Chapter 3: HinduismChapter 3: Hinduism

Slide 3.Map of Eurasia in the 2nd century CE(=AD)Map of Eurasia in the 2nd century CE(=AD)

Slide 5.

“The Silk Route”“The Silk Route”

Slide 7.

Diversity in IndiaDiversity in India• Religious Diversity

• Judaism• Christianity

• Catholic• Protestant

• Buddhism• Islam

• A large minority• Hindu• Tribal Religions

• Linguistic Diversity• 22 languages are recognized by the Indian Constitution

• Hundreds of languages are spoken• We can’t say “all Indians” do / think X.

Slide 8.

Religion in Ancient IndiaReligion in Ancient India

• Hinduism is one of the oldest religions in the world.

• Like other ancient religious traditions, Hinduism is a composite of beliefs.

• Over time, these many traditions came together to develop into a recognizable religious tradition.

• Self-given label: “Sanatana Dharma” =Eternal Sacred Duty

Slide 11.

How Old Is Hinduism?How Old Is Hinduism?

• Texts• Vedas written 1500-900 BCE• oral for hundreds/thousands of years.

• “Vedic religion” rather than as Hinduism.• Indian religion at this time unlike later

Hinduism

Slide 12.

An Indian Definition of HinduismAn Indian Definition of Hinduism

• In 1966, the Indian Supreme Court listed seven features they believed characterized Hinduism (a list that was reaffirmed in 1995):

• acceptance and reverence for the Vedas,• a spirit of tolerance,• belief in vast cosmic periods of creation and

destruction,• belief in reincarnation,• recognition of multiple paths to salvation and truth,• polytheism, and• philosophical flexibility (no single dogma).

Slide 16.

The Birth of Hinduism: PreviewThe Birth of Hinduism: Preview

• The beginnings of Hinduism may be in the Indus Valley Civilization.

• It is disputed whether Hinduism blended older Indian religious beliefs with the religion of the Aryans.

• The caste system was an important aspect of Hinduism.

• Early Hindus worshiped gods of sun and fire and storm.

• The earliest Hindu scriptures are the Vedas.• Vedic scriptures show a transition from ritual to

philosophy.

Slide 17.

Timeline of HinduismTimeline of Hinduism

• Spans at least 3500 years from the beginnings of written scripture to now.

• Origin reaches back even farther • The history of Hinduism is composed of five

broad periods:• • Formative period: 2500-800 BCE• • Speculative period: 800-400 BCE• • Epic/Classical periods: 400 BCE-600 CE• • Medieval period: 600-1800 CE• • Modern period: 1800 CE-present

Slide 19.

Indus Valley CivilizationIndus Valley Civilization

• The earliest civilization in India

• Begins around 2500 BCE

• A serious downturn around 1500 BCE

• Largely disappeared by 800 BCE

Slide 20.

Indus Valley CivilizationIndus Valley Civilization

Sophisticated city-buildersSewers, grid system

Slide 22.

Indus Valley Art and inscriptions

Indus Valley Art and inscriptions

Slide 23.

A new groupA new group

• Remember: There was an earlier civilization in ancient India

• The “Indo-Aryans” or “People of the Vedas” (the preferable term)

• Vedas: the texts these people produced• Aryans: what these people call themselves.

• These newcomers did not build cities, but they did produce texts.

• Somewhat war-like, nomadic• Move cattle around, displacing people

• Religion: fire sacrificial cult

Slide 24.

The Aryan Invasion TheoryThe Aryan Invasion Theory

• Theory (1) Hinduism a mix of religion from India & Aryan invaders.

• Vedas are in Sanskrit, an Indo-European language.• Assumption: languages spread by military conquest.• Aryan invasion would have been between 2000 and

1500 BCE.• Controversial: racial ideology

• Theory (2) Hinduism is completely native to India.• popular view in India today.

• also ideologically based.• Archaeological and linguistic data not conclusive

Slide 25.

Vedic ScripturesVedic Scriptures

• The earliest Hindu scriptures are called the Vedas.

• 4 Early Vedas 1500 BCE - 900 BCE: written forms of oral tradition.

• The four Vedas include the: • Rig Veda,• Yajur Veda (“ceremonial knowledge”),• Sama Veda (“chant knowledge”), and• Atharva Veda (“knowledge from Atharva,” a

teacher).

Slide 26.

Traditional Views of the VedasTraditional Views of the Vedas

• Śruti (shruti)=“that which is heard”• The tradition views them as eternal,

uncreated, and free of error.• Because their original state is as sound,

the tradition emphasises knowing the Vedas by heart, chanting the hymns with eloquence, and the performance of the hymns as part of Vedic rites.

