Chapter 26

Tradition and Change in East Asia

1

The Qianlong Emperor (reigned 1735-1796)

The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

Ming (“Brilliant”) dynasty comes to power after Mongol Yuan dynasty driven out

Founded by Emperor Hongwu (r. 1368-1398) Used traveling officials called mandarins and

large number of eunuchs to maintain control Emperor Yongle (r. 1403-1424) experiments

with sea expeditions under Admiral Zheng He, moves capital north to Beijing to deter Mongol attacks

2

Hongwu Emperor

Yongle Emperor, also known as Zhu Di

Ming China, 1368-1644

3

The Great Wall

Origins before fourth century B.C.E., with ruins from Qin dynasty in third century B.C.E.

The current wall dates from the Ming period, mostly rebuilt in the fifteenth to sixteenth century

1,550 miles, and between 33 and 49 feet high As many as 25,000 guard towers were constructed Barracks for housing soldiers Protected against Mongol raids, and later Manchu raids

4

The Great Wall of China

5

Eradicating the Mongol Past

Ming emperors encourage abandonment of Mongol names, dress

Support study of Confucian classics Restoration of old form of government

bureaucracy with the renewal of the civil service examinations

6

Ming Decline

In the sixteenth century, maritime pirates harm coastal trade and hurt China economically

The Ming navy and government are unable to respond effectively

Emperors secluded in Forbidden City, the palace compound in Beijing, and increasingly lose touch with the outside Hedonists: Many emperors begin top pursue their own pleasure

rather than to state affairs Emperor Wanli (r. 1572-1620): In the last twenty years of his

rule, he abandons governance, leaving it to the imperial eunuchs. He ignores the increasing threat of Manchu raids from the north.

7

Ming Collapse Famine, peasant rebellions become more

frequent in the early seventeenth century Chinese peasant rebels take Beijing in

1644; the last Ming emperor, Chongzhen, commits suicide

A Ming general fighting the rebels makes an alliance with Manchu fighters, who enter from the north and retake city

Manchus refuse to allow reestablishment of Ming dynasty

Establish Qing (“Pure”) Dynasty, installing Shunzhi as ruler of China

8

Shunzhi Emperor, the first Qing emperor to reign over China (1644 – 1661)

The Qing Empire, 1644-1911

9

The Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) Manchus originally pastoral nomads, north of Great Wall Chieftain Nurhaci (r. 1616-1626) unifies tribes into state, develops laws, and strong military Establishes control over Korea, Mongolia, China

War with remaining Ming loyalists last until 1680 Support from many Chinese who were fed up with

Ming corruption

10

Manchus forbid intermarriage with Han Chinese and the study of Manchu language by non-Manchus; force Manchu hairstyles on Han men as sign of loyalty

Emperor Kangxi (r. 1661-1722)

Consolidates Qing rule, defeating last Ming resistance

Confucian scholar, poet Military Conquests: island of

Taiwan, Tibet, skirmished with the Russian empire to establish western border, and crushed a Mongol revolt

Persuaded Ming scholar-bureaucrats to support the Qing

11

Emperor Qianlong (r. 1736-1795)

Grandson of Kangxi Rule was the height of the power and

prestige of the Qing dynasty Great prosperity, tax collection

cancelled on several occasions Pacified the western frontier—

Mongols, Uyghurs, Kazakhs, etc.—but failed to conquer Burma and Vietnam to the south, but made them “vassal states”

Stepped down from the throne in 1795 so as not to reign longer than his grandfather, Kangxi, out of filial respect

12

Young Qianlong at the beginning of his reign (1737) painted by the Italian Jesuit, Giuseppe Castiglione.

