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C H A P T E R

C O M P E T E N C I E S

Upon completion of this chapter you should beable to:

Define life span motor developmentView an individual’s motor behavior as“more” or “less” advanced on a developmentalcontinuum rather than as “good” or “bad”Demonstrate an understanding of neural,physiological, perceptual, and cognitivechanges across the life spanDistinguish between inductive and deductivetheory formulationDescribe the phases of motor developmentList and describe the stages within the phases

of motor developmentExplain how the requirements of themovement task, the biology of the individual,and conditions of the learning environmentinteract with the Triangulated HourglassModel of motor developmentDemonstrate knowledge of both how andwhy using a heuristic device as a metaphor forunderstanding is helpful in conceptualizing theproducts and processes of motor development

K E Y T E R M S

Descriptive theory

Explanatory theory

Phases of motor development

Inductive methodDeductive method

Category of movement

Reflexes

Rudimentary movement abilities

Fundamental movement skills

Specialized movement skills

Heuristic

Algorithm

Triangulated Hourglass Model of motor

development

C H A P T E R

3 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT:A THEORETICAL MODEL

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www.mhhe.com/gallahue7e CHAPTER 3 Motor Development: A Theoretical Model 4

grounded in sound theoretical frameworks. Thintent of this chapter is to present a comprehensive model of motor development, based on twospecific theoretical viewpoints: descriptive phasestage theory and explanatory dynamic system

theory. We will present this model in the form oan hourglass accompanied by an overlapping inverted triangle. Our intent here is to use this visuarepresentation as a way to conceptualize both thdescriptive products (hourglass) and explanatorprocesses (inverted triangle) of motor development as it typically unfolds across the life span. Awith all theoretical models ours too will fall shortIt has, however, served as a plinth (basis) by manfor better understanding what is occurring andwhy it is occurring in this amazing process that w

call motor development.

A major function of theory is to integrate ex-isting facts, to organize them in such a way

as to give them meaning. Theories of developmenttake existing facts about the human organism andprovide a developmental model congruent withthese facts. Therefore, theory formulation servesas a basis for fact testing and vice versa. Facts areimportant, but they alone do not constitute a sci-

ence. The development of a science depends onthe advancement of theory as well as on the accu-mulation of facts. In the study of human behavior,especially in the areas of cognitive and affectivedevelopment, theory formulation has gained in-creased importance over the past several years.Theory has played a critical dual role in both ofthese areas; namely, it has served and continues toserve as an integrator of existing facts and as a basisfor the derivation of new facts (Bigge & Shermis,2004; Lerner, 2007).

DESCRIBING AND EXPLAINING

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Until the 1980s, interest in motor developmenthad been concerned primarily with describingand cataloging data, with little interest in devel-opmental models leading to theoretical explana-tions of behavior across the life span. This researchwas necessary and important to our knowledgebase. But it did little to help us answer the criti-

cally important questions of what lies underneaththe process of motor development and how theprocess occurs. Only a limited number of compre-hensive models of motor development exist, andthere are still few comprehensive theories of motordevelopment. Now, however, scholars in motordevelopment are reexamining their work with aview toward more carefully thought out research

KEY CONCEPT

The processes and products of motor develop-

ment across the lifespan may be conceptualized

through use of a triangulated hourglass heuristic.

CONCEPT 3.1

Few comprehensive theoretical models of motor

development exist.

The first function of a theoretical model of motodevelopment should be to integrate the existinfacts encompassed by the area of study. The sec

ond function should be to serve as a basis for thgeneration of new facts. One might argue that thfacts could be interpreted in more than one waythat is, from different theoretical perspectives. Thiis entirely possible and desirable. Different viewpoints generate theoretical arguments and debatesthe spark for research to shed new light on differing theoretical interpretations. Even if theoreticadifferences do not exist, research should be undertaken to determine whether the hypotheses derived from the theory can be both experimentall

and ecologically supported.Theory should undergird all research and science, and the study of motor development is noexception. It is our view that developmental theory must be both descriptive and explanatory

In other words, the developmentalist should binterested in what people are typically like at particular age periods (description) and why thes

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48 UNIT I Background www.mhhe.com/gallahue7e

THE PHASES OF MOTOR

DEVELOPMENT

The process of motor development reveals itselfprimarily through changes in movement behavior

over time. All of us, infants, children, adolescents,and adults, are involved in the lifelong process oflearning how to move with control and compe-tence in response to challenges we face daily in ourconstantly changing environment. We are able toobserve developmental differences in movementbehavior. We can do this through observation ofchanges in process (form) and product (perfor-mance). A primary means by which motor develop-ment may be observed is through studying changesin movement behavior throughout the life cycle. In

other words, a “window” to the process of motordevelopment is provided through an individual’sobservable movement behavior, which provides uswith clues to underlying motor processes.

characteristics occur (explanation). Without a the-oretical construct, research in motor development,or any other area, tends to yield little more thanisolated facts. However, without an existing bodyof knowledge (facts), we cannot formulate theory,

and without the formulation and constant test-ing of theory, we cannot hope for a higher level ofunderstanding and awareness of the phenomenonthat we call motor development.

CONCEPT 3.2

Theoretical models attempt to describe and

explain behavior and may be inductive or

deductive.

A theory is a group of statements, concepts, orprinciples that integrate existing facts and lead tothe generation of new facts. The phases of motor

development presented in this chapter are not basedsolely on the accumulation of facts. Such a modelwould result from using an inductive method oftheory formulation. In the inductive method the in-vestigator first starts with a set of facts and then triesto find a conceptual framework around which toorganize and explain them. The deductive method

of theory formulation, as used here, is based on in-ference and has three primary qualifications. First,the theory should integrate existing facts and ac-count for existing empirical evidence that bears onthe content of the theory. Second, the theory shouldlend itself to the formulation of testable hypothesesin the form of: If ______, then ______ statements.Third, the theory should meet the empirical test;that is, experimentally tested hypotheses should

yield results that lend further support to the theory.The use of a deductive, rather than an induc-

tive, model enables us to see how well-accumulatedfacts fit together into a cohesive, understandablewhole. It also enables us to identify the informationneeded to fill in gaps in the theory or to clarify or re-fine it. The phases of motor development outlinedhere are deductively based and serve as a model fortheory formulation. In subsequent sections of thetext each phase will be explored in greater detail.

