CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The literature relating to the study “Occupational Health and Safety Assessment

of Workers in Ready-made Garment Manufacturing Units” is presented under different

heads. The first section deals with the importance of the garment industry and the work

in the industrial units. The next section deals with the methods used for assessing the

occupational health and safety of the workers at worksite. The last section highlights the

occupational health hazards and the problems of the workers in the garment industry.

2.1 Garment industry - its place in national economy

Origin and Growth of Garment Industry

The garment industry, otherwise termed ‘ready-made garment industry’, had its

origin in India during the Second World War, when units were set up for mass production

of military uniforms. The garment industry in India is made up of two sectors, viz., the

knitted garment sector and the woven garment sector (Panthaki, 2001). As per a recent

survey conducted by IMAGES, KSA Technopark, the Indian apparel market, with a

growth rate of 5-6 percent in a year, is one of the fastest growing markets in the world

(Gupta, 2002). The industry has grown fast mainly due to the shift in urban consumers’

tastes from custom tailored garments to ready-made garments.

In the early 70’s there were only about 1200 garment units producing goods worth

Rs. 320 million. By 1982, their number had grown to 9000 and further to 15,000 by

1986, producing goods worth Rs. 9,750 million and Rs. 24,700 million respectively

(Shardana and Sharma, 1994). The status of this industry in India is shown in Table 2.01

Table 2.01

Status of Garment Industry - 1997*

SI. No Variables Figures

1. Number of units 60,907

2. Investment in industry (in millions of Rs.) 72,750.45

3 Annual production-export (in million pieces) 1,301.40

4 Annual turnover (in millions of Rs.) 1,77,618.66

* Panthaki, M.K. (1998), Clothes Line. September, p.96

Garment exports from India, which were 1073.3 million pieces valued at US

$4087.2 million during Jan-Sep 1999, had increased to 1159.5 million pieces valued at

US $4531 million by Jan-Sep 2000 (Narayan and Gopal, 2002). The industry is thus a

growing one with high employment potential.

Export Trend

India started exporting garments in the 1960’s at a modest level of Rs. 9 crores

and had surpassed the target of Rs. 10,000 crores by 2000-2001. The growth in export

was most impressive during the first half of the 1970’s. The growth could be seen in four

phases. The first phase was between 1959 and 1969, when the import substitution of

garments began. During the second phase, between 1970 and 1976, the growth of

exports was most impressive with a change in industrial structure and business

organization. The third phase, between 1977 and 1994, was characterized by the

dramatic decline of exports of mill made garments. The fourth phase, the current one,

began in 1995. During this phase, though there was a downfall of the textile industry as a

whole, garment exports registered a rising trend (Uchikawa, 1998; Wadia, 1998).

10

India has been exporting ready-made garments to over 100 countries including

USA and some countries in Europe, Latin America and the Middle East. The industry

accounts for about 40 per cent of the total textile exports (Kazi, 2000; Jasuja, 2001;

Phalgumani, 2001).

In India, according to Tait (2001), there are 28,000 exporters of ready-made

clothing. Around 20 per cent of these units have internationally recognized factories and

some, though only around 150, are excellent. The Ministry of Textiles offers a

Technology Upgradation Fund (TUF) to these units for modernizing them to meet the

demands of the worldwide consumers for quality textile materials (Phalgumani, 2001).

Policy Implications and Supportive Measures

The Government has initiated many export friendly measures and schemes for

ensuring sustained growth in export. In November 2000 the Government of India

announced the New Textile Policy (National Textile Policy, 2000) to strengthen the

textile industry and made it globally competitive by facilitating technological upgradation

of all the manufacturing segments of the industry (Compendium of Textiles Statistics,

2001). The ready-made garment industry has been removed from the Small Scale

Industries (SSI) list, thus providing opportunity to those from the niche or specialized

market in the large-scale clothing trade. This unhindered growth enables the industry to

face competition from many countries like Srilanka, Bangladesh and Pakistan.

Another significant move is the establishment of apparel parks under this scheme.

The maximum limit on Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) has been removed, thereby

encouraging joint ventures to facilitate progress in quality and technology (Narayan and

Gopal, 2002).

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An Investors’ Entitlement Policy, duly approved by the Ministry of Textiles, has

been in force from 1997 and has played a major role in attracting entrepreneurs to invest

in garment manufacturing units. It has led to encouraging results as presented in Table

2.02

Table 2.02

Investment in Plant and Machinery *

Year Investment (Rs. in crores)

1997 368.23

1999 426.37

2000 694.17

* AEPC (2001). Clothes Line, 14(2), p. 36.

According to the most recent report of the Apparel Export Promotion Council

(AEPC) (2001), the ready-made garment export industry occupies the first position in

textile exports and contributes over 35 per cent to India’s export basket. It provides direct

or indirect employment to over 100 million persons. Mostly women from weaker sections

are engaged in this industry. Over 25,000 entrepreneurs have established units under

Small Scale Industries (SSI), Cottage and Tiny Sectors. Being a major contributor to

India’s export basket promoting entrepreneurship and providing employment

opportunities to all categories of people, this industry contributes significantly to the

national economy.

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2.2 Prospects and problems of garment industry

Prospects

Until a few years ago the garment industry was not open to the organized sector

and garment making was reserved only for the Small Scale Industries sector. Only in

1990 some policy changes were made, permitting establishment of larger units with

better technologies. The spread of apparel making to the decentralized sector has given

India the capacity to cater to small orders in varied designs and styles as orders for

garments spring from both large and small fashion houses and boutiques.

The Apparel Export Promotion Council (AEPC, 2001) reports that small garment

units are mostly in semi-urban and rural areas. The number of units is quite large and

they provide employment opportunities to weaker sections of the society from remote,

rural and semi-urban areas, thereby preventing migration of work force from rural to

urban areas.

The National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT), the National Institute of

Design (NID) and AEPC have set up a series of regional Apparel Training Centers which

offer specialized short term courses for machinists, knitters and pattern cutters to produce

skilled labourers. The availability of cheap labour and a strong cotton base are added

advantages for this industry (Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment

Council, 1995).

Ajmeri (2001) maintains that, with the use of Apparel CAD-CAM System, this

industry can develop a pattern library from which patterns can be chosen, create fabric,

lay patterns, calculate the fabric consumption per garment, calculate fabric utilisation and

plot the fabric patterns to be directly used for manufacturing. This automation in textile

designing has come as a boon to the industry.

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Problems

Narayan and Gopal (2002) hold that low productivity and low technology

development in the Indian garment sector have led to a hike in the cost of production and

a fall in productivity. Fabrics of international standard are available in the market mostly

at unaffordable rates. This necessitates the import of fabrics from other countries for

garment manufacture.