The “Son of Heaven”

Ming, Qing emperors were considered quasi-divine, with the title “Son of Heaven”

Hundreds of concubines and thousands of eunuch servants served within the “Forbidden City” in Beijing

Clothing designs and name characters of the emperors were forbidden to rest of population

The kowtow: three bows, nine head-knocks (British ambassador in 1793 refuses to perform)

13

The Forbidden City

14

Forbidden City as viewed from a hill to the north

Hall of Heavenly Purity, which served as the emperor’s quarters and then the audience hall during the Qing Dynasty

The Forbidden City

15

Map of the inner Beijing city walls, including the Forbidden City

The Scholar-Bureaucrats

Ran government on a day-to-day basis Graduates from intense civil service examinations

Open only to men Curriculum: Confucian classics, calligraphy, poetry,

essay writing Also: history, literature

16

The Civil Service Examinations First used in the Sui dynasty in 605 C.E., used in a

limited way in the Tang (618-907), and used on a broader scale during the Song (960-1269)

District, provincial, and metropolitan levels Only 300 allowed to pass at highest level

Multiple attempts common Students expected to bring bedding, chamber pots for

three-day uninterrupted examinations Students searched for printed materials before entering

private cells

17

Examination System and Society

Ferocious competition Qing dynasty: One million degree holders

compete for 20,000 government positions Remainder turn to teaching, tutoring positions

Some corruption, cheating Advantage for wealthy classes: hiring private

tutors, etc. But open to all males, tremendous opportunity for

social mobility

18

The Patriarchal Family

Filial piety understood as duty of child to parent on the familial level, and then the individual to emperor on the societal and political level

Eldest son favored; birth order accords status in families

Clan-based authority groups augment government services

19

Gender Relations

Males receive preferential status Economic factor: girls join husband’s family

Infanticide of girls common Widows strongly encouraged not to remarry

Chaste widows honored with ceremonial arches celebrating their devotion to dead husbands

Men control divorce Grounds: from infidelity to talking too much

20

Foot Binding

Origins in Song dynasty (960-1279 CE) Linen strips bind and deform female child’s feet Perceived aesthetic value Statement of social status and/or expectations

Commoners might bind feet of especially pretty girls to enhance marriage prospects

21

Binding Feet

22

Population Growth and Economic Development

Only 11 percent of China arable Intense, garden-style agriculture necessary American food crops introduced in seventeenth

century Maize, sweet potatoes, peanuts

Rebellion and war reduce population in seventeenth century Deaths offset by nutrition from American crops

23

Chinese Population Growth

24

Foreign Trade

Silk, porcelain, tea, lacquerware Chinese in turn import relatively little

Spices, animal skins, woolen textiles, and silver European traders pay for Chinese goods with

silver bullion from Americas After Emperor Yongle’s early maritime

expeditions (1405-1433), Ming dynasty abandons large-scale maritime trade plans

25

Trade in Southeast Asia Chinese merchants continue to be active in

southeast Asia, especially Manila Extensive dealings with Dutch VOC with the silk

trade until the wars between Ming and Manchus disrupt it

Chinese warlord and Ming loyalist, Koxinga, destroys VOC trading station on Formosa (now Taiwan) in 1662, and hopes to use Formosa as a base to restore the Ming (also tries to conquer the Philippines)

26

Government and Technology

During Tang and Song dynasties (seventh to thirteenth century), China is a world leader in technology

Stagnates during Ming and Qing dynasties European cannons purchased, based on early Chinese

invention of gunpowder Government suppressed technological

advancement, fearing social instability would result Mass labor over productivity

27

Classes in Chinese Society

Privileged classes Scholar-bureaucrats, gentry Distinctive clothing with ranks Immunity from some legal proceedings, taxes, labor service

Working classes Peasants, artisans/workers, merchants Confucian doctrine gives greatest status to peasants Merchant activity not actively supported

Lower classes Military, beggars, slaves

28

Neo-Confucianism Version of Confucian thought promoted by Zhu Xi

(1130-1200 C.E.) Confucian morality with Buddhist logic

Education at various levels promoted Hanlin Academy in Beijing dictates official interpretation of the

Confucian classics, and thus sets standards of evaluation of imperial exams

Provincial schools

Compilation of massive Yongle Encyclopedia during early Ming (1403-1408)