CONCEPT 3.3

The process of motor development may be

viewed as phase-like and stage-like.

Observable movement may be grouped into threefunctional categories according to their purposeand across all of the phases of motor development:stabilizing movement tasks, locomotor movementtasks, and manipulative movement tasks, or com-binations of the three. In the broadest sense, a sta-bility movement is any movement in which somedegree of balance or posture is required (i.e., virtu-ally all gross motor activity). In a narrower sense,a stability movement is one that is both nonloco-motor and nonmanipulative. The category conve-

niently encompasses movements such as twisting,turning, pushing, and pulling that cannot be clas-sified as locomotor or manipulative. In this book,stability, as a category of movement, is viewed asmore than a convenient catchall term, but as lessthan a global term applicable to all movement. Thestability movement category refers to any movementthat places a premium on gaining and maintaining

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serve as a model for this study. (See Figure 3.1 foa visual representation of the four phases and theicorresponding stages.)

Reflexive Movement Phase

The first movements the fetus makes are reflexive. Reflexes are involuntary, subcortically controlled movements that form the basis for thphases of motor development. Through refleactivity the infant gains information about thimmediate environment. The infant’s reactionto touch, light, sounds, and changes in pressurtrigger involuntary movement activity. Thesinvoluntary movements, coupled with increasing cortical sophistication in the early months o

postnatal life, play an important role in helpinthe child learn more about his or her body anthe outside world.

Primitive reflexes may be classified as information-gathering, nourishment-seeking, and protective responses. They are information-gatherinin that they help stimulate cortical activity andevelopment. They are nourishment-seeking anprotective because there is considerable evidencthat they are phylogenetic in nature. Primitivreflexes such as the rooting and sucking reflexe

are thought to be primitive survival mechanismsWithout them, the newborn would be unable tobtain nourishment.

Postural reflexes are the second form of involuntary movement. They are remarkably similar inappearance to later voluntary behaviors but arentirely involuntary. These reflexes seem to servas neuromotor testing devices for stability, locomotor, and manipulative mechanisms that wilbe used later with conscious control. The primarstepping reflex and the crawling reflex, for exam

ple, closely resemble later voluntary walking andcrawling behaviors. The palmar grasping reflex iclosely related to later voluntary grasping and releasing behaviors. The labyrinthine righting reflexand the propping reflexes are related to later balancing abilities. The reflexive phase of motor development may be divided into two overlappinstages.

one’s equilibrium in relation to the force of gravity.Thus, axial movements (another term sometimesused for nonlocomotor movements) as well as in-verted and body rolling postures are consideredhere as stability movements. So too are standing

on one foot or remaining upright while sitting ina chair.

The locomotor movement category refers tomovements that involve a change in location ofthe body relative to a fixed point on the surface. Totransport oneself from point A to point B by walk-ing, running, hopping, jumping, or skipping is toperform a locomotor task. In our use of the term,such activities as the forward roll and backwardroll may be considered both locomotor and stabil-ity movements—locomotor because the body is

moving from point to point, stability because ofthe premium placed on maintaining equilibriumin an unusual balancing situation.

The manipulative movement category refersto both gross and fine motor manipulation. Grossmotor manipulation involves imparting forceto, or receiving force from, objects. The tasks ofthrowing, catching, kicking, and striking an ob-

ject, as well as trapping and volleying, are grossmotor manipulative movements. Fine motor ma-nipulation involves intricate use of the muscles of

the hand and wrist. Sewing, cutting with scissors,and typing are fine motor manipulative move-ments. A large number of movements involve acombination of stability, locomotor, and/or ma-nipulative movements. For example, jumpingrope involves locomotion (jumping), manipula-tion (turning the rope), and stability (maintain-ing balance). Likewise, playing soccer involveslocomotor skills (running and jumping), ma-nipulative skills (dribbling, passing, kicking, andheading), and stability skills (dodging, reaching,

turning, and twisting).In summary, if movement serves as a win-

dow to the process of motor development, thenone way of studying this process is through ex-amining the sequential progression of movementskills throughout the entire life span. The follow-ing phases of motor development and the devel-opmental stages within each phase are designed to

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varying intensity and duration. Reflexes now serveas the primary means by which the infant is ableto gather information, seek nourishment, and findprotection through movement.

Information Decoding Stage

The information decoding (processing) stage ofthe reflex phase begins around the fourth month.During this time there is a gradual inhibition ofmany reflexes as higher brain centers continue

to develop. Lower brain centers gradually relin-quish control over skeletal movements and arereplaced by voluntary movement activity medi-ated by the motor area of the cerebral cortex.The decoding stage replaces sensorimotor ac-tivity with perceptual-motor ability. That is, theinfant’s development of voluntary control ofskeletal movements involves processing sensory

Information Encoding Stage

The information encoding (gathering) stage ofthe reflexive movement phase is characterized byobservable involuntary movement activity duringthe fetal period until about the fourth month ofinfancy. During this stage lower brain centers aremore highly developed than the motor cortex andare essentially in command of fetal and neonatalmovement. These brain centers are capable of caus-ing involuntary reactions to a variety of stimuli of

Lifelongrecreationalutilization

FUNDAMENTALMOVEMENT PHASE

SPECIALIZEDMOVEMENT PHASE

Lifelongdaily livingutilization

Lifelongcompetitiveutilization

RUDIMENTARYMOVEMENT PHASE

REFLEXIVEMOVEMENT PHASE

APPROXIMATE AGE PERIODSOF DEVELOPMENT

THE STAGES OFMOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Lifelong Utilization Stage Application Stage Transitional Stage

Proficient Stage Emerging Elementary Stages Initial Stage

Precontrol Stage Reflex Inhibition Stage

Information Decoding Stage Information Encoding Stage

14 years old and up 11 to 13 years old7 to 10 years old

5 to 7 years old 3 to 5 years old2 to 3 years old

1 to 2 years oldBirth to 1 year old

4 months to 1 year oldIn utero to 4 months old

Figure 3.1The phases and stages of motor development.