Slide 27.

Traditional Views of the VedasTraditional Views of the Vedas

• Treasure people who work with poetry well: narrate.

• A teacher instructs a boy the correct accents for a Vedic chant• Beginning at 4 years old, to 14.• Only for priestly (and rich).• Only for top 3 classes of society.

Slide 28.

Traditional Views of the VedasTraditional Views of the Vedas

• Mantra=a sacred verbal formula, used in Vedic (and now Hindu) rites.• The tradition understands them to have power.• Not to have something, but to do something.

• They have creative power if spoken aright.• Ṛṣi (“Rishi”)=a “seer” or a “sage”• Kavi=a “poet”.

• In the Vedic tradition, these were both religiously inspired.• By Agni? By Soma?

• They could head the Vedas in their original form.

Slide 29.

Early Vedic Religion & RitualEarly Vedic Religion & Ritual

• earliest forms of Hinduism “Vedic”.• Formative Period (2500-800 BCE).• characterized by fire sacrifices.• Priests (men from the Brahmin

caste) officiated at rituals.• Attention to detail:

• placing fire pits• chanting proper hymns

• Purpose: communicate with and influence the gods.

• smoke strengthened and restored vital powers of universe.

• optimistic, world-affirming religion.• Chaos could be reversed through

the Vedic fire rituals.

Slide 30.

Vedic GodsVedic Gods

• vital, brilliant beings associated with sky, storm, and fire.

• inhabited three-level cosmos 1. Earth2. Atmosphere

• where communication between people and gods took place

• heaviest spiritual traffic.3. Sky

Slide 31.

The Vedic Sacrifices and RitesThe Vedic Sacrifices and Rites

• Sacrificial Fire cult: the main religious practice.• (some take 15 minutes;

some take weeks)• Vedic ritual age:

• Height from 1100-600 BCE• the age of “Karman” = the

age of action• In the Vedas, Karman and

Karma only mean “action” (as opposed to Buddhism)

Slide 32.

The Vedic Sacrifices and RitesThe Vedic Sacrifices and Rites

1. Materialism• Give things to get things• Afterlife is not a focus

2. The medium is the message.• Performative• language not known by

performers3. Death for successful rite

• human sacrifices?• not at time of commentaries.• Buddhism & Hinduism

oppose violence4. Materials in rites are

temporary.• thatched roof, broken pottery.• Hinduism has permanent

temples, statues, icons

HinduismHinduism

1.Explain at least two ways a typical Hindu might begin his/her religious day.

2.What are the Vedas? What role do they play in Hinduism today?

3.What is reincarnation?

4.What were Buddhism and Jainism reacting against within the Hindu faith?

5.What is the caste system?

Slide 34.

Vedic PantheonVedic Pantheon• Important gods of the Vedic pantheon:

• Dyaus Pitr (shining father),• Aditi (mother of the gods),• Indra (god of storm and war),• Agni (god of fire),• Rudra (god of the winds),• Surya (a sun god),• Varuna (god of sky and justice),• Vishnu (god of cosmic order), and• Ushas (goddess of the dawn).

• Dyaus Pitr related to Zeus and Jupiter (contact with Greece & Rome?).

• Virtually all male

Slide 35.

AgniAgni• Agni, the god of fire, had a

special role to play in early Hinduism.

• He acted as the primary intermediary between this world and the heavens, taking the smoke from the fire sacrifices up to the other gods.

• On earth, Agni was the god of fire; in the atmosphere, he was lightning; in the sky, he was the sun.

• His name, Agni, is related to the English word “ignite.”

• (read Hymn to Agni)

Slide 36.

RV 1.1: A Vedic Hymn to Agni RV 1.1: A Vedic Hymn to Agni

(tr. by Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty) 1. I pray to Agni, the household priest who is the god of the sacrifice, the one who chants

and invokes and brings most treasure. 2. Agni earned the prayers of ancient sages, and of those of the present, too; he will bring

the gods here. 3. Through Agni one may win wealth, and growth from day to day, glorious and most

abounding in heroic sons. 4. Agni, the sacrificial ritual that you encompass on all sides - only that one goes to the

gods. 5. Agni, the priest with the sharp sight of a poet, the true and most brilliant, the god will

come with the gods. 6. Whatever good you wish to do for the one who worships you, Agni, through you, O

Angiras, that comes true. 7. To you, Agni, who shine upon darkness, we come day after day, bringing our thoughts

and homage 8. to you, the king over sacrifices, the shining guardian of the Order, growing in your own

house. 9. Be easy for us to reach, like a father to his son. Abide with us, Agni, for our happiness.

