative ComposersComposers•Antonio VivaldiAntonio Vivaldi•Johann Sebastian BachJohann Sebastian Bach•George Friedrich HandelGeorge Friedrich Handel

Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) Representative Representative

WorksWorks• Most famous work Most famous work

Le quattro stagioniLe quattro stagioni ((The Four SeasonsThe Four Seasons) ) written in 1723.written in 1723.

• 46 operas46 operas• 76 sonatas76 sonatas• Chamber musicChamber music• Sacred musicSacred music

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)1750)

Representative Representative WorksWorks• cantatascantatas• choraleschorales• organ worksorgan works• lute musiclute music• chamber musicchamber music• canons and fuguescanons and fugues

Famous piece: “Jesu Famous piece: “Jesu Joy of Man’s Joy of Man’s Desiring”Desiring”

George Frederick Handel (1685-George Frederick Handel (1685-1759)1759)

Representative WorksRepresentative Works• 42 operas42 operas• 29 oratorios29 oratorios• 120 cantatas, trios, duets120 cantatas, trios, duets• numerous ariasnumerous arias• chamber musicchamber music

Most famous work:Most famous work:Messiah Messiah oratorio oratorio traditionally performed traditionally performed during the Christmas during the Christmas season, including season, including “Hallelujah Chorus”.“Hallelujah Chorus”.

Classical MusicClassical Music

Representative ComposersRepresentative Composers•Joseph HaydnJoseph Haydn•Wolfgang Amadeus MozartWolfgang Amadeus Mozart•Ludwig van BeethovenLudwig van Beethoven

Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) Known as “Father of Known as “Father of

the Symphony” and the Symphony” and “Father of the String “Father of the String Quartet”Quartet”

Representative WorksRepresentative Works• 104 Symphonies104 Symphonies• numerous concertos numerous concertos

for various for various instrumentsinstruments

• 15 operas15 operas• other musicother music

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)1791)

Representative Representative worksworks• 23 operas23 operas• numerous numerous

symphoniessymphonies ““Toy Symphony”Toy Symphony”

• concertosconcertos ““Flute concerto no. 2 in Flute concerto no. 2 in

D Major, K 314”D Major, K 314”• piano musicpiano music• chamber musicchamber music• sacred musicsacred music

massesmasses

Ludwig van BeethovenLudwig van Beethoven Representative Representative

WorksWorks• Symphonies (5Symphonies (5thth

and 9and 9thth probably the probably the most famous)most famous)

• Piano musicPiano music ““Fur Elise”Fur Elise”

• Vocal musicVocal music OperasOperas Choral musicChoral music

Enlightened DespotsEnlightened Despots Frederick II (the Great) of PrussiaFrederick II (the Great) of Prussia Joseph II of AustriaJoseph II of Austria Catherine II (the Great) of RussiaCatherine II (the Great) of Russia

Frederick II (the Great) of PrussiaFrederick II (the Great) of Prussia

Ruled Prussia from 1740 to 1786; granted religious freedoms, reduced censorship, improved education

Joseph II of AustriaJoseph II of Austria ReligionReligion

• Joseph II had the most Joseph II had the most progressive policy of religion progressive policy of religion toleration in all of Europe. He toleration in all of Europe. He granted toleration toward Jews granted toleration toward Jews as well as Protestants. His anti-as well as Protestants. His anti-clerical and liberal innovations clerical and liberal innovations provoked a visit from the Pope provoked a visit from the Pope Pius VI in 1782. Joseph showed Pius VI in 1782. Joseph showed himself a good Catholic, but himself a good Catholic, but was not persuaded to change was not persuaded to change his liberal positions on religion.his liberal positions on religion.

The ArtsThe Arts• He was known as the “musical He was known as the “musical

king.” He was a huge patron of king.” He was a huge patron of composers. He is featured composers. He is featured prominently in the movie prominently in the movie AmadeusAmadeus, the fictionalized , the fictionalized biography of Mozart.biography of Mozart.

Catherine II (the Great) of Catherine II (the Great) of RussiaRussia

Ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796; put in place limited reforms; vastly enlarged the Russian empire

Answers to Reteaching ActivityAnswers to Reteaching Activity

Diderot’s Diderot’s EncyclopediaEncyclopedia Diderot began to publish a series of

books in 1751 that were compilations of articles from leading scholars. Even though the French government and the Catholic Church censored the Encyclopedia, it was responsible for spreading Enlightenment ideas all over Europe.

Neoclassical StyleNeoclassical Style Neoclassical art began to replace

baroque art during the late 1700s. Neoclassical art followed a simple and elegant style that drew on ideas from classical Greece and Rome.

Changes in music during the Changes in music during the EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Classical music, with a new, lighter style, emerged during the Enlightenment. Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven were three classical composers from Austria.

Changes in literature during the Changes in literature during the EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Eighteenth century writers began writing novels, lengthy works of prose fiction. Pamela, by Samuel Richardson, is often considered the first English novel.

Enlightened despotsEnlightened despots Enlightened despots supported the

ideas of the philosophes and made enlightenment reforms. Europe’s most important enlightened despots included Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria, and Catherine the Great of Russia.

Frederick IIFrederick II Ruled Prussia from

1740 to 1786; granted religious freedoms, reduced censorship, improved education

Catherine the GreatCatherine the Great Ruled Russia from

1762 to 1796; put in place limited reforms; vastly enlarged the Russian empire

chapter 22

Education