CONCEPT 3.4

Reflexes are the first forms of human move-

ment and, because they are not learned, are

considered to be “abilities” rather than “skills.”

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by the developing cortex. Development of thcortex, and lessening of certain environmentaconstraints, causes several reflexes to be inhibiteand gradually disappear. Primitive and posturareflexes are replaced by voluntary movement be

haviors. At the reflex inhibition level, voluntarmovement is poorly differentiated and integratedbecause the neuromotor apparatus of the infanis still at a rudimentary stage of developmentMovements, though purposeful, appear uncontrolled and unrefined. If the infant wishes tomake contact with an object, there will be globaactivity of the entire hand, wrist, arm, shoulderand even trunk. The process of moving the handinto contact with the object, although voluntarylacks control.

Precontrol Stage

Around 1 year of age, children begin to bringreater precision and control to their movements. The process of differentiating betweensensory and motor systems and integrating perceptual and motor information into a mormeaningful and congruent whole takes place. Thrapid development of higher cognitive processeand motor processes encourages rapid gains inrudimentary movement abilities during this stage

During the precontrol stage, children learn to gainand maintain their equilibrium, to manipulatobjects, and to locomote throughout the environment with an amazing degree of proficiency andcontrol considering the short time they have hadto develop these abilities. The maturational process may partially explain the rapidity and extenof development of movement control during thiphase, but the growth of motor proficiency is noless amazing.

Chapter 8 provides a detailed explanation

of the development of rudimentary movemenabilities. Particular attention is paid to the interrelationship between the stages within this phasand the stages within the reflexive phase of development. Attention is also focused on the criticafunction that the rudimentary movement phasserves in preparing the child for the developmenof fundamental movement skills.

stimuli with stored information, not merely re-acting to stimuli.

Chapter 7 focuses on the primitive and pos-tural reflexes of infancy as they relate to the in-formation encoding and decoding stages. Special

attention is given to the relationship between thereflexive phase of development and voluntarymovement.

Rudimentary Movement Phase

The first forms of voluntary movement are rudi-mentary movements. They are seen in the infantbeginning at birth to about age 2. Rudimentarymovements are maturationally determined andare characterized by a highly predictable sequence

of appearance. This sequence is resistant to changeunder normal conditions. The rate at which theseabilities appear will vary from child to child, how-ever, and depends on biological, environmental,and task factors. The rudimentary movement

abilities of the infant represent the basic formsof maturationally dependent voluntary move-ment required for survival. They involve stabilitymovements such as gaining control of the head,neck, and trunk muscles; the manipulative tasks ofreaching, grasping, and releasing; and the locomo-

tor movements of creeping, crawling, and walking.The rudimentary movement phase of develop-ment may be subdivided into two stages that repre-sent progressively higher orders of motor control.

CONCEPT 3.5

The sequence of movement skill acquisition

during the rudimentary movement phase is

generally fixed, but the rate is variable.

Reflex Inhibition Stage

The reflex inhibition stage of the rudimentarymovement phase may be thought of as beginningat birth. At birth, reflexes dominate the infant’smovement repertoire. From then on, however, theinfant’s movements are increasingly influenced

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beam walk and one-foot balance are examples offundamental movements that should be developed

during the early childhood years.A major misconception about the develop-mental concept of the fundamental movementphase is the notion that these skills are matura-tionally determined and are little influenced bytask demands and environmental factors. Somechild development experts (not in the motor de-velopment area) have written repeatedly aboutthe “natural” unfolding of the child’s movementand play skills and the idea that children developthese abilities merely by growing older (matura-

tion). Although maturation does play a role in thedevelopment of fundamental movement patterns,it should not be viewed as the only influence. Theconditions of the environment—namely, oppor-tunities for practice, encouragement, instruction,and the ecology (context) of the environment—play important roles in the degree to which funda-mental movement skills develop.

The Royal Academy of Dance

The Royal Academy of Dance, located in London,

has produced superb Pre-Primary in Dance

and Primary in Dance syllabi and instructional

DVDs. They deftly achieve the goals of helping

young children become more skillful movers,

knowledgeable movers, and expressive mov-

ers in a teaching and learning environment that

is age-appropriate, developmentally appropri-

ate, and fun. Each of the themed lessons is well

presented and pedagogically sound. A diverse

group of children depict the joy of moving with

skill, efficiency, and purpose. The focus is on a

wide variety of the fundamental locomotor, ma-

nipulative, and stability skills of early childhood.

These skills are important because they form

the basis for the more complex and specialized

movement, sport, and dance skills of later child-

hood and beyond. In each of the many lessons

children are encouraged to experiment with an

endless variety of movement variations and to

self-discover ways of moving that increase theirmovement vocabulary as well as skillfulness.

The children are delightful to observe and inter-

action with the on-camera instructor is joyful.

The instructor is a master teacher who, lesson

after lesson, demonstrates how to make curricu-

lar material personally meaningful and develop-

mentally appropriate for young learners.

In a world often more interested in special-

izing in movement skill development at an early

age, the Royal Academy of Dance has taken

a bold step in a different direction: a directionthat is focused on the developmental needs, in-

terests, and unique abilities of children as they

begin the lifelong quest of being skillful, knowl-

edgeable, and expressive movers. Check out

the Royal Academy of Dance website for more

information: http://www.radenterprises.co.uk

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Fundamental Movement Phase

The fundamental movement skills of early child-

hood are an outgrowth of the rudimentarymovement phase of infancy. This phase of motor de-velopment represents a time in which young childrenare actively involved in exploring and experiment-ing with the movement potential of their bodies. Itis a time for discovering how to perform a varietyof stabilizing, locomotor, and manipulative move-ments, first in isolation and then in combinationwith one another. Children developing fundamentalpatterns of movement are learning how to respondwith motor control and movement competence to a

variety of stimuli. They are gaining increased controlin the performance of discrete, serial, and continu-ous movements as evidenced by their ability to ac-cept changes in the task requirements. Fundamentalmovement patterns are basic observable patternsof behavior. Locomotor activities such as runningand jumping, manipulative activities such as throw-ing and catching, and stability activities such as the

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the initial level. Some children may be beyond thilevel in the performance of some patterns of movement, but most are at the initial stage.