Slide 37.

SomaSoma

1. A deity.• Another god of the Vedic pantheon was Soma,

the god of altered states of consciousness, linked with the moon, the waters, and bliss.

2. A plant, from which juice is squeezed.• Soma was also the Sanskrit term for a stimulant

or psychedelic drug consumed by other gods in the Vedic pantheon (especially Indra).

• Possibly a hallucinogen – flying, a rush.

Slide 39.

The Killing of Vritra (Rig Veda 1.32)

The Killing of Vritra (Rig Veda 1.32)

• Does this poem give you the impression that the religion was more about:• Ideas or things?• Beliefs or behaviours?

The Killing of VritraThe Killing of Vritra1 I WILL declare the manly deeds of Indra, the first that he achieved, the

Thunder-wielder.He slew the Dragon, then disclosed the waters, and cleft the channels of the mountain torrents.

2 He slew the Dragon lying on the mountain: his heavenly bolt of thunder Tvaṣṭar fashioned.Like lowing kine in rapid flow descending the waters glided downward to the ocean.

3 Impetuous as a bull, he chose the Soma and in three sacred beakers drank the juices.Maghavan grasped the thunder for his weapon, and smote to death this firstborn of the dragons.

4 When, Indra, thou hadst slain the dragon's firstborn, and overcome the charms of the enchanters,Then, giving life to Sun and Dawn and Heaven, thou foundest not one foe to stand against thee.

5 Indra with his own great and deadly thunder smote into pieces Vṛtra, worst of Vṛtras.As trunks of trees, what time the axe hath felled them, low on the earth so lies the prostrate Dragon.

6 He, like a mad weak warrior, challenged Indra, the great impetuous many-slaying Hero.He, brooking not the clashing of the weapons, crushed—Indra's foe—the shattered forts in falling.

7 Footless and handless still he challenged Indra, who smote him with his bolt between the shoulders.Emasculate yet claiming manly vigour, thus Vṛtra lay with scattered limbs dissevered.

8 There as he lies like a bank-bursting river, the waters taking courage flow above him.The Dragon lies beneath the feet of torrents which Vṛtra with his greatness had encompassed.

9 Then humbled was the strength of Vṛtra's mother: Indra hath cast his

deadly bolt against her.The mother was above, the son was under and like a cow beside her calf lay Danu.

10 Rolled in the midst of never-ceasing currents flowing without a rest for ever onward.The waters bear off Vṛtra's nameless body: the foe of Indra sank to during darkness.

11 Guarded by Ahi stood the thralls of Dāsas, the waters stayed like kine held by the robber.But he, when he had smitten Vṛtra, opened the cave wherein the floods had been imprisoned.

12 A horse's tail wast thou when he, O Indra, smote on thy bolt; thou, God without a second,Thou hast won back the kine, hast won the Soma; thou hast let loose to flow the Seven Rivers.

13 Nothing availed him lightning, nothing thunder, hailstorm or mist which had spread around him:When Indra and the Dragon strove in battle, Maghavan gained the victory for ever.

14 Whom sawest thou to avenge the Dragon, Indra, that fear possessed thy heart when thou hadst slain him;That, like a hawk affrighted through the regions, thou crossedst nine-and-ninety flowing rivers?

15 Indra is King of all that moves and moves not, of creatures tame and horned, the Thunder-wielder.Over all living men he rules as Sovran, containing all as spokes within the felly.

Slide 41.

The Creation of the WorldThe Creation of the World

• Rig Veda also contains an account of the creation of the world from the body of a superperson named Purusha.

• The separation of Purusha’s body has been used to justify the existence of the caste system.

Slide 42.

Purusha Hymn (Rig Veda 10.90)Purusha Hymn (Rig Veda 10.90)

• What did the parts of his body become?• What are the four Sanskrit words for these

four classes of people?• Does it present some group as “better” than

others?

Slide 43.

RV 10.90 Purusha ('primal man')   (tr. by Walter Maurer)

RV 10.90 Purusha ('primal man')   (tr. by Walter Maurer)