It has been reported by Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment

Council (TIFAC) (1995), that the output per worker in India is low, averaging around 7-8

shirts per day while in Hongkong, Taiwan and China, it is as high as 25-30 pieces. This

is mainly due to lack of high-speed automatic machines. Devadas (2001) reports that the

garment industry, because of its fragmented nature, has never been able to address many

of these common problems.

Panigrahi (2001) is of the view that the garment manufacturing units catering

mainly to the domestic market stand to lose heavily because of the duty charged on

garments. Apparel manufacturers experience difficulty in sourcing good quality, fault

free and wide width fabric. The apparel industry has inadequate transportation facilities

by air and by sea, particularly during peak periods. Facilities for product development

and quality testing for export of the products are reported to be insufficient in India.

Kazi (2000) has attempted to make a SWOT analysis of this industry and his

observations showing the status and the problems of the garment industry are presented

in a modified form in Figure 1.

The review reveals that the ready-made garment industry has a great scope for

expansion. Low productivity and low technology development are the twin major

problems confronting this industry. Solutions are to be worked out for improving the

productivity of the workers in this industry.

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2.3 Work in ready-made garment manufacturing units

Garment manufacture is organized either under the piece system or the assembly

system. The assembly system is widely followed in export units and the piece system in

the domestic and mini production units. In the assembly system a set of workers stitch

one part and the remaining parts are stitched serially by several sets of workers. The

garment takes shape along the assembly line (Pande, 2001).

The production system in the garment industry is classified into two types,

namely, bundle system and one layer system (Encyclopedia of Textiles, 2000). The

bundle system uses a spreading machine to lay and cut as many as one hundred layers of

fabric and these are bundled together to provide the material at each sewing station. In

the one layer system, as the name implies, each piece is cut individually and is routed to

the assembly point. This system is adopted when the fabric is extremely expensive and

any cutting mistake cannot be risked. (Encyclopedia of Textiles, 2000).

The garment manufacturing process comprises three major activities, viz., cutting,

sewing and finishing. The cutting involves pattern making, grading, marker making and

fabric cutting.

Pattern making: For cutting and sewing, the garment design is broken down into pattern

parts. Traditionally, cardboard patterns are made for each part of the garment and these

patterns are graded by the sizes to be made. From these patterns paper cutting markers

are created. These are used by the garment cutters to cut the pattern pieces.

Grading: From the patterns made for a single size the patterns for the other sizes are

obtained by extrapolation. This process is called ‘grading’ (Gokarneshan, 2001).

16

Marker making: The pattern components are arranged on top of many layers of fabric in

such a way that maximum utilisation of fabric is achieved while satisfying conditions like

grain line adherence and fabric design matching. In more modern plants cutting markers

are made and graded for size on a computer screen and printed on a computerized plotter.

Cutting: In the cutting phase the fabric is first spread in multiple piles on a cutting table,

the length and width of which is determined by production demands. This is most often

performed by an automatic or semi automatic spreading machine, which unrolls the bolts

of fabric along the length of a table. Plaid or print fabrics may be laid out by hand and

pinned to assure that plaids for prints will match. Markers are then laid on the fabric to

be cut. Fabric for apparel production is usually cut using hand held band saw cutting

tools. Small parts may be cut using a die press. Advanced cutting technology includes

robotic cutting, which automatically follows patterns made on the computer.

Sewing: Cut fabric pieces are sewn together on sewing machines operated by hand / foot

or by electricity. The traditional “progressive bundle system”, in which bundles of cut

pieces progress from one sewing machine operator to the next, with each operator

performing a different single operation, continues to prevail in the industry despite

significant changes in work organization in many shops. This type of work organization

breaks the production process down into many different operations, each consisting of a

very short cycle. During the course of a work cycle each operator repeats the short

production operation several times.

Finishing: Once sewn, the completed garment is ironed by pressers and checked for

loose threads, stains and other defects by finishers. Finishers perform a variety of tasks,

including clipping loose threads, hand sewing, turning and pressing.

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Pressing: Pressing the sewn product is done either with a hand iron or a buck press.

Sewn products may also be steamed using a hand steamer or a steam tunnel for

improving the effects of pressing (Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety,

1998).

The review reveals that the major categories of work in a garment industry are

cutting, stitching and finishing. They are done in a sequential manner. The work involves

several man-machine operations.

2.4 Methods used for assessment of occupational health and safety

2.4.1 Postural study

The importance of good working posture has been recognized since the

eighteenth century (Haslegrave, 1994). A poor working posture, according to Westgaard

and Aaras (1984), becomes a hazard to health and safety in tasks which are static in

nature and in those which involve exertion of force. It adds to ergonomic risk factors and

leads to pain and symptoms of musculoskeletal disorders (Van Wely, 1979; Grandjean

and Hunting, 1977; Armstrong, 1986).

Postures held for a short period are not harmful, but, when held for a long

duration or when repeated many hundred times a day without an opportunity to

redistribute the loads to other muscle groups, they can lead to severe bodily distortions

and musculoskeletal damage (Corlett, 1981). Several researchers (Kumar, 1989;

Surabathula, 1991; Chauhan and Varghese, 1994; Nag, 1996) have expressed the view

that bad work posture leads to musculoskeletal problems. It has been widely

acknowledged that a sustained sedentaiy posture with limited possibilities to change

position is a risk factor contributing to the development of musculoskeletal disorders

(Magora, 1972; Andersson, 1981; Westgaard and Aaras, 1984; Aaras, 1994). Van Wely

(1979) has analyzed the relationship between inadequate work postures and probable

sites of pain. The pertinent ones are listed in Table 2.03

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Table 2.03

Bad postures and probable sites of pain and other symptoms *

Bad postures Probable site of pain or other symptomsStanding (and particularly a pigeon footed stance)

Feet, lumbar region

Sitting without lumbar support Lumbar region

Sitting without support for the back Erector spinae muscles

Sitting without good footrests of the correct height:

Knee, legs and lumbar region

Sitting with elbows rested on a working surface which is too high

Trapezius, rhomboideus, and levator scapulae muscles

Upper arm hanging unsupported out of vertical

Shoulders, upper arms

Anns reaching upwards Shoulders, upper arms

Head bent: back Cervical region

Trunk bent forward - stooping position Lumbar region Erector spinae muscles

Lifting heavy weights with back bent forward

Lumbar region Erector spinae muscles

Any cramped position The muscles involved

Maintenance of any joint in its extreme position

The joints involved.