Emerging Elementary Stages

The emerging elementary stages, of which thermay be several, involve gaining greater motocontrol and rhythmical coordination of fundamental movement skills. The synchronization othe temporal and spatial elements of movemenis improved, but patterns of movement durinthese stages are still generally restricted or exaggerated, although better coordinated. Childrenof normal intelligence and physical functioning tend to advance to the emerging elementarystages primarily through the process of matura

tion. Observation of the typically developing 3 t5 year-old child reveals a variety of fundamentamovement skills that are emerging in a series osometimes distinct and sometimes overlappinelementary stages. Many individuals, adults awell as children, fail to get beyond these emerginelementary stages in one or more fundamentamovement skills.

Proficient Stage

The proficient stage within the fundamental move

ment phase is characterized by mechanically efficient, coordinated, and controlled performancesProficient fundamental movement skills are mature in these three process aspects. With continueopportunities for practice, encouragement, and instruction they will, however, continue to improvin terms of the product components of how farhow fast, how many, and how accurately.

The majority of available data on the acquisition of fundamental movement skills suggests thachildren can and should be at the proficient stage b

age 5 or 6 in most fundamental skills. Manipulativskills that require visually tracking and interceptinmoving objects (catching, striking, volleying) tento develop somewhat later because of the sophisticated visual-motor requirements of these tasksEven a casual glance at the movements of childrenand adults reveals that a great many have not developed their fundamental movement skills to

Fundamental movement skills have utilitythroughout life and are important components ofdaily living for adults as well as children. The dailytasks of walking to the store, climbing stairs, andbalancing in static and dynamic positions are im-

portant basic skills across the life span. Using theforward roll as the independent variable, Haynes(2009) looked at 117 participants across three agecohorts (children: mean age 9.7; young adults: meanage 18.9; older adults: mean age 35.9). Haynes foundthat the observable components for the forward rollwere essentially the same for each group, a findingthat lends support to similar sequences of funda-mental movement skills as being age-independent.

CONCEPT 3.6Constraints contained within the requirements

of the movement task, the biology of the in-

dividual, and the conditions of the learning

environment have profound effects on the ac-

quisition of movement skills at each phase of

development.

Several researchers and assessment instrument de-velopers have attempted to subdivide fundamental

movements into a series of identifiable sequentialstages. For the purposes of our model we will viewthe entire fundamental movement phase as havingseparate but often overlapping stages: the initialstage, the emerging elementary stages, and the pro-ficient stage. These stages are described briefly hereand in greater detail in chapters 11 and 12.

Initial Stage

The initial stage of a fundamental movement phase

represents the child’s first goal-oriented attemptsat performing a fundamental skill. Movement ischaracterized by missing or improperly sequencedparts, markedly restricted or exaggerated use of thebody, and poor rhythmical flow and coordination.The spatial and temporal integration of movementis poor. Typically, the locomotor, manipulative,and stability movements of the 2–3-year-old are at

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skill are the same movement patterns upon whichsport-specific skills are based. Therefore, it can beconcluded that mastering fundamental skills leadsto easier learning of specific skills.

The onset and extent of skill development

within the specialized movement phase dependson a variety of task, individual, and environmentalfactors. Reaction time and movement speed, coor-dination, body type, height and weight, customs,culture, peer pressure, and emotional makeup arebut a few of these constraining factors. The special-ized movement phase has three stages.

proficient level. Although some children may reachthis stage primarily through maturation and witha minimum of environmental influences, the vastmajority require some combination of opportuni-ties for practice, encouragement, and instruction in

an environment that fosters learning. Failure to offersuch opportunities makes it exceedingly difficult foran individual to achieve proficiency in fundamentalmovement skills and will inhibit further applica-tion and development in the specialized movementphase that follows (O’Keeffe, 2001; Stodden et al.,2008). Seefeldt (1982) was the first to appropri-ately refer to this as a “proficiency barrier” betweenfundamental movement skills and their compan-ion specialized sport skills. More recently Clark &Metcalfe (2002) suggested that fundamental motor

skills provided the “base camp” to the mountain ofmotor development leading to motor skillfulness.

Specialized Movement Phase

Specialized movement skills are an outgrowthof the fundamental movement phase. During thespecialized phase, movement becomes a tool ap-plied to a variety of complex movement activitiesfor daily living, recreation, and sport pursuits. Thisis a period when fundamental stability, locomotor,

and manipulative skills are progressively refined,combined, and elaborated upon for use in increas-ingly demanding situations. The fundamentalmovements of hopping and jumping, for example,may now be applied to rope- jumping activities,to performing folk dances, and to performing thetriple jump (hop-step-jump) in track and field.O’Keeffe studied the relationship between funda-mental movement skills and sport-specific skillsin a test of the Triangulated Hourglass Model ofmotor development. The results of his investiga-

tion led him to conclude that “this study providesempirical evidence in support of Gallahue’s theo-retical model with respect to the relationship be-tween fundamental skill and sport-specific skillphases and also for dynamical systems theory toexplain the learning process” (O’Keeffe, 2001,abstract). In other words, the patterns of move-ment contained within a fundamental movement

CONCEPT 3.7

Progress through the specialized movement

skill phase depends on mature fundamental

movement skill development.

Transitional Stage

Somewhere around their seventh or eighth year,children commonly enter a transitional movementskill stage (Haubenstricker & Seefeldt, 1986). Dur-ing the transitional period, the individual begins tocombine and apply fundamental movement skillsto the performance of specialized skills in sport

and recreational settings. Walking on a rope bridge, jumping rope, and playing kickball are examples ofcommon transitional skills. Transitional movementskills contain the same elements as fundamentalmovements with greater form, accuracy, and con-trol. Fundamental movement skills developed andrefined during the previous stage are applied to play,game, and daily living situations. Transitional skillsare applications of fundamental movement patternsin somewhat more complex and specific forms.