1. Thousand-headed is Purusha, thousand-eyed, thousand-footed. He covered the earth on all sides and stood above it the space of ten fingers. 2. Purusha alone is all this, what has been and what is to be, and he is the lord of the immortals, who gro further by means of food. 3. Such is his greatness, and greater than this is Purusha - a quarter of him is all beings, three-quarters of him the immortals in heaven. 4. Three-quarters of Purusha went upward, but a quarter of him was here below. From that he spread out in all directions into what eats and does not eat. 5. From that Vira:j was born; from Vira:j, Purusha. When he was born, he extended beyond the earth, behind and also in front. 6. When with Purusha as oblation the gods offered a sacrifice, the spring was its clarified butter, the summer the fuel, the autumn the oblation. 7. A sacrifice on the sacred grass they sprinkled him, Purusha, who was born in the beginning. With him the gods sacrificed, the Sa:dhyas and the seers. 8. From that sacrifice, a total offering, was brought together the clotted butter: it made the beasts: those of the air, of the forest and of the village. 9. From that sacrifice, a total offering, the Hymns of Praise

and the Chants were born; the metres were born from it; the Sacrificial Formula from it was born. 10. From it the horses were born and whatsoever have incisor teeth in both jaws. The cows were born from it. From it were born the goats and sheep. 11. When they portioned out Purusha, in how many ways did they distribute him? What is his mouth called, what his arms, what his thighs, what are his feet called? 12. His mouth was the Bra:hmana, his arms were made the Ra:janya (= Kshatriya), what were his thighs were made the Vaishya, from his feet the Shu:dra was born. 13. The moon from his mind was born; from his eye the sun was born; from his mouth both Indra and Agni; from his breath the wind was born. 14. From his navel was the atmosphere; from his head the heaven evolved; from his feet the earth; the directions from his ear. Thus they fashioned the worlds. 15. Seven were the altar sticks; thrice seven burning logs were made, when the gods, offering the sacrifice, tied Purusha as their victim. 16. The gods sacrificed with the sacrifice to the sacrifice. These were the first rites. These powers reached the firmament, where the ancient Sa:dhyas are and also the gods.

Slide 44.

Recap: The Birth of HinduismRecap: The Birth of Hinduism

• • The Indus Civilization may have contributed some elements to later Hindu religion.

• • Some have theorized that Hinduism was composed of an invading Aryan religion mixed with indigenous elements, but this is controversial.

• • The caste system has been an important feature of Hindu culture for most of Indian history.

• • Fire rituals were used by the earliest Hindus to communicate with the gods.

• • The early Vedic scriptures contain instructions for fire rituals and the character and names of the most important gods.

• • The Vedas are the earliest scriptures of Hinduism. They span a sequence of religious developments from the fire rituals to more abstract and philosophical systems within Hinduism.

Slide 45.

Review: ChronologyReview: Chronology

• Rig Veda: complete by 1500 BCE

• The Age of Karman: 1100-800 BCE

• Upanishads: begin around 600 BCE

• The Epics / Early Hinduism

• The Bhagavad Gītā is part of the Epic tradition

• 400BCE - 400CE

• Formative period: 2500-800 BCE

• Speculative period: 800-400 BCE

• Epic/Classical periods: 400 BCE-600 CE

• Medieval period: 600-1800 CE

• Modern period: 1800 CE-present

Slide 46.

Later ScripturesLater Scriptures

• 1000 - 500 BCE• Brahmanas,• Aranyakas, • Upanishads.

Slide 47.

BrahmanasBrahmanas

• elaboration of instructions for rituals from earlier Vedas

Slide 48.

AranyakasAranyakas• “forest books” • Perform Vedic

rituals in symbolic ways by forest-dwelling ascetics.

Slide 50.

Transition: Vedas to UpanishadsTransition: Vedas to Upanishads

• The Upanishads appear at the end of the Vedic tradition at around the 6th Century BCE.

• Important in philosophical development

• More than one

Slide 51.

UpanishadsUpanishads• Upanishads show shift from

Formative to Speculative Period.• Upanishads are most

philosophical and metaphysical.• written in the form of dialogues

(like Socratic dialogues).• Explore nature of universe, role

of individual, goal of life.• philosophical core of modern

Hinduism is from Upanishads.• At this time, Hinduism was

interacting with Buddhism.• This influenced the directions Hinduism

developed.

Slide 52.

Chāndogya & Brihadāranyaka Upanishads

Chāndogya & Brihadāranyaka Upanishads

• These two Upanishads (numbers 9 and 10) explain Vedanta philosophy

• (reading from Chāndogya)

Slide 53.

From the Chandogya UpanishadFrom the Chandogya Upanishad

Let the Master teach me more; said he.

Let it be so, dear; said he.As the honey-makers, dear,

gather the honey from many a tree, and weld the nectars together in a single nectar; and as they find no separateness there, nor say: Of that tree I am the nectar, of that tree I am the nectar.

Thus, indeed, dear, all these beings, when they reach the

Real, know not, nor say: We have reached the Real.

But whatever they are here, whether tiger or lion or wolf or boar or worm or moth or gnat or fly, that they become again.

