Chapter 2.2Game Design

Part 2

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Game Theory

Decision under certainty Players know the outcome of any

decision Risky decisions

Probabilities of nature are known Decision under uncertainty

Probabilities of nature are unknown

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Interface

Typical perspectives: First-person Over-the-shoulder (OTS) Overhead (top-down) Side Isometric

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Interface

General categories of audio Music

Powerful tool for establishing mood and theme

Sound effects Dialog

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Interface

Controls Physical input devices

Control inputs User manipulations of the controls

They are not strategies Example: a sequence of buttons to perform a

combo Strategies involve deciding when to

perform

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Interface Control table (a.k.a. Key Map)

Show input, action, and context

Action Con tro l Con text

Le ft a ll

R igh t a ll

Fo rwa rd a ll

Backwa rd a ll

Sprin t a ll

Pass O ffense

Lob O ffense

Shoo t O ffense

Stea l De fense

Block De fense

Hit De fense

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Interface HUD (Head-Up Display)

Displays during play Shows and other information difficult to

present directly in the game environment Examples

Scores Resource levels Mini Map Chat Alerts Level

2>need backup!!!>No>...

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HCI and Cognitive Ergonomics

HCI – Human-Computer Interaction Study of…

Communication between users and computers How people design, build, and use interfaces Better support for cooperative work

Cognitive Ergonomics Analyzes the cognitive representations

and processes involved with performing tasks

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Design of Everyday Things Norman’s five principles of design

Visibility Making the parts visible

Mappings Understandable relationships between controls

and actions Affordances

The perceived uses of an object Constraints

Prevent the user from doing things they shouldn’t Feedback

Reporting what has been done and accomplished

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Systems System

A set of interrelated components Their function and relationships form a whole

Architecture The particular arrangement of system elements

Game systems exist to enable play mechanics

Relationships between components determine how the system works to produce results

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Systems Objects

Pieces of a system Attributes

Properties determining what objects are Behaviors

Actions the objects can perform Relationships

How the behavior and attributes of objects affect each other while the system operates

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Systems Two general approaches to design

Special case Experiences built one scene/level at a time Anticipate states while pre-scripting events Solved by discovering the intentions of the

designer Systemic

General behaviors are designed Scenes/Levels are specific configuations Some events may still be pre-scripted Solved by understanding the system

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Systems

Emergent complexity Behaviors that cannot be predicted

simply from the rules of a system Emergence

Coined by George Henry Lewes in 1873

See: John Conway’s Game of Life

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Systems

Dynamics The behavior of systems over time

Generalizing dynamic behavior is hard Dynamics determined by a given

architecture

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Systems Cybernetics is the study of communication, control,

regulation A basic cybernetic system has:

Sensor – detects a condition. Example: Thermometer Comparator – evaluates the information. Example: Switch Activator – alters the environment when triggered by the

comparator

Senso r

C om parato r

Ac t i vato r

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Systems Feedback

The portion of a system’s output that is returned into the system

Feedback Loop The path taken by the feedback

L e v e l

G o a l

Info rm a tio nA c tio n

R a te

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Systems Positive feedback

Leads to runaway behavior Difficult to make use of

Negative feedback Leads to goal seeking behaviors Most common form in systems

P o s it ive Fe e dbac k N e gative Fe e dbac k

go al

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Systems Negative feedback

Stabilizes the game Forgives the loser Prolongs the game Magnifies late

successes

Positive feedback Destabilizes the game Rewards the winner Can end the game Magnifies early

successes

Marc Leblanc

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Systems

System Dynamics Created by Jay Forrester 1956, MIT A discipline for modeling and

simulation Originally a tool for policy analysis

Applicable to any system

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Constraints

Platform General description of hardware and

software Personal computer – PC, Mac, etc. Console – Game Cube, PlayStation, Xbox, etc. Handheld – DS, Game Boy Advance, PSP, etc. Mobile device – Cel Phones, NGage, PDA, etc. Arcade – custom vending games (e.g. Time Crisis)

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Constraints

Game Saves Save triggers Save-anywhere Save points Coded text saves

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Audiences

Target audience Group of expected consumers

Demographics Study of relevant economic and social

statistics about a given population Demographic variables

The relevant factors

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Audiences

Market Demographic segmentation of

consumers Market segments

Smaller sub-segment of the market; more tightly defined

Demographic profile Typical consumer attributes in a

market

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Audiences Heavy Users

Those of the numeric minority of potential users responsible for majority of sales of any product