The transitional stage is an exciting time for

the parent and the teacher as well as for the child.Children are actively involved in discoveringand combining numerous movement patternsand are often elated by their rapidly expandingmovement abilities. The goal of concerned par-ents, teachers, and youth sport coaches duringthis stage should be to help children increasetheir motor control and movement competence

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Lifelong Utilization Stage

The lifelong utilization stage of the specialized phasof motor development begins around age 14 ancontinues through adulthood. The lifelong utilizatiostage represents the pinnacle of the process of moto

development and is characterized by the use of one’acquired movement repertoire throughout life. Thinterests, competencies, and choices made durinthe previous stage are carried over, further refinedand applied to a lifetime of daily living, recreationaand sports-related activities. Factors such as availabltime and money, equipment and facilities, and physical and mental limitations affect this stage. Amonother things, one’s level of activity participation widepend on talent, opportunities, physical conditionand personal motivation. An individual’s lifetim

performance level may range anywhere from professional status and the Olympics; to intercollegiate aninterscholastic competition; to participation in organized or unorganized, competitive or cooperativerecreational sports and simple daily living skills.

In essence, the lifelong utilization stage represents a culmination of all preceding stages and phasesIt should, however, be viewed as a continuation of lifetime process. Specialized skill development canand should play a role in our lives, but it is unfaito require children to specialize in one or two skil

areas at the expense of developing their movemenrepertoire in and appreciation for many other area(Landers, Carson, & Tjeerdsma-Blankenship, 2010).

in a wide variety of activities. Care must be takennot to cause the child to specialize or restrict hisor her activity involvement. A narrow focus onskills during this stage is likely to have undesir-able effects on the last two stages of the special-

ized movement phase.

Application Stage

From about age 11 to age 13 (the middle school years) interesting changes take place in the skilldevelopment of the individual. During the previ-ous stage, the child’s limited cognitive abilities, af-fective abilities, and experiences, combined with anatural eagerness to be active, caused the normalfocus (without adult interference) on movementto be broad and generalized to “all” activity. In the

application stage, increased cognitive sophistica-tion and a broadened experience base enable theindividual to make numerous learning and par-ticipation decisions based on a variety of task, in-dividual, and environmental factors. For example,the 5-foot, 10-inch (179 cm) 12-year-old who likesteam activities and applying strategy to games,who has reasonably good coordination and agility,and who lives in Indiana, may choose to specializein the development of his or her basketball play-ing abilities. A similarly built child who does not

really enjoy team efforts may choose to specializein a variety of track and field activities. The indi-vidual begins to make conscious decisions for oragainst participation in certain activities. Thesedecisions are based, in large measure, on how he orshe perceives the extent to which factors within thetask, himself or herself, and the environment eitherenhance or inhibit chances for enjoyment and suc-cess. This self-examination of strengths and weak-nesses, opportunities and restrictions, narrows thechoices.

During the application stage, individualsbegin to seek out or to avoid participation inspecific activities. Increased emphasis is placedon form, skill, accuracy, and the quantitative as-pects of movement performance. This is a timefor more complex skills to be refined and used inadvanced games, lead-up activities, and selectedsports.

CONCEPT 3.8

The primary goal of a person’s motor develop-

ment and movement education is to accept the

challenge of change in the continuous process

of gaining and maintaining motor control and

movement competence throughout a lifetime.

THE TRIANGULATED HOURGLASS:

A LIF E SPAN MODEL

The age ranges for each phase of motor development should be viewed as general guidelinesillustrative only of the broad concept of ag

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genuine help to you in better understanding thephenomena of motor development.

appropriateness. Individuals often function atdifferent phases depending on their experientialbackgrounds and genetic makeups. For example, itis entirely possible for a 10-year-old to function inthe specialized movement phase at the lifelong uti-

lization stage in stability activities involving gym-nastic movements, but only at the elementary stageof the fundamental movement phase in manipula-tive and locomotor skills such as throwing, catch-ing, or running. Although we should encouragethis precocious behavior in gymnastics, we shouldalso help the child catch up to his or her age-matesin the other areas and develop acceptable levels ofproficiency in them as well.

It is important to gather facts about the pro-cess of developing motor skills. Throughout this

text we discuss study after study, but if we fail toprovide you with a theoretical framework and aconceptual grasp of the process of motor devel-opment, we will have presented isolated facts thattell you little about their implications for success-ful developmental teaching, coaching, therapy, andparenting. Therefore, we would like to propose atheoretical model for the process of motor develop-ment and work through this model with you. Thismodel as presented is not a comprehensive theoryof motor development. It is a heuristic device, that

is, a conceptual metaphor, or model, of motor de-velopment, that provides us with general guide-lines for describing and explaining motor behavior.Heuristics differ from algorithms in one importantway. Whereas an algorithm is a procedure or set ofrules guaranteed, if followed, to lead to solution of agiven kind of problem, heuristics are rules of thumbgiving one clues for how to search for answers togiven problems. In the study of development, manytheories use heuristic devices that researchers hopewill eventually lead to algorithms.

The intent of all heuristic devices (which maybe likened to metaphors) is to be helpful in charac-terization of particular phenomena. As such, theycan only be viewed as more or less helpful, not asbeing right or wrong. Heuristic devices provide abroad framework for better understanding a par-ticular phenomenon. Our hope, therefore, is thatthe Triangulated Hourglass heuristic will be of

CONCEPT 3.9

The triangulated hourglass model is a helpful heu-

ristic device for conceptualizing, describing, and

explaining the process of motor development.

To understand this model, picture yourself asan hourglass (Figure 3.2). Into your hourglass weneed to place the stuff of life: “sand.” Sand gets into

your hourglass from two different containers. Oneis your hereditary container and the other your en-vironmental container. The hereditary container

has a lid. At conception our genetic makeup is de-termined and the amount of sand in the containeris fixed. However, the environmental container hasno lid. Sand may be added to the container andto your hourglass. We could reach down into the“sand pile” (i.e., the environment) and get moresand to put into your hourglass.