Development of popular novels as well: Dream of the Red Chamber (published 1791) a hugely popular romance

29

Christianity in China Nestorian and Roman Catholic

Christians had presence in China Disappeared with plague and social chaos

of fourteenth century Jesuits return under Matteo Ricci

(1552-1610), attempt to convert Ming Emperor Wanli Mastered Chinese before first visit in 1601 Brought western mechanical technology

Prisms, harpsichords, clocks

30

Matteo Ricci

Confucianism and Christianity Argued that Christianity was consistent with

Confucianism Differences due to neo-Confucian distortions

Yet few converts in China Approximately 200,000 mid-eighteenth century, about 0.08

percent of population Christian absolutism difficult for Chinese to accept

Franciscans and Dominicans convince pope that Jesuits compromising Christianity with Chinese traditions (e.g. ancestor worship)

Emperor Kangxi bans Christian preaching in China

31

The Unification of Japan

Shoguns rule Japan, twelfth to sixteenth century Large landholders with private armies Emperor merely a figurehead Constant civil war: sixteenth century sengoku, “country

at war” Tokugawa Ieyasu (r. 1600-1616)

establishes military government Bakufu: “tent government” Establishes Tokugawa dynasty

(1600-1867)

32

Tokugawa Ieyasu

Tokugawa Japan, 1600-1867

33

Control of Daimyo (“Great Names”)

Approximately 260 powerful territorial lords Independent militaries, judiciaries, schools, foreign

relations, etc. From capital Edo (Tokyo), shogun requires “alternate

attendance”: daimyo forced to spend every other year at court Controlled marriage, socializing of daimyo families

Beginning 1630s, shoguns restrict foreign relations Travel, import of books forbidden Policy strictly maintained for 200 years

34

Economic Growth in Japan

End of civil conflict contributes to prosperity New crop strains and irrigation systems improve

agricultural production Yet population growth moderate, unlike many

other places in the world Contraception, late marriage, abortion Infanticide: “thinning out the rice shoots”; typical

method was to smother a baby’s mouth and nose with wet paper

35

Population Growth

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1600 1700 1850

Millions

36

Social Change

End of civil disturbances create massive unemployment of daimyo, samurai warriors

Encouraged to join bureaucracy, scholarship Many declined to poverty, creating a source of

social instability Wealthy urban merchant classes develop from

trade activity; they become dominant in society

37

Neo-Confucianism in Japan

Chinese cultural influence extends through Tokugawa period

Chinese language essential to curriculum Zhu Xi and neo-Confucianism remains popular “Native learning” also popular in eighteenth

century Folk traditions Shintoism: worship of spirits, called kami

38

Floating Worlds (ukiyo) New merchant class develops a new urban culture

expressed in entertainment and pleasure industries Ihara Saikaku (1642-1693), The Life of a Man Who

Lived for Love: novel that describes the mores of the new urban merchant class; about a member of this new class’s sexual adventures from age 8 to 61.

Marked contrast to solemn bakufu leadership Kabuki theatre, men playing women’s roles Bunraku puppet theatre Geisha districts

39

Floating Worlds (ukiyo)

40

Kabuki actor dressed as a samurai character

Bunraku puppetTraditional Geisha make-up and hairstyle

Christianity in Japan

Jesuit Francis Xavier in Japan, 1549 Remarkable success among daimyo

Daimyo also hoping to establish trade relations with Europeans

Government backlash Fear of foreign intrusion Confucians, Buddhists resent Christian absolutism

Anti-Christian campaign 1587-1639 restricts Christianity, executes staunch Christians Sometimes by crucifixion

41

Persecution of Catholics

42

Twenty-six Christians crucified in Nagasaki in 1597 during the shogun’s crackdown

Dutch Learning Dutch presence at Nagasaki principal route for Japanese

understanding of the world Before ban on foreign books lifted (1720), Japanese scholars

study Dutch to approach European science, medicine, and art

43

Dutch ship approaching the Dutch island trading post on the artificial island of Dejima in Nagasaki harbor