And this soul is the Self of all that is, this is the Real, this the Self.

THAT THOU ART, O Shvetaketu.

Slide 54.

Chandogya UpanishadChandogya UpanishadIn a hermitage deep in the forest lived the learned sage, Uddalaka Aruni with his son Shvetketu. When Shvetketu came of age, his father sent him to an Ashram for his education as was customary in those days. When Shvetketu returned home after twelve years of education, Uddalaka asked him, "What did you learn while in the Ashram, my son?""I learned everything that can be known, father," Shvetketu answered.When he heard this, Uddalaka became silent and thought, "What pride! Such conceit is born only out of ignorance. My son has not yet grasped the essence of the supreme knowledge of Brahman which brings humility."Shvetketu observed the change that came over his father and inquired, "Why did you become so quiet, father?"

Slide 55.

Chandogya UpanishadChandogya Upanishad"Dear son," replied Uddalaka, "You say that you know everything that can be known. Then you must know that knowledge or wisdom by which what is unknown becomes known and what is unseen becomes seen?""No, I don’t," replied Shvetketu. "But please, father, tell me about it."Uddalaka lovingly said, "Well son, look at those pots and toys. They are made of clay. The potter takes a lump of clay and makes all kinds of different shapes out of it. So by knowing one lump of clay, one can know everything that is made of clay!""This is true for everything, son," continued Uddalaka, "If you know the fundamental structure of gold, you will also know all the ornaments made out of it. If you know a piece of iron, you know all the utensils made of iron."To make things clearer for his son, Uddalaka headed towards the river while continuing his conversation, "Therefore, my child, you must get to know the essence of all things, the One that exists in everything in this Universe, the great power of Brahman."

Slide 56.

Chandogya UpanishadChandogya Upanishad"It is that same power which guides the river from the hills to flow into the ocean. That power then causes the water in the ocean to evaporate and form clouds which will produce rain to replenish the river, thus completing the cycle."Pointing towards a tree which was chopped down by a woodcutter, Uddalaka said, "Take for example that tree over there. The sap, which is it’s life and enabled it to draw sustenance from the earth, is leaking out of it.""Can you tell that one of the branches of the tree is dead?" questioned Uddalaka. "Each branch of that tree if deprived of the sap, which is it’s life, will dry up. And when the entire tree is drained of the sap, the whole tree will die."While Uddalaka and Shvetketu were talking, they saw a dead body carried by a group of people for cremation. Uddalaka pointed towards the dead body and spoke to his son, "Similarly, my son, when life forsakes the body, the body dies, but the life itself does not die."The son looked puzzled when Uddalaka explained, "My son, that which does not die is called the Atman and you are that Atman. The Atman is all pervasive and is present in everything that you see, living or nonliving."

Slide 57.

Chandogya UpanishadChandogya Upanishad"Why can’t I see this Atman which is all pervasive and in everything?" Asked Shvetketu.To explain this, Uddalaka asked his son to bring a fruit which was hanging from a Banyan tree (a tree common in India which gives plenty of shade and bears small fruits).Shvetketu picked a fruit from the tree and brought it to his father."Break it, son, and look inside," suggested Uddalaka."What do you see?" Uddalaka questioned."Tiny seeds, father," replied Shvetketu."Do you see anything inside?" asked Uddalaka."No! There is nothing there" responded Shvetketu."If there is nothing inside," said Uddalaka, "Then how can that tiny seed gives rise to this huge Banyan tree? That, Shvetketu, is the Atman, the essence of all things. The Atman pervades the universe, and, my son, you are a part of that universe."

Slide 58.

Chandogya UpanishadChandogya Upanishad"Well father, if we cannot see the essence, how do we know that it exists?" said Shvetketu with a puzzled mind."I shall explain that to you, my son" affirmed Uddalaka. "First put some water in that pitcher.""Now bring some salt and put the salt in the water," instructed the father. Shvetketu did as his father asked."Keep the pitcher aside for now," said Uddalaka, "And bring it to me tomorrow morning."Early the next morning, Shvetketu went to his father with the pitcher of water."Can you see the salt?" asked Uddalaka.Shvetketu searched, and of course, the salt was no longer visible.Shvetketu said, "No, father, it must be dissolved in the water.""Now taste it from the top," instructed Uddalaka.Shvetketu dipped his finger into the water and tasted the water from the top."It is salty," Shvetketu said."Now taste the water from the bottom," said Uddalaka."It’s salty there too, father" answered Shvetketu."Similarly, Shvetketu, as you cannot see the salt, you cannot see the essence. But it is always present everywhere."

Slide 59.