The two buckets of sand signify that boththe environment and heredity influence the pro-cess of development. The relative contributions ofeach have been a volatile topic of debate for years.

Arguing the importance of each is a meaninglessexercise because sand is funneled from both con-tainers into your hourglass. In the final analysisit does not really matter if your hourglass is filledwith hereditary sand or environmental sand. Whatis important is that somehow sand gets into yourhourglass and that this stuff of life is the product ofboth heredity and the environment.

Now, what do we know about motor develop-ment during the early phases of life? When we lookat the reflexive and rudimentary phases of motor

development, we know that sand pours into thehourglass primarily, but not exclusively, from thehereditary container. The sequential progressionof motor development during the first few yearsof life is rigid and resistant to change except underenvironmental extremes. Therefore, we know inthe first two phases of motor development thatthe developmental sequence is highly predictable.

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movement abilities. This is something in whichresearchers and program developers have becomincreasingly interested. We have seen a rapid risin the number of infant stimulation programs aninfant-toddler movement programs. Some mak

For example, children all over the world learn howto sit before they stand, how to stand before theywalk, and how to walk before they run. However,we do see considerable variability in the rates atwhich the very young acquire their rudimentary

Figure 3.2Filling an individual’s hourglass with “sand” (i.e., the stuff of life). The hourglass represents a descriptive (product)

view of development. The inverted triangle represents an explanatory (process) view of development. Both are

helpful in understanding motor development as one continually adapts to change in the lifelong quest for gaining andmaintaining motor control and movement competence.

C O N S T R A I N

I N G F A

C T O R S

W I T H I N T H E I N

D I V I D U A L C

O N S T R A I N

I N G

F A C T O R S

I N T H E

E N V

I R O N M E N T

Motor Control and Movement Competence

Gallahue’s TRIANGULATEDHOURGLASS: A Life SpanProcess/Product Model ofMotor Development

SPECIALIZEDMOVEMENT PHASE

REFLEXIVE MOVEMENT PHASE

RUDIMENTARY MOVEMENT PHASE

EnvironmentHeredity

FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENT PHASE

CONSTRAINING FACTORSWITHIN THE TASK

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elaborate claims about the worth of these programsand their ultimate importance to the child. Unfor-tunately, we have little hard evidence at this junc-ture to either support or refute these claims. Therate of movement skill acquisition is variable from

infancy throughout life. If an infant, child, adoles-cent, or adult receives additional opportunities forpractice, encouragement, and instruction in an en-vironment conducive to learning, movement skillacquisition will be promoted. The absence of these

The Mountain of Motor Development

Clark and Metcalfe (2002) published an inter-

esting paper entitled “The Mountain of Motor

Development: A Metaphor.” In it they deftly discuss

the intent and purpose of heuristic devices, or met-

aphors, in the study of human development. The

authors provide an interesting discussion of how to

select appropriate metaphors for motor develop-ment as well as means for assessing its validity and

usefulness. Next, they carefully look at metaphors

as descriptors of human behavior, focusing on

motor development. They even take time to succ-

inctly describe the triangulated hourglass model

prior to presenting their own (see Figure 3.3 ).

The mountain metaphor is intriguing in that

it envisions humankind collectively. Clark and

Metcalfe rightfully contend that we each climb our

own mountain. Interestingly, however, our own in-

dividual mountains vary. Some are high and rug-ged, others are shorter and more rounded, and

still others are only small foothills. In this range of

mountains the individual, as the “mountaineer,”

who is seen as a nonlinear self-organizing adap-

tive organism, “climbs” as high as possible. How

high she or he climbs (the goal of the task) is de-

pendent on the interaction between the biology of

the individual and the conditions of the environ-

ment. In other words, constraints.

Serving as a framework for understand-

ing, the mountain heuristic device, much likethe Triangulated Hourglass, attempts to broadly

describe both the products and the processes

of motor development. The two appear to differ,

however, from the collective framework of each

person having his or her own personal mountain

to climb (or hourglass to fill). The mountain may

be seen as an open system that is dynamic in

terms of shape, size, number, and complexity,

whereas the hourglass could be viewed (inappro-

priately, we believe) as a closed and static sys-

tem that has a “one size/shape fits all” view of

development.

Do we have a developmental dilemma here?

Is motor development a “mountain” or is it an“hourglass”? Is one view of development right

and the other wrong? Better yet, given your per-

sonal reality (i.e., where you are and with whom

you interact on a regular basis), what is your

metaphor/heuristic for better understanding the

processes and products of motor development?

DEVELOPMENTAL DILEMMA

Figure 3.3 The Mountain of Motor Development

Clark, J.E., & Metcalfe, J.S. (2002). The mountain of motordevelopment: A metaphor. In J.E. Clark & J. Humphrey (Eds.).Motor Development: Research and Reviews (pp. 163–190).Reston VA: NASPE Publications.

D

ev el o pm en t al T i m e

C om p en s a

t i on

Skillful

Context-SpecificFundamental Motor Patterns

Preadapted

Reflexive

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depends on mature fundamental movements. Aftethe transitional stage we progress to the final stagein which specialized movement skills are appliedto daily living, recreational, and sport experiences

At some point, the hourglass turns over (Fig

ure 3.4). The timing of this occurrence is variable anoften depends more on social and cultural factorthan on physical and mechanical factors. For mosindividuals, the hourglass turns over and the “sandbegins to pour out during the late teens and earl20s. This is a time in which many individuals entethe adult world of work, car payments, mortgagesfamily responsibilities, and a host of other timeconsuming tasks. Time restrictions limit the pursuiof new movement skills and the maintenance oskills mastered during childhood and adolescence.