* Van Wely, P. “ Design and Disease” ('Applied Ergonomics, 1979, 1, No.5). In E.N.Corlett and J. Richardson (Eds.), Stress. Work Design and Productivity, (New York: John Wiley and Sons Ltd., 1981), p.33.

Epidemiological studies have documented the relationship between body postures

and musculoskeletal statistics (Fine et al., 1987; Punett et al., 1987; Aaras and Stranden,

19

1988; Armstrong et al., 1993). Heinsalmi (1986) and Burdolf et al. (1991) have pointed

out a significant relationship between poor working posture and musculoskeletal related

lost workdays.

An assessment of postures will reveal the body sites affected and the associated

risks. A number of techniques are available for postural study. They may be categorized

as Observational (Karhu et al., 1977; Corlett et al., 1979; Armstrong et al., 1982; Baty

et al., 1986; Kilbom et al., 1986; Keyserling, 1986; 1990; Foreman et al., 1988; Ryan,

1989; McAtamney and Corlett 1993) and Instrumental (Nordin et al., 1984; Aaras and

Stranden, 1988; Otun and Anderson, 1988; Gilad etal., 1989).

Observational technique is a method in which the researcher makes a careful

observation of the postures adopted during the work cycle. Observational methods are

easy to use and do not interfere with job processes. They do not require expensive

equipment. Some of the observational methods used are Ovako Working Posture

Analysis System (OWAS) (Kant et al., 1990; Hignett, 1996; Majumdar et al., 2001),

Posture Targeting (Corlett et al., 1979), PATH (Buchholz et al., 1996), Rapid Upper

Limb Assessment (RULA) (McAtamney and Corlett, 1993; Herbert et al., 1997), Hand

Arm Movement Analysis (HAMA), Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) and Quick

Exposure Check (QEC) (Saleh et al., 2001). Videotaping and computer aided

observational methods such as ‘VIRA’, ‘ROTA’, and ‘PEG’ are also used in posture

analysis. These observational methods are used in industrial settings (Li and Buckle,

1999).

Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) is a survey method developed to

investigate the exposure of individual workers to risk factors associated with work-

20

related upper limb disorders (McAtamney and Corlett, 1993). This method uses

diagrams of body postures and three scoring tables to provide evaluation of exposure to

risk factors. The risk factors investigated are number of movements, static muscle work,

force and postures.

RULA was developed to provide a method of screening a working population

quickly for exposure to a likely risk of work-related upper limb disorders, to identify the

muscular effort which is associated with working posture, exerting force and performing

static or repetitive work which may contribute to muscle fatigue and to obtain results

which could be incorporated in a wider ergonomics assessment. Part of the development

of RULA took place in the garment making industry, where assessment was made of

operators who performed tasks, including cutting, while standing at a cutting block,

machining, using one of a variety of sewing machines, clipping, inspecting operations

and packing (McAtamney and Corlett, 1993).

RULA was developed in three phases. The first was the development of the

method for recording the working posture, the second was the development of the scoring

system and the third was the development of the scale of action levels which provides a

guide to the level of risk and need for action to conduct more detailed assessments.

Specific operations where RULA was reported as a useful assessment tool include a

variety of hand and machine packing operations, Visual Display Unit (VDU) based tasks,

garment making operations, supermarket checkout operations, microscopy tasks and

operations in the car manufacturing industry (McAtamney and Corlett, 1993).

Instrumental techniques, also referred to as ‘direct methods’, record postures

either manual, using hand held devices, or with electrical equipment. Hand held devices

such as goniometer or inclinometer and flexicurve (Sita, 2000; Singh and Sharma, 2001)

21

are attached to the body segment and the angular measure of the body section is either

indicated by a device or obtained by drawing a trace on paper. Electrical instrumental

methods include goniometric system, optical scanning system, sonic system,

electromagnetic system and accelerometer based system where an electrical output signal

is generated that is proportional to an intersegmental displacement. Efforts have been

made to assess the muscle fatigue or postural strain using electromyography (EMG) (Nag

et al., 1986; Zimmermann et al., 1993; Yoopat and Glinsukon, 1997; Udo et al., 1999;

Singh and Sharma, 2001; Wakula and Landau, 2001; Morzaria and Ray, 2001) and

stadiometers (Li and Buckle, 1999).

2.4.2 Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment

Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment is carried out to identify health

hazards and to recommend measures to be included in the system, such as the provision

of ventilation, barriers, protective clothing etc., to reduce the associated risk to a tolerable

level. It takes into account the environmental constraints defined in the staff target and

the system requirement. The analysis considers, but is not limited to: a) the presence or

production of toxic, inflammable or explosive materials, e.g., carcinogens or suspected

carcinogens, systemic poisons, asphyxiants or respiratory irritants, b) the generation of

noise, vibration, physical shock, electric shock, heat or cold stress, ionizing or non­

ionizing radiation, and, c) exposure to health hazards from other systems. The process of

hazard analysis includes hazard identification and risk assessment (EH&S Manual,

2002).

Hazard identification starts with identifying all the tasks and functions of the

department. Materials used, special processes and equipment used in the tasks are to be

considered. Also to be considered are hazards encountered in areas in which the

department works (i.e. the working environment). When listing hazards, one must also

22

consider the interaction of people, tasks, environment, and hazards that may arise if an

emergency arises, e.g. loss of power in a laboratory, a chemical spill, bad weather during

a field trip, or missing students on a field trip.

Three methods used to list hazards are:

o Consultation with all departmental staff in a brain storming session,

o Examination of accident reports to assess if new hazards have occurred and if

existing controls are adequate.

o Direct observation of the workplace, using workplace inspections, audits, walk

through surveys, and checklists may assist. Existing literature such as regulations,

codes or practice, guidelines, information booklets, manufacturer information,

consultant reports and complaints may also indicate hazards. (EIT&S Manual,

2002).

Risk is the likelihood that a hazard will have an adverse outcome. A hazard may

be the same, but the risk is different depending upon the circumstances. Risk assessment

is a careful examination of what in the work practice and area could cause harm to people

so that one can weigh whether enough precautions have been taken or not (North and

South Peterbourough PCT Risk Assessment Procedure, 2002).

Risk assessment considers the likelihood / probability of exposure, frequency and

duration of exposure and the consequences of such exposure. When estimating the

likelihood of the event occurring, it is always possible to imagine ‘catastrophes’ which

are extremely improbable or to identify accidents, which may occur frequently but at

their worst cause significant injury (North and South Peterbourough PCT Risk

Assessment Procedure, 2002).