Chandogya UpanishadChandogya UpanishadFinally Uddalaka concluded, "My son, this omnipresent essence is called the Atman, which pervades everything. You too are that, Oh Shvetketu.""I am grateful father," said Shvetketu and touched his father’s feet. "You have helped me gain the knowledge with which the unknown becomes known, the unseen becomes seen."The father then blessed his son.

Slide 62.

Vedas compared to UpanishadsVedas compared to Upanishads

• From ritual action (karman) meaning/knowledge (jñāna)

• From external internal• From material Immaterial• From senses not-sensed world

Slide 63.

The Six SensesThe Six Senses

• In Indian Thought: 6 senses (the usual 5 plus mind/ego)• Ego/mind will die, along with other senses; it

coordinates the others.• The 6 senses can only lead you to

knowledge of the material, which is not the knowledge the Upanishads say you need.

Slide 64.

What is this immortality?What is this immortality?

• The Ātman:• Tricky to describe: the ‘true

self’, not subject to death and change.

• Not part of the material world; cannot be sensed.

• The part of us that keeps going after we die.

• ‘soul’ is a bad translation• ‘soul’ carries connotations

from Christianity that do not apply to Hinduism:

• ātman is not individual.

Slide 65.

BrahmanBrahman• The “real” or the “existent”.• Atmans are ultimately Brahman

(not Brahmin=the priestly caste)• This is the special knowledge:

there is no difference.• Brahman is the essence/core of

things.• How to describe this with

language?• Does the atman become Brahman?

• No, it is Brahman all along.• Clay pot, bowl, ladle – what is this?

Just clay. All the same.• Open the seed of the tree.

Slide 66.

The GoalThe Goal• The goal is an experience / direct

knowledge that the Atman is the same as Brahman.

• Based on this awareness of Atman and Brahman comes the idea that differences in the physical world are not ultimately real.

• The realization of Atman/Brahman is described as merging into oneness (as nectar is collected from this flower and that) where all ego and distinctions are lost.

• This is understood to be an experience of immortality beyond a state of the senses.

Slide 67.

Summary: Samsara and moksha

Summary: Samsara and moksha

• Brahman, the all-pervading reality, could be known from within as the subtle self or soul, atman.

• cycle of death and rebirth known as samsara, in which the atman is continually reborn according to the results of one’s actions, or karma.

• to escape this cycle of death and rebirth and attain moksha, liberation from samsara.

Slide 68.

Summary: UpanishadsSummary: Upanishads• Upanishads show shift from Formative to Speculative

Period.• Upanishads are most philosophical and metaphysical.• written in the form of dialogues (like Socratic

dialogues).• Explore nature of universe, role of individual, goal of

life.• philosophical core of modern Hinduism is from

Upanishads.• At this time, Hinduism was interacting with Buddhism.

• This influenced the directions Hinduism developed.

Slide 69.

Useful books on the Vedas, Vedic Period, and the Upanishads

Useful books on the Vedas, Vedic Period, and the Upanishads

• Upaniṣads, translated by Patrick Olivelle.• Stephanie Jamison, The Ravenous Hyenas

and the Wounded Sun: Myth and Ritual in Ancient India. Straightforward 60-page introduction.

• The Rig Veda: An Anthology. Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty

• Frits Staal on Agni (a 1975 reenactment: photos). Altar of Fire

Slide 70.

The Hindu Epics and their teachings

The Hindu Epics and their teachings

Mahabharata Ramayana

Slide 71.

The EpicsThe Epics• world-affirming did not die

out.• 200 BCE - 200 CE• 2 long legends about

interactions gods, goddesses, and (royal) heroes

• Some parts say life is suffering

• But mainly world-affirming attitude.

• Message: humans can be part of a divine plan

Slide 72.

EpicsEpics

• Two main epics, but many versions (in Sanskrit, in vernacular languages such as Hindi and Bengali)

1. The Ramayana – the story of King Rāmā, also a deity

2. The Mahābhārata – the story of the 5 “Pandava” brothers – princes, warring against their cousins, “Kauravas” for the kingdom.

Slide 73.

Ramayana on DharmaRamayana on Dharma• first Hindu epic: legends

Rama (royal military hero) and his wife, Sita.

• world-affirming attitude of Vedic religion:

• Rama as an exemplary ruler.• Kidnapping of Sita by

Ravana• The god Rama and the

monkey king Hanuman fight the demon king Ravana in the climax

Slide 74.

RamayanaRamayana• do duty • keep word• Rama destined to inherit throne.• mother of one of Rama’s younger

brothers insisted that her son, Bharata, become king.