“80/20 rule”

Hardcore gamer Game industry term for heavy video game

users Casual gamer

Game industry term for all other gamers

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Audiences

Typical assumptions of the hardcore:

Play games over long sessions Discuss games frequently and at length Knowledgeable about the industry Higher threshold for frustration Desire to modify or extend games creatively Have the latest game systems Engage in competition with themselves, the game,

and others

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Audiences Why We Play Games – Nicole Lazzaro

Internal experience Enjoyment from visceral activities

Hard fun Challenge of strategy and problem solving

Easy fun Intrigue and curiosity – exploration and adventure

Social experience Stimulating social faculties – competition,

teamwork, bonding, and recognition

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Iterating

Waterfall method Development methodology Design and production are broken into

phases

Iterative development Practice of producing things incrementally

Refining and re-refining the product

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Iterating

Prototypes Early working models of the product Used to test ideas and techniques

Physical prototypes Non-electronic models; physical materials

Software prototypes Used regularly during iterative development

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Iterating Software testing

Process of verifying performance and reliability of a software product

Tester Person trained in methods of evaluation

Bug Discrepancy between expected and actual behavior

Problem/Bug report Description of the behavior of the discrepancy

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Iterating

Focus test Testing session using play-testers Testers represent the target audience Lots of feedback at one time Data can be compromised by group

think

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Iterating

Tuning Developing solutions by adjusting

systems Iterations are faster Changes are less dramatic

Balance Equilibrium in a relationship

Player relationships, mechanics, systems, etc.

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Iterating Intransitive relationships

Multiple elements offer weaknesses and strengths relative to each other as a whole

Balanced as a group Example: Rock-Paper-Scissors (RPS)

H e a v yI n f a n t r y

C a v a lr yA r c h e r s

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Creativity

Ability to create Ability to produce an idea, action,

or object considered new and valuable

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Creativity Classic approach - Graham Wallace

Preparation Background research and comprehension

Incubation Mulling things over

Insight Sudden illumination – Eureka!

Evaluation Validating revealed insights

Elaboration Transforming the idea into substance

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Creativity

Brainstorming Generating ideas without

discrimination Evaluation after elaboration Can be unfocused

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Creativity Six Thinking Hats

White Hat – neutral and objective Red Hat – intuition, gut reaction Black Hat – gloomy, naysayer Yellow Hat – Pollyannaish, optimistic Green Hat – growth and creativity Blue Hat – process and control

Symbolize perspective worn by people involved in the creative endeavor

Edward de Bono

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Inspiration Board games

Spatial relationships Card games

Resource management Paper RPGs

Dynamic narratives Books

Fantasy and agency Sports

Team competition

Film Continuity techniques

Television Serialized stories

Music Temporal systems

Martial arts Discipline in action

Children Invention

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Communication Treatment

A brief, general description of the game and the fundamental concepts

May include: Concept statement Goals and objectives Core mechanics and systems Competitive analysis Licensing and IP information Target platform and audience Scope Key features

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Communication Associative diagram

Drawing that helps manage and organize information visually

Mind Map A style of associative diagram Key words and figures are placed on branches

we ap o n

fi ghti ng

r a n g e

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Psychology

Working Memory Holds roughly 7 ± 2 items at one time

while other cognitive operations on them

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Psychology

Attention Method of enhancing perceptions

relative to other stimuli in the same environment

How we focus on important things Limited capacity

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Psychology Classical conditioning

Reaction to stimulus is conditioned by pairing with another stimulus that elicits the desired response naturally

C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndit io ning

B e fo re c o ndit io ning

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Psychology Unconditioned stimulus – Meat Unconditioned response – Salivation over meat Conditioned stimulus – Tone Conditioned response – Salivation over tone

C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndit io ning

B e fo re c o ndit io ning

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Psychology Operant conditioning

Learning by encouraging or discouraging

Operant A response; the action in question

Example: pressing a button Reinforcement contingency

Consistent relationship between the operant and a result in the environment

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Psychology Reinforcers

Increase the probability an action will be repeated Positive reinforcement

Positive stimulus that reinforces the behavior Ex. Use umbrella and be dry

Negative reinforcement The removal or prevention of a negative stimulus

Ex. Use umbrella and keep from getting wet Punishment

Reduces the likelihood of a behavior with a stimulus Ex. Being burned by a hot stove