When estimating the severity, assume the worst possible outcome. If a person

falls down a step, the risk assessment should assume that a significant injury could take

place even though a minor injury is more probable.

23

Risk analysis may show that some of the risks do not require further action as the

probability of the event taking place and the potential of the injury are below the

unacceptable level. When an unacceptable situation is identified further levels of control

/minimizing the task are called for (North and South Peterbourough PCT Risk

Assessment Procedure, 2002).

Risk assessment should involve those who are responsible for and / or most likely

to be affected by the hazard. The risk assessment committee includes the area manager,

suitably trained assessor, the employees who work with practice / procedure, health and

safety representative and health and safety committee member (North and South

Peterbourough PCT Risk Assessment Procedure, 2002).

The various methods of reducing risks include devising a new method of doing a

task, removal and modification of physical conditions that create hazards, establishment

of detailed procedures and provision of specialized and systematic training to the

workers. Engineering controls which reduce or eliminate risks should be implemented

whenever possible and administrative controls or personal protective clothing /

equipment can also be used (EH&S Manual, 2002).

Upon completion the hazard identification and risk assessment should be

documented. They should be preserved over a period until the process is carried out the

next time (EH&S Manual, 2002).

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2.4.3 Evaluation of Workstation

A workplace is a location where a person or several persons perform tasks for a

relatively long period of time. A workstation is one of a series of workplaces that may be

occupied or used by the same person continuously / regularly when performing his or her

job. A well-designed ergonomic workstation should assist a person in maintaining a

dynamic working posture for a prolonged period of time. Designing of a workstation

should therefore be based on Man-Machine-Enviornment (MME). The Man-Machine-

Environment relationship and different factors under these three major components are

given in Figure 2.

Important factors in the field of occupational health which seriously affect

workers are workstation design and protective work equipment (Misner et al., 2000). The

relationship between poor, ergonomically deficient design in the workplace and diseases

of the musculoskeletal system has been demonstrated in several studies (Van Wely,

1979) and illustrative case reports have been published (Perrot, 1961). Prolonged static

loads are probably the major factor in modern working life in causing most work-related

musculoskeletal disorders (Grandjean and Hunting, 1977; Kelsey et al., 1979; Andersson,

1985; Hettinger, 1985; Monod, 1985). The prevention of such musculoskeletal injuries

involves various ergonomic measures aimed at reducing the load on the locomotor

system by altering the design of equipment in the workplace (Kant et al., 1990).

Workers require appropriately designed tools, equipment and architectural

features, which provide adequate protection from occupational risks and limit impedance

of job performance. Most of the industrial workstations are arbitrarily designed for

men. Since female workers’ body size and proportions may differ from an average

male’s, the workstation and safety equipment designed for male workers may be

unsuitable or even unsafe for females (Misner et al., 2000).

25

Sometimes simple strategies may have a profound effect in eliminating or

minimizing hazard exposure. For example, problems of constrained posture may be

resolved with adaptation of convenient work height and placement of work surfaces,

chairs and other workstation appliances (Misner et al., 2000).

Bhatnager et al. (1985) have shown that, in a visual inspection task, poor

workplace design causes increase in physical stress and increase in postural shifts as well

as decrease in performance. The position and the angles of the workstation components

define the envelope of body postures attainable by the operator (Weber et al., 1984;

Nakasedo et al., 1985; Wolstad and Jedriewski, 1993). Chair design is also an important

component of the workstation, affecting the operators’ posture (Michel and Helander,

1994).

Working height is of critical importance in the design of workplaces. If the

work height is raised too high, the shoulders must frequently be lifted up to compensate,

which may lead to painful cramps at the level of the shoulder blades, and in the neck and

shoulders. If the working height is too low, the back must be excessively bowed, which

again often causes backache. Hence the worktable must be of such height that it suits the

height of the operator, whether he stands or sits while working. Whether standing or

sitting, the area of the working field that needs to be kept in constant view must be so

placed that the operator’s head remains comfortable (Grandjean, 1985). Table 2.03

presents the recommended workbench heights for males in Western countries for

different types of work.

27

Table 2.04

Recommended work bench heights for different types of work*

Type of work Recommended height (cm) x percentile

5% 50% 95%

Requiring pressure 85 95 105

General 90 100 110

Precision 95 105 115

* Redgrove, J. (1979), Applied Ergonomics. 10(4), p. 218.

2.4.4 Rating of Perceived Exertion

While performing a given task individuals have to exert a certain amount of

physical effort depending upon the intensity of workload as perceived by them.

Extensive studies have been carried out to correlate the feeling of perceived exertion

with physiological parameters, which objectively evaluate the workload. Rating of

Perceived Exertion (RPE) is used in many field situations to guaze intensity of workload.

A positive correlation has been observed between rating of perceived exertion,

heart rate and energy expenditure (Skinner et al., 1969; Gamberale, 1972; Skinner et al.,

1973; Arstila and Wendelin, 1974; Pandolf et al., 1978; Borg, 1982; Chow and Wilmore,

1984; Christensen, 1986; Birlc and Birk, 1987; Jorgensen et al., 1988; Dunbar, 1992;

Robertson et al., 1992; Varghese et al., 1994; Hattori et al., 1996; Udo et al., 1999; Chan

et al., 2000). RPE has been extensively used to estimate the exertion of both dynamic

and static work. The original scale developed by Borg (1976) had a 15-point scale, and

the later scale had 10 rating points (Borg, 1982). This was modified by Varghese et al.,

(1994) with a five point rating of Very light, Light, Moderately light, Heavy and Very

28

heavy with scores 1,2,3,4, and 5 respectively. In several recent studies (Bhatnagar,

1995; Mogare, 1998; Sita, 2000; Singh et al., 2001; Susheela et al., 2001) this modified

scale has been used for rating the perceived exertion.

2.4,5 Anthropometric studies

Anthropometric measurements are generated from amongst various populations in

different countries and are used as ready references by designers after the Second World

War (Bolstad, 2001). Recent applications of anthropometric data include development of

engineering designs and the designing of worksites, equipment and clothing (Roebuck,

1995). Two kinds of anthropometric measurements can be taken on the human body-

under static and dynamic conditions (Dargar, 1992). These are also referred to as

‘structural’ and ‘functional’ anthropometric data (Bridger, 2003)

There is some scattered and sparse Indian research on regional populations.