There are several interesting features in thoverturned hourglass that we need to considerThe sand falls through two different filters. One ithe hereditary filter with which we can do very littleFor example, an individual may have inherited a predisposition toward longevity or coronary heart disease. The hereditary filter is going to be either densecausing the sand to filter through slowly, or easy topenetrate, allowing the sand to flow through morrapidly. Sand that has fallen through the hereditarfilter cannot be recovered, but it must pass through

second, or final, filter called the lifestyle filter.The density of the lifestyle filter is determine

by such things as physical fitness, nutritional status, diet, exercise, the ability to handle stress, ansocial and spiritual well-being. The lifestyle filteis environmentally based, and we have a good deaof control over the rate at which sand falls throughthis filter. Although we can never stop sand fromflowing to the bottom of the hourglass, we canslow down the rate at which it falls. A former surgeon general of the United States, Dr. C. Everet

Koop, once stated that although we cannot stop thaging process, we can control it by up to 40%. Wcan directly influence how fast sand falls throughour hourglasses. As teachers, coaches, therapistsand parents we have the wonderful opportunitto shovel “sand” into many “hourglasses.” We alshave the privilege and the obligation to help otherdevelop “lifestyle filters” that will slow the rates a

environmental affordances (i.e., enabling factors)will constrain movement skill acquisition. Further-more, the acquisition rate will vary depending onthe mechanical and physical requirements of eachtask. For example, if an infant does not have suf-

ficient handholds (an environmental constraint) inher environment to enable her to pull herself up toa stand, she will have to wait until sufficient balance(a biomechanical constraint) and strength in thelegs (a physical constraint) have developed, beforeshe is able to bring herself to a standing positionunaided. “Contemporary theory explains motordevelopment as a dynamic process in which amotor behavior emerges from the many constraintsthat surround that behavior” (Clark, 1994, p. 247).

In the fundamental movement phase, boys

and girls are beginning to develop a whole host ofbasic movement skills—running, hopping, jump-ing, throwing, catching, kicking, and trapping.Unfortunately, many still have the notion that chil-dren somehow “automatically” learn how to per-form these fundamental movements. Many naivelythink that children at this phase of developmentwill, through the process of maturation, developproficient fundamental movement skills. This isnot true for the vast majority of children. Mostchildren must have some combination of oppor-

tunities for practice, encouragement, and instruc-tion in an ecologically sound environment. Theseconditions are crucial to helping them througheach of the stages within the fundamental move-ment phase. Furthermore, as the task requirementsof a fundamental movement skill change, so toowill the process and the product. For example, theperceptual requirements of hitting a pitched ballare considerably more sophisticated than those re-quired to strike a stationary ball or to perform astriking pattern without making contact with an-

other object. Teachers of individuals at the funda-mental movement phase must learn to recognizeand analyze the task requirements of movementskills to maximize learner success. Teachers whooverlook these duties erect proficiency barriers atthe specialized movement skill phase.

At the specialized movement skill phase, suc-cessful performance of the mechanics of movement

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The hourglass heuristic device as described to this

point gives the impression that development is anorderly and continuous process. Note, however,that the sand at the bottom of the hourglass in bothFigures 3.2 and 3.4 is distributed in a bell-shapedcurve. The shape of this curve implies that there isa distribution of movement skills among the cate-gories of movement (locomotion, manipulation,and stability), and within the various movement

which sand falls in their hourglasses. Sand can still

be added even when hourglasses are overturnedand the sand is falling to the bottom. Each of ushas lifelong opportunities for learning. By takingadvantage of the numerous opportunities for con-tinued development and physical activity, we canadd more sand. We cannot add sand faster than itis falling and claim immortality. We can, however,extend and improve the quality of life.

Figure 3.4

Emptying the overturned hourglass of li fe. Development as seen here is a continuous discontinuous process

throughout the life span.

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you will, an individual’s hourglass as being supported by a cognitive pillar, an affective pillar, anda motor pillar. The hourglass is multidimensionathus, there is a triple interaction among the cognitive, affective, and motor domains. In other words

the Triangulated Hourglass Model is more than motor model. It is a model of motor developmenthat influences, and is influenced by, a wide varietof cognitive and affective factors operating withinboth the individual and the environment.

You may find it helpful to visualize the hourglass heuristic device as you proceed through thfollowing sections dealing with motor development during infancy, childhood, adolescence, andadulthood. Remember, however, that it is not important that you accept this model as proposed

Theoretical models are just that—“models.” Asuch they are incomplete, inexact, and subject toverification and further refinement. What is important is that you visualize how the process omotor development occurs. Remember, understanding motor development helps to explain howlearning occurs. Both are crucial to the creation oeffective, developmentally appropriate instruction

tasks. For example, one may be at the elementarystages in some skills, the proficient stage in others,and at a sport skill level in still others. Addition-ally, one may be at different stages of developmentwithin the same skill. For example, when children

and adults perform the overhand throw, they areoften at the initial stage in their trunk action, anemerging elementary stage in their arm action,and a proficient stage in their leg action. Motordevelopment in the hourglass model, therefore, isa discontinuous process, that is, a process that, al-though phaselike and stagelike in a general sense, ishighly variable in a specific sense. Motor develop-ment when viewed as discontinuous is in effect adynamic (i.e., nonlinear) process occurring withina self-organizing system (i.e., the “hourglass”).

CONCEPT 3.10

Motor development is a discontinuous process

occurring within a self-organizing system.

CONCEPT 3.11

Understanding the process of motor develop-

ment helps explain how movement skill learn-

ing occurs, which is crucial to developmentally

appropriate instruction.

Although depicted as being unidimensional inFigures 3.1, 3.2 and 3.4, the Triangulated Hour-glass Model should not be viewed as such. “Real”hourglasses occur in both time and space. They

are multidimensional and as such contain, alongwith the motor domain, both cognitive and affec-tive domains as well. As a result, real hourglasseshave height, width, and depth and must be sup-ported if they are to remain upright. Visualize, if

SUMMARY

T he acquisition of competency in movement is an

extensive process beginning with the early reflexive

movements of the newborn and continuing throughout

life. The process by which an individual progresses from

the reflexive movement phase, through the rudimentary

and fundamental movement phases, and finally to the

specialized movements skill phase of development is in-

fluenced by factors within tasks, the individual, and the

environment.