• King owed Bharata’s mother a boon• King exiled Rama from the kingdom for

14 years.• After father’s death, Bharata came to

Rama and begged him to take the throne.

• Rama insisted on remaining in exile• Political considerations and personal

desires could not make Rama break promise.

• archetypal follower of dharma, social duty

Slide 75.

The MahābhārataThe Mahābhārata• The story of the 5 “Pandava”

brothers.• Princes, warring against their cousins

“Kauravas” for the kingdom.• The Bhaghavad Gītā is a small

section of this epic.• “The Song of the Lord” (Gita=song;

Bhagavat=lord)• not really “Bible” of Hinduism, but one of

most important texts• part of 5th book of Mahabhārata – just

before the battle between the cousins.• Many interpretations:

• Gandhi: non-violence; • others (e.g., Tilak): violence against British

oppression.• Told by “Sanjay” Sanjaya to

Dhritarashtra, who is the blind king of the Kauravas.

Slide 76.

Bhagavad GitaBhagavad Gita• The real story is about

Arjuna, 2nd Pandava brother.

• Key ingredient in the war.

• Fights from a chariot, so he needs a charioteer: “Kṛṣṇa”

• Arjuna thinks Krishna is a human king (he’s in disguise).

• Actually, in this text, he’s the supreme deity.

• Shiva, Durga, Brahman are the supreme deity in other texts.

Slide 78.

Basic Doctrines of the Gita 1Basic Doctrines of the Gita 1

• Refer to discourse 1 of the Bhagavad Gita (beginning with verse 26)• Why doesn’t Arjuna want to fight?

• Refer to discourse 2 of the Bhagavad Gita• What is Arjuna’s “dharma”?• What determines one’s rebirth?• How does Krishna try to persuade Arjuna

that he wouldn’t really be killing anyone?

Slide 79.

Why doesn’t Arjuna want to fight?Why doesn’t Arjuna want to fight?

Slide 80.

Basic Doctrines of the GitaBasic Doctrines of the Gita

• Dharma: right action / right doing

• Some translators call it “sacred duty” or “just duty”.

• BG 2.31-33: Arjuna’s duty is to fight, since he is a warrior.

• Dharma is related to varṇa (caste)• To not do Dharma is to perform

adharma – wrong actions.• Dharma shastras (texts on

dharma) say: it is better to do one’s own duty poorly than to do someone else’s better than they.

Slide 81.

Arjuna’s DilemmaArjuna’s Dilemma• The cousins have the same gurus

• Most of them are fighting with the Kauravas.• Arjuna’s duty is to fight; also, he is the best warrior of the

Pandavas. If he doesn’t fight, his family will lose.• Arjuna suspects it is wrong to kill his childhood friends,

cousins, and especially gurus (like killing your own father).• He’s damned both ways – following duty.• Arjuna’s response is non-action. But non-action doesn’t

exist.• Krishna says inaction is an action – He must act, and there are

ways to act without gaining (bad) karma.• Krishna shows himself as supreme deity and that human souls

(jivas) can attain moksha.

Slide 82.

Basic Doctrines 2Basic Doctrines 2• Karma

• The word itself isn’t prominent in the text, but the concept is.

• A system of rewards and punishments for certain actions.

• R & P can last over several lifetimes• Samsāra

• The constant cycle of birth, death, rebirth and so on; “reincarnation”

• The state of one’s rebirth is dependent on one’s karma (BG 2.27)

• You’re worried about killing your relatives? You’re thinking the short view – look at the Grand Scheme of things. There are rebirths galore!

Slide 83.

Basic Doctrines 3Basic Doctrines 3• Moksha

• “Liberation” (Samsara is not a good thing; it’s not immortality; it’s multi-mortality)

• Samsara is ruled by death; moksha is an escape from it to immortality.

• As in the Upanishads, moksha is brought about through some sort of transforming knowledge/ wisdom.

• Atman/Jiva (Upanishadic ideas in the Gita)• Krishna tells Arjuna that each person has an atman which

cannot be killed, and which is beyond human perception – hence he argues that Arjuna will not really kill anyone in this battle. (BG 2:11-25)

Slide 84.

Jiva and AtmanJiva and Atman• In addition to Atman, each person has an individual soul that is

theirs alone.• This is called their jiva.• This soul has many characteristics that distinguish it from other

souls, that make it unique to an individual person.• One’s jiva is like the proverbial snowflake: each one different from

every other one.• Atman is not like this: my Atman is exactly the same as your Atman,

and Atman in either you or me is Brahman.• What part of an individual is reincarnated over and over again?