Anthropometric data have been generated by Saha et al. (1968) on working women in

factories by Ray et al. (1983) on hospital nurses, by Ray and Sadhu (1986) on Indian

School Children and by Nag (1986) on Indian female nurses. Varghese et al. (1989) have

come out with a valid data pack on anthropometric dimensions of Indian women

(Maharastrians and Gujarathis). Chakrabarti (1997) has published anthropometric data

on Indian males and females. The Indian Army and Air Force have also conducted

anthropometric studies from time to time, to satisfy their requirements, mainly on the

population groups from which their personnel are drawn. They have practically no

access to civilian day-to-day design practice and its needs. Even the published material

in this field describes the male military population which is eventually unacceptable to

design jobs (Bolstad, 2001).

However, suitable and reliable data representing the Indian population are not

furnished and this lacuna persists. The consequent use of non-Indian anthropometric data

29

on Indian designs and other imported ready-made designs often result in mismatches with

the requirements of Indian users. Accidents and serious mistakes may occur if the design

dimensions do not exactly match the body dimensions of specific groups. For solving the

specific design problems of a specific user group, anthropometric data for the same

should come from the same population group using different percentile selections

(Chakrabarti, 1997).

2.4.6 Environmental analysis

There are numerous factors that make up a working environment. These include

noise, vibration, light, heat and cold, particulates in the air, gases, air pressures, gravity

etc. (Parsons, 1995, 2000). The factors which influence health hazards at workplaces can

be basically divided into two classes. One group of factors emanates from the working

conditions, the environment and the tasks. The other group is constituted by the social

situation and the individual characteristics and personality of the particular worker

(Plette, 1990).

According to Plette (1990) the stress factors caused by the physical environment

of work are: increased noise level, insufficient illumination, inadequate climatic

conditions, air pollution and harmful vibration. The results of stress are decreased

performance both in quality and quantity, increased absence from work, increased

number of accidents and occupational diseases, development of industrial fatigue,

neurosis or absence through sickness and increased labour turnover.

The principal methods of assessing human response to environment are subjective

methods, objective methods, behavioural methods and modeling methods. The

30

subjective method is one in which representatives of the user population report their

responses to their environment. The objective method is one in which the occupants’

response is directly measured. The behaviour method is one in which the behaviour of a

person is observed in relation to the environment. The modelling method is one wherein

predictions of human response are made from models that are based on experience of

human response in previously investigated environments (Parsons, 2000).

Thermal comfort is defined as “that condition of mind which expresses

satisfaction with the thermal environment” (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating

and Air conditioning Engineers ASHRAE, 1966). Thermal environments can be divided

into hot, neutral (or moderate) and cold conditions. The temperature in a workplace or

work area can strongly influence the efficiency of task performance. Hot humid

conditions add to the demands of moderately heavy to heavy physical work and cause

excessive fatigue by increasing the circulatory burden and reducing a person’s capacity to

work.

Air temperature is traditionally measured using mercury in glass thermometer, but

recently thermocouples and thermistors have come into use. The thermal environmental

conditions will vary throughout a space and also with time (day, night and seasonal

variations). The more the measuring points in the room and the more the measuring

times, in general, the more accurately the environment can be quantified (Parsons, 1995).

Noise is a major health threat in occupations where the level exceeds the normal

value of 85 dB(A) (Parsons, 2000). Noise is an unwanted sound that interferes with the

function in a given space (Talukdar, 2001). Any sound may be perceived as noise

pollution when it causes discomfort or adverse health effect (Belachew, 2000). Noise can

have direct and indirect effects on workers’ health. Long term exposure to noise causes

noise induced hearing loss (Frazer, 1989; Parsons, 2000) and sometimes Noise Induced

Permanent Threshold Shift (NIPTS). Generalised hearing loss with increasing age (or

31

presbyacusis) tends also to reduce hearing capacity, especially in urban dwellers (Frazer,

1989).

In addition to the auditory effects of noise, there is a growing body of research

conducted on the non-auditory health effects of chronic occupational exposure to noise,

including change in heart rate, blood pressure, adrenalin production, headache,

concentration of corticosteroids, electrolyte imbalance (Frazer, 1989; Parsons, 2000;

Talukdar, 2001), reduced performance, disturbance of sleep, annoyance (Talukdar, 2001),

loss of vigilance (Frazer, 1989), risk of accidents, increased absenteeism, mental health

responses and adverse reproductive outcomes (Melamed et al., 1992; Haartikainen et al.,

1994).

The American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine Noise and

Hearing Conservation Committee defines occupational noise-induced hearing loss as a

“slowly developing hearing loss over a long period as a result of exposure to continuous

or intermittent loud noise” (The American College of Occupational and Environmental

Medicine Noise and Flearing Conservation Committee, 1987). It is often found in textile

settings, offices, hospitals and many other workplace environments (Misner et al., 2000).

According to Fortuin (1970), good illumination not only enables humans to

perceive visual tasks accurately, quickly and without unnecessary effort but also

contributes to pleasant and comfortable appearance of the environment. Good

illumination also helps enhance retinal performance that declines with age (Weale, 1975).

For most jobs vision is the main sensory channel for receiving information. It is

one of the critical elements in the design of any workplace because, without adequate

lighting, important task elements may be incorrectly seen or not be seen at all. Adequacy

of lighting for a task depends on its quality and quantity and on the task difficulty

(Eggleton, 1983).

32

Frazer (1989) points out that in general about 2000 lux with good contrast is

required for precision work, 1000 for general office work and 100 for non-work areas.

The Illuminating Engineering Society (IES, 1981) has recommended varying levels of

illumination ranging from 500 lx to 3000 1x, depending upon the task that is performed in

the clothing manufacture. Too high a level of illumination, according to Grandjean

(1985), can also be undesirable. Anything above 1000 lux can increase shadows, contrast

and glare, thereby aggravating the problem it is designed to relieve. The

recommendation for overall lighting level for open plan offices is in the range of 400-800

lux. It is becoming increasingly common to maintain a moderate level of overall

illumination, supplementing it as required with local working lights at places where they

are needed.

Good lighting is an important aid to management in achieving high productivity.

(Ghosal and Chakrabarthi, 1987). Numerous studies have examined the relationship

between illumination and productivity. As illumination increases, productivity increases

but the quantum of increase is task dependent. Typically, productivity increases are

larger when the tasks are very demanding visually or when workers are over 45 years of

age. Increases in illumination have no effect, or only very little effect, on productivity in

the case of younger workers and less visually demanding tasks (Eggleton, 1983).

Too little or too much light veiling reflections, disability and discomfort, glare

and flicker can all cause eye strain (Boyce, 1981). This can cause irritation in the eyes, a

breakdown of vision, headaches, indigestion, giddiness etc. There are non-visual effects

of light on the body, on the activity of the glands etc. However these are difficult to

quantify and not much is known about their effects (Parsons, 2000).