Reflexes and rudimentary movement abilities are

largely based on maturation. Reflexes appear and

disappear in a fairly rigid sequence. Rudimentary move

ments form the important base upon which fundamen

tal movement skills are developed.

Fundamental movement skills are basic movemen

patterns that begin developing around the same tim

that a child is able to walk independently and move freel

through his or her environment. These basic locomotor

manipulative, and stability skills go through a definite

observable process from immaturity to maturity. Stage

within this phase include the initial, emerging elemen

tary, and proficient stages. Attainment of the matur

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their first real applications of fundamental movements to

sport. If the fundamental skills used in a particular sport

activity are not at the mature level, the child will resort

to less proficient or elementary patterns of movement.

Involving children in sport skill refinement before they

reach proficient levels of ability in prerequisite funda-

mentals is unwise. When this happens, the less proficientmovements found in the basic patterns are carried over

to the related sport skills. The child will regress to his or

her characteristic pattern. It is important that sensitive

teaching and coaching be incorporated at this point.

When we look at the process of motor development,

we need to look at it first from a theoretical perspective.

Each of us needs to have a theoretical framework to use

as the basis for our actions. It is not important that you

agree with the theoretical framework presented here.

The Triangulated Hourglass Model is our way of viewing

the process of motor development and its implications

for life. What is your theoretical framework? How does itinfluence your teaching, coaching, therapy, or parenting,

and how does it influence you personally?

stage is influenced greatly by opportunities for practice,

encouragement, and instruction in an environment that

fosters learning. Under the proper circumstances, chil-

dren are capable of performing at the mature stage in

the vast majority of fundamental movement patterns

by age 6. The fundamental movement skills of children

entering school are too often incompletely developed.Therefore, the primary grades offer an excellent oppor-

tunity to develop fundamental movement skills to their

proficient levels. These same fundamental skills will be

enhanced and refined to form the specialized movement

skills so highly valued for recreational, competitive, and

daily living tasks.

The specialized movement skill phase of development

is in essence an elaboration of the fundamental phase.

Specialized skills are more precise than fundamental

skills. They often involve a combination of fundamental

movement skills and require a greater degree of precision.

Specialized skills involve three related stages. The tran-sitional stage is typically the level of the child in grades

three through five. At this level, children are involved in

QUESTIONS FO R REFLECTION

1. The Triangulated Hourglass Model borrows from

two differing but complementary views of human

development. What are they and in which ways are

they both similar and different? How might they be

viewed as complementary?

2. Using a heuristic different from the TriangulatedHourglass Model, can you use a metaphor to help

yourself and others visualize the processes and

products of motor development?

3. If motor development can be viewed as a Triangu-

lated Hourglass or as a mountain metaphor, can it

also be viewed, perhaps, as a tree, a train, or even a

river or ocean? Select one of the above or choose

another metaphor and build your own theoretical

model.

4. The Tom Hanks character Forrest Gump in the

movie of the same name said, “Life is like a box ofchocolates.” What did he mean? How could a box of

chocolates be used as a metaphor for better under-

standing human development?

5. Why are theory building and theory testing

important?

CRITICAL R EADINGS

Bigge, M. L., & Shermis, S. S. (2004). Learning

Theories for Teachers . Needham, MA: Allyn &Bacon.

Brady, F. (2004). Children’s organized sports:A developmental perspective. JOPERD, 75, 35–41, 53.

Clark, J. E., & Metcalfe, J. S. (2002). Themountain of motor development: a metaphor.In J. E. Clark & J. Humphrey (Eds.), Motor

Development: Research and Reviews, Vol. 2(pp. 163–190). Reston, VA: NASPE.

Garcia, C., & Garcia, L. (2006). A motordevelopment and motor learning perspective.

JOPERD 77 , 8, 31–33.

Haynes, J. E. S. (2009). Qualitative Analyses of a

Fundamental Motor Skill Across the Lifespan:

Linking Practice and Theory . Unpublished

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O’Keeffe, S. I. (2001). The Relationship Between

Fundamental Motor Skills and Sport-Specific

Skills: Testing Gallahue ’s Theoretical Model

of Motor Development. Unpublisheddoctoral thesis. University of Limerick,

Ireland.Seefeldt, V., & Haubenstricker, J. (1982). Patterns,

phases, or stages: An analytic model for thestudy of developmental movement. In J. A. S.Kelso & J. E. Clark (Eds.), The Developmentof Movement Control and Coordination (pp. 309–318). New York: Wiley.

Williams, K. (2004). What’s motor developmentgot to do with physical education? JOPERD,

75, 35–39.

doctoral thesis. University of New England,NSW, Australia.

Kamm, K., Thelen, E., & Jensen, J. (1990).A dynamical systems approach to motordevelopment. Physical Therapy, 70, 763–775.

Landers, R. Q., Carson, R. L., & Tjeerdsma-Blankenship, B. (Eds.). (2010, October). Thepromises and pitfalls of sport specialization in

youth sport. JOPERD .

Lerner, R. M. (2007). Developmental science,developmental systems, and contemporarytheories of human development. In W. Damon& R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of Child

Psychology (6th ed.). http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/book/10.1002/9780470147658/homepage/Order.html

WEB R ESOURCES w id e w

e b

w orld

www.nia.nih.gov

Homepage for the National Institute on Aging.The site provides health and research informationas well as press releases, a calendar of events,and general information on the NIA in regard to

mission and programs.

www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.

cws_home

Journal of Adolescence Web page. Page includes journal information including description,editorial board, and a guide for authors,online submission, online reviewer form,and abstracting/indexing. Site also containssubscription information and journal-relatedinformation.

www.isisweb.org/main.htm

Homepage for the International Society onInfant Studies. ISIS is an organization “devotedto the promotion and dissemination of researchon the development of infants.” Site contains

a description of the society, latest news, andnewsletter.

www.srcd.org

Society for Research in Child Developmenthomepage. The society is an internationalprofessional association focused on humandevelopment. The site includes news for member

job opportunities, suggested publications,summaries of journal articles, and information onbecoming a member of the society.

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