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2.5 Occupational health hazards of workers in garment industry

A healthy and productive worker is an essential input for sustainable social and

economic development. With industrial development, occupational diseases have been

recognised as a growing problem in developing countries over the recent past decades.

However, due to lack of statistics, efforts to address occupational health problems have

received very little attention from health service planners (Belachew, 2000).

Occupational diseases often have a long latency period and are difficult to diagnose

(Mendes, 1985; Packard, 1989; Baker and Landrigan, 1990; Wambugu, 1990). In India,

occupational health is still in its infancy with scanty researches and interventions (Dutta,

2001).

The types of hazards that workers are exposed to in the workplace are frequently

classified as Physical (e.g., noise, thermal stress, ergonomic stressors, ionizing and non­

ionizing radiation); chemical (e.g., solvents, heavy metals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals);

biological (e.g., HIV, hepatitis B and C, cytomegalovirus (CMV); psychological (e.g.,

stress and violence); and, mechanical (unsafe conditions). In addition, work patterns

such as shiftwork and environmental conditions and organisational factors may present

health and safety hazards for workers (Misner et al., 2000; Bhardwaj, 2001). Therefore

concentration on the issues of occupational health and work related hazards of these

workers is the need of the hour (Dutta, 2001).

2.5.1 Occupational hazards

This section explains the various hazards that can occur during the various stages

of garment production, namely, cutting, sewing machine operation, pleating and pressing.

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Fabric cutting: Lack of guards on the cutting tools or improper use of guards in the

cutting machine leads to accidents like cuts. Cutting also presents ergonomic risks.

Supporting and maneuvering a cutting machine while stretching across the cutting table

can present a risk of neck, upper extremity and back disorders. Many cutters have a

tendency to work with the cutting machine at ear level, often exposing them to excessive

noise with the resultant risk of noise-induced hearing loss. Cutters whose work requires

lifting and carrying of fabric rolls as well as operation of hand held or computer operated

cutting machines, are at the risk of developing musculoskeletal hazards of the neck,

shoulder, elbow, forearm / wrist and low back (Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and

Safety, 1998).

Sewing machine operation: The majority of the sewing machine workstations currently

in use are designed without the comfort, health or convenience of the operators in mind.

Because sewing machine operators generally work in a seated position at poorly designed

workstations and perform the same operation during the entire course of the workday, the

risk of developing musculoskeletal disorders is high. The poor postures resulting from

the conditions described above combined with highly repetitive, time pressured work has

resulted in high rates of Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders (WRMSD’s) among

sewing machine operators and other workers in the industry (Kumar, 1989; Blader et al.,

1991; Kelly et al., 1992; Nag et al., 1992; Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and

Safety, 1998).

Recent studies have expressed concern about sewing machine operators’ exposure

to high levels of electromagnetic fields (e.m.f) generated by sewing machine motors.

These studies have indicated that there may be an association between increased levels of

Alzheimer’s disease (Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 1998) and other

chronic diseases found among sewing machine operators exposed to high levels of e.m.f.

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Pleating: The pleating process is used to place creases on fabrics or garments. This

process uses high temperatures and high humidity, to put folds into various types of

fabrics. Pleaters are exposed to high heat and humidity, which may cause release of

greater quantities of the substances used to finish the fabrics than may be released under

conditions of normal temperature and humidity (Encyclopedia of Occupational Health

and Safety, 1998).

Pressing : Pressers run the risk of developing tendinitis and related disorders of the

shoulder, elbow and forearm and may also be at the risk of developing related nerve

entrapment disorders. Ticketers, who use ticketing guns to place tags on finished

garments, run the risk of hand and wrist injury from this highly repetitive operation

(Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 1998).

2.5.2 Musculoskeletal disorders

Work related musculoskeletal disorders in the neck and shoulder region are a

world wide problem. Different terms have been used to systematically describe this

problem: ‘Occupational Cervicobrachial Disorders’ (OCD) in Japan and several

European countries, ‘Cumulative Trauma Disorders’ (CTD) in America and ‘Repetitive

Strain Injury’ (RSI) in Australia (Sjogaard et al., 1988; Ryan and Bampton, 1988). The

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH, 1996) reports occurrence

of 3,32,000 musculoskeletal disorders in a year in the U.S.A. in various workplaces due

to repeated trauma. They include musculoskeletal disorders of the neck, upper

extremities and back.

The causative factors of musculoskeletal disorders are poor ergonomic design of

workplace and task including work organization (Kilbolm, 1988; Strasser et al., 1989;

Ohlsson et al., 1989; Louhevaara et al., 1990), poor working postures (Monod, 1985;

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Kumar, 1989; Nag, 1996; Bridget-, 2003), increased degree of forward inclination of the

head and elevated shoulder (Maeda, 1977; Hunting et al., 1981; Nalcasedo et al., 1985),

lack of task variation, insufficient rest break (Bendix and Jessen, 1986; Sundelin and

Hagberg, 1989; Waersted et al., 1991), repetitive work (Luopajarvi, 1990; Nag, 1996;

Bridger, 2003), duration of task( Bridger, 2003), static work, frequent bending and

twisting, lifting and forceful movements and vibration (Luopajarvi, 1990). Individual

factors like age, sex, anthropometric dimensions, muscle strength and physical fitness,

spine mobility and psychological and social factors contribute to musculoskeletal

disorders (Chavalitsakulchai and Shahnavaz, 1993a). Several studies have documented a

relationship between trapezius load (particularly the static part of the load) and the

development of musculoskeletal discomfort in the upper part of the body (Hagberg 1981;

Erdelyi et al., 1988; Veiersted et al., 1993; Jensen et al., 1993).

Musculoskeletal disorder of the neck: This is becoming a major concern in this

industry. Several studies have reported the association of neck pain with various tasks in

the industry (Maeda, 1977; Grandjean and Hunting, 1977; Luopajarvi et al., 1979;

Hunting et al., 1980; Maeda et al., 1980; Kilbolm et al., 1986; Torner et al., 1991;

Holmstorm et al., 1992).

The most common musculoskeletal disorders of the neck are cervical and tension

neck syndromes (Hidalgo et al., 1992). Waris (1979) has reported that the symptoms of

tension neck syndrome include pain, tenderness and stiffness of muscles, signs of

hardened bands of nodularities and muscle spasm.

Schuldt et al. (1986) have reported increased levels of muscular tension in the

cervical region when the neck is bent. Researchers have identified static muscular tension

(Hagberg, 1981) and repetitive exertion of arms (Maeda, 1977) as the factors that

37

possibly favour the appearance of pain. Hunting et al. (1980) found that the incidence of

stiffness and pain in the neck increases with the degree of forward bending of the head.

Increased neck and shoulder flexion increases the biomechanical load on

surrounding structures, leading to discomfort and possibly the development of

musculoskeletal disorders (McPhee, 1990). Chaffin (1973) had previously demonstrated

that an increase in neck flexion and the consequential increase in muscle load would

result in earlier fatigue of neck musculature. Similarly, Straker et al. (1992) have

reported an increase in shoulder flexion from 0 to 45° resulting in an increase in shoulder

discomfort. It is interesting to note that pain and spasm in the neck muscles (trapezius,

sternomastiod, splenius etc.) can lead to ‘mechanical headache’ experienced in various

parts of the head and face and not uncommonly around or ‘behind’ the eyes. (Pheasant,

1996).

According to Kelly et al. (1992), approximately half of the workers in the apparel

manufacturing industry experience pain in their upper back (52%), neck (49%) and right

hand (48%). The rate of prevalence of neck, shoulder and back discomfort is consistent

with the results of similar surveys on apparel workers in northeastern United States

(Punnett et al., 1985) and in Finland (Vihma et al., 1982).

Repetitive work and musculoskeletal disorders: Evidence suggests that the stress of

repetitive work has a cumulative effect on the pathogenesis of diverse health problems

(Ayoma et al., 1979; Bjelle et al., 1979; Luopajarvi et al., 1979; Herberts et al., 1981).

Certain postures coupled with repetitiveness or frequency of work are the risk factors that

can lead to work related disorders (Armstrong et al., 1982; Armstrong et al., 1987;

Silverstein et al., 1987; Bridger, 2003).

Constrained work postures and repetitive arm movements at or above the shoulder

level are probable causes of neck and shoulder disorders (Hagberg, 1981). Jobs with

short cycle times and or of repetitive character are becoming more and more frequent in

38

this industry. Stereotyped movements in arms, hands and fingers associated with

constrained postures of head and trunk are observed in many occupations (Hunting et al.,

1980). These types of short cycle repetitive work are reported to be common in sewing

machine operation.

Low Back Pain: Current research shows that the sitting position induces low back pain

because it causes pelvic posterior circumflex with lordosis reduction (Udo et al., 1999).

This leads to increased load on the intervertebral discs of the spine (Andersson and

Ortengren, 1974; Andersson et al., 1980). When the lumbar curvature is flattened, the

compressive force on the lumbar discs increases approximately 35 per cent (Nachemson

and Morris, 1964) and an asymmetrical force on the lumbar disc drives the nucleus

posteriorly. Under chronic loading, the combination of these two forces may gradually

distort, traumatize and prolapse the lamellae of the posterior annulus fibrosus (Adams

and Hutton, 1983).

Low back pain can be classified as primary or secondary (Wyke, 1976). Primary

back pain arises directly from the tissues of the back, which experience neurological,

mechanical or biochemical irritation because of fatigue, postural stress, injury or local

pathological change such as degeneration of joints. Secondary back pain is caused by a

lesion, which affects the nerve supply to the tissues of the back. Repeated occurrence of

back pain will lead to decrease in muscular strength and spinal flexibility (Mital, 1996).

2.6 Studies on garment workers

2.6.1. General problems

Low pay and wage discrimination: Low pay, non payment of bonus, allowances and

terminal benefits, deferred payments delayed by a week or a month, denial of overtime

wages and denial of paid holidays were reported by the garment workers (SAVE, 2000;

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Clean Clothes, 2002). Subcontracting of work, which leads to reduced pay (Nambath,

2002), and payment on piece rate basis have been observed in the garment industry.

Discrimination in wages between men and women is another conspicuous problem.

Permanent, temporary and contractual labourers work in these industries (SAVE, 2000;

Akhter, 2002). In general the right to a minimum wage has been violated by a significant

number of clothing manufacturers.

Increased work load: Stress levels are reported to be high among the industrial workers

due to relentless quotas fixed by the manufacturers and long work hours extending from

11 to 16 hours a day (Delhanty, 1998) and forced overtime (Srivastava, 2000). Rapid

piece-rate production systems and work organizational factors contribute to

musculoskeletal disorders among workers in the clothing industry. In a study of garment

workers, duration of employment in piecework was found to be associated with increased

prevalence of severe disability (Brisson et al., 1989).

Unsanitary workplace: Lack of ventilation (Delhanty, 1998), improper lighting,

unsuitable seating, increased level of noise, exposure to chemicals and lack of sufficient

space (Frynas, 2000) have been reported. Working in such conditions affects the health of

the workers. Chavalitsakulchai and Shahnavaz (1991) found the complaints of textile

workers in South East Asia to be related to the poor work conditions under which they

work. There are often legal, regulatory, technical, economic and other barriers that

prevent effective control programmes (Ahamad et al., 1997).

Lack of amenities and safety measures: Lack or scarcity of amenities such as toilets,

washrooms (Chavalitsakulchai and Shahnavaz, 1991; Frynas, 2000) and lack of drinking

water facility (Delhanty, 1998) have been reported by researchers. Trade union repression

by employers was evident in these units (Clean Clothes, 2002). Workers were prone to

the risk of fire accidents (Delhanty, 1998) due to lack of safety measures in emergencies,

lack of protective clothing (Frynas, 2000) and exposure to hazardous chemicals.

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2.6.2 Ergonomic Studies

A few studies (Vihma et al., 1982; Punnett et al., 1987; Courtney et al., 1990)

have examined the ergonomic aspects of the apparel manufacturing industry in the United

States and in Europe. Kelly et al. (1992), in their study on ergonomic challenges in

conventional and advanced apparel manufacturing, have classified the sewing job as

requiring high, medium and low degrees of repetitive manual manipulation based on their

observation and interviews with an experienced methods engineer. The classification

was closely related to the frequency of changes in hand and wrist posture. High degrees

of manual manipulation were associated with higher levels of physical discomfort almost

throughout the body. The greatest discomfort levels were concentrated in the neck, upper

and middle back, right shoulders and hands.

Studies on posture: The musculoskeletal complaints associated with the postural

problem in apparel sewing were examined by Vihma et al. (1982), Sillatiappa (1984) and

Keyserling (1986). Occhipinti et al. (1985) found that, when compared with straight back

sitting, a lumbar flexion creates greater loads at L3 level and increases the myoelectric

activity in the muscles of the region. They also found that, when a seated operator bends

the trunk forward with the arms supported, the levels of load and myoelectric activity

reach near those observed in a person who sits erect but without support for the arms.

Yu and Keyserling (1989) investigated the sitting posture during industrial sewing

operations by using a pneumatic chair which allowed adjustment of seven parameters—

seat height, seat angle, seat angle rocking, seat swivel, back rest height and back rest

angle. It was compared with the traditional work seat to evaluate the effectiveness of

various chair designs.

Ghosal and Chakrabarthi (1987) observed in their study on sewing machine

operators that pain at the low back and gastrocnemius muscle in the leg were localized

and most commonly found among all the female workers. Diffused pain was recorded in

the upper muscles (m. trapizeous) and in the upper arm (m. triceps).

Courtney et al. (1990) studied the effects of ergonomically designed chairs on

posture, comfort and production efficiency in cut-and-sew manufacturing plants. Twelve

subjects rated their level of musculoskeletal discomfort in fifteen areas of their bodies at

approximately two-hour intervals. In addition to it, video recording to measure the

postural angles was also undertaken. The operators were divided into two groups of six

each. The six operators in the control group then received instructions on proper working

posture and were individually given recommendations on adjusting their workstations

and chairs to ergonomically appropriate configurations. The six subjects in the

experimental group received the same posture training and workstation

recommendations; in addition, they were supplied with ergonomically designed chairs

and carefully trained in their use. After a period of approximately five weeks, the

sequence of discomfort surveys and videotaping was repeated. Seventy three percent of

the high manipulation workers (control group) reported pain in their right hands, the

highest discomfort frequency identified in the analysis. This is consistent with the

findings of Vihma et al. (1982) of a significant relationship between hand pain and

repetition rates.

Hsaio and Keyserling’s (1991) study on sewing machine operators found that

both trunk flexion and neck flexion could be affected by the vertical location of a visual

target and that trunk flexion could be affected by reach distance. Blader et al. (1991)

reported that the prevalence rate of neck and shoulder complaints among sewing machine

operators during the last 12 months was 75 per cent and during the last 7 days it was 51

Kelly et al. (1992) studied the working posture of sewing machine operators by

analyzing videotape records of the postures of persons at work. Forty per cent of the

subjects stooped forward (i.e. torso flexion) at least 20 degrees throughout the machine

cycle. Sixty per cent tilted their heads more than 20 degrees throughout the cycle.

Several workers stated that this posture was necessary to maximize their productivity.

Grandjean (1985) has cited such postures as a major contributor to muscle fatigue and

discomfort.

Perez and Anda (1993) studied the musculoskeletal disorders among male sewing

machine operators working on flat type and column type machines in shoe making and

found that 47.5 per cent of the subjects had musculoskeletal disorders. Low back pain

was reported by 18.2 per cent workers in both groups. Shoulder pain was reported by 14

per cent of the subjects and it was three times more frequent among column machine

operators. Back pain was reported by 14 per cent of the flat machine operators and 4.9

per cent of the subjects complained of neck pain while these complaints were not

observed among the column machine operators.

Workstation design: Ghosal and Chakrabarthi (1987) report that a work height of 82cm

for the sewing machine operation is found to be very high as compared to the elbow level

in normal sitting posture. When the operator sits on the stool (average 48 cm) her sole

does not touch the ground though, when extended, it rests on the foot pedal of the

machines, but, in order to do this, the thigh leg angle has to be 110°, exerting a

tremendous load on thigh and back muscles.

A few studies have been made on the design of sewing tables. Wick and Drury

(1986) and Delleman and Dul (1990, 2003) have shown that inclination of the table can

promote a more upright posture and both recommend a table slope of around 10°-11°

towards the operator. They found that the neck posture improved with this but the neck

was still flexed to an undesirable extent (around 30° forward inclination).

A study by Li and Haslegrave (1993) tested the effects of varying both the table

slope and the machine needle orientation using a redesigned sewing machine. The

experiments confirmed that table inclination improved the trunk posture.

Kelly et al. (1992) analysed the workstation geometry of sewing machine

operators. The location of the treadle in the sewing machine being too close to the

proximal edge of the work surface has been reported to cause strain. Most commonly,

operators responded to it by positioning the chair away from the work surface in order to

allow a knee angle of 110 degrees or more. From this position, the mean distance from

the back of the chair to the point of operation was only 3cm less than the arm length of

the 50lh percentile operator. To compensate for these workstation problems operators

leaned forward to maintain adequate visual and manual access to Point of Operation

(POO). Studies indicate that the use of ergonomically designed chairs for sewing

operation results in substantial improvement in posture and reduction in frequency of

musculoskeletal discomfort.

Kelly et al. (1992) report that overall 36 per cent of the sewing machine operators

stated that illumination was insufficient, forcing them to lean toward the Point of

Operation (POO) in order to see their work. The actual measurement of the average

illumination at the Point of Operation (POO) consisting of general illumination plus

supplementary workstation luminaries for a sample of 396 workstations was 168 foot

candles (1680 lux), which was less than 60 per cent of the illumination level of 300 foot

44

candles recommended by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America

(IESNA) for visually intensive tasks with low contrast (Adams and Hutton, 1983, 1985).

Chavalitsakulchai and Shahnavaz (1993b) conducted a study on the

musculoskeletal discomforts of female workers in pharmaceutical and textile plants. The

investigation identified five major factors associated with musculoskeletal discomforts,

viz., lack of worker selection and training to prevent occupational hazards, poor

ergonomic design of the workplace and task including work organization, poor working

postures, lack of task variation and insufficient rest breaks. In addition to ergonomic /

biomechanical factors, rapid piece rate production systems and work organizational

factors may contribute to musculoskeletal disorders among workers in the clothing

industry (Brisson et al., 1989).

The findings of the studies highlight the need for ergonomic interventions

including redesigning and proper adjustment of workstations, use of ergonomically

designed seating and training in low risk methods and proper work postures which will

substantially reduce the musculoskeletal complaints. Other innovations in equipment, job

and organizational design, including adjustable workstations, automation and modular

manufacturing, should also be explored.

Though several studies in this area have been carried out abroad, only very

few studies ( Ghosal and Chakrabarthi, 1987; Nag et al., 1992 ) have been carried out in

India mainly focusing on one aspect. These studies do not give a comprehensive idea of

the problems faced by the workers in the ready-made garment industry.

45

Conclusion

The review thus makes clear the work involved in the garment manufacturing

units and the problems faced by these workers in the workplace. Techniques used for

assessment of health and safety aspects have also been reviewed to understand and

perfect the methodological aspects of the study. Studies on garment industry workers

have been compiled to arrive at a holistic picture of the various hazards faced by these

workers.

46