• Obviously, it is not one’s body. Is it one’s soul?• If the consequences of one’s actions follow one into subsequent

lives, they must be carried in the jiva, or individual soul.• Atman, equivalent to Brahman, is immune to the effects of karma.

Slide 86.

Ways to attain MokshaWays to attain Moksha

• There are several ways to attain moksha, to act to improve karma by doing dharma and not adharma:

• (“yoga” comes from a root meaning “join.” Here it means “path.”)

1. Karma yoga: unselfish action2. Jnana yoga: transforming knowledge3. Bhakti yoga: devotion brings forgiveness4. Raja yoga: meditation5. Hatha yoga: postures

Slide 87.

Karma yoga: “the path of (unselfish) action”

Karma yoga: “the path of (unselfish) action”

• Do your dharma without any thought or attachment to the rewards or punishments those actions might bring.

• Karma is thought to be connected to desire.• If one acts without a desire for the fruits of action, one can act without

gaining (bad) karma.• This takes effort, and training to learn.• In the context of reincarnation, karma is the consequences of one’s

choices.• In the context of yoga, one’s karma is one’s duty, the path in life

prescribed by one’s social station.• need not retire from all worldly pursuits and become a wandering

monk to attain moksha.• lead exactly the sort of life society expects one to lead.

• use worldly duties almost as a meditation technique to keep attention focused not on the actions themselves, but on Brahman.

Slide 88.

Jñāna yoga:Jñāna yoga:• “the path of knowledge /

transforming wisdom”• Scriptural knowledge and “true”

understanding can destroy karma and lead to release/moksha.

• “the fire of knowledge will reduce karma to ashes”

• study of Hindu scriptures (of which there are enough to last a lifetime!) and philosophical contemplation of the central principles of Hinduism.

• particularly appropriate for priests (originally of the brahmin caste) and intellectuals.

Slide 89.

Bhakti yogaBhakti yoga• “the path of devotion”• This path becomes dominant for the

next centuries• Krishna will forgive karma in return for

complete devotion• Example: the poems by Mirabai

• She is a Bhakta devotee of Krishna “married” to Krishna

• Just as one may lose all thought of self when deeply in love with another person, one can lose all thought of self through devotion to a particular god or goddess.

• Self drops away in the ecstatic experience of worship of the god or goddess until, ultimately, one becomes joined with him or her.

Slide 90.

Raja YogaRaja Yoga• Raja yoga (“royal” yoga) was

developed in the early centuries of the first millennium CE by a teacher and philosopher named Patanjali.

• Raja yoga is composed of eight “limbs” or practices directed toward preparing for and engaging in meditation.

• • Self-control (yama),• • Observance (niyama),• • Posture (asana),• • Breath control (pranayama),• • Restraint (pratyahara),• • Steadying the mind (dharana),• • Meditation (dhyana), and• • Enlightenment (samadhi).

• It is a technique of guiding thought that ultimately leads to Brahman-consciousness or liberation.

Slide 91.

Hatha YogaHatha Yoga• physical postures• popular in the West. • developed out of raja yoga. • At first, the only asana, or posture, was

full lotus. • an extremely stable posture that holds the back in

good alignment. • However, it can also leave one stiff and sore.

• Asanas (postures) other than full lotus were first developed as a means of stretching out the body after long periods of sitting meditation in full lotus.

• Eventually this series of postures and associated breathing techniques became its own form of yoga.

• careful practice of these physical positions will still the mind and allow it to focus on the only true reality, Brahman.

Slide 92.

To rememberTo remember• The Hindu Epics and their teachings• The Ramayana: The history of King Rāmā, also a deity

• importance of dharma• The Mahābhārata: The story of the 5 “Pandava” brothers, • Basic Doctrines of the Bhagavad Gita

• Dharma: right action / right doing• Arjuna must act; Krishna tells him there are ways to act without

gaining (bad) karma.• Karma: rewards and punishments for certain actions.• Samsāra: The constant cycle of birth, death, rebirth;

“reincarnation”• Moksha: “Liberation” (Samsara is multi-mortality)• Atman/Jiva: spirit/soul cannot be killed

Slide 98.

BrahmaBrahma• Creator• Not the same as

Brahman (with an n, ultimate reality)

• Vahana: swan• 4 heads, 4 arms,

and a reddish complexion

Slide 99.

SaraswatiSaraswati• Goddess of

knowledge, music, and the arts

• Vahana: swan• wife of Brahma• sits on a white lotus

playing a veena

Slide 100.

Viṣṇu (Vishnu)Viṣṇu (Vishnu)• Supporter of Dharma / order.

• He appears when order is threatened.• Appeared in 10 avatars traditionally

• (but there’s not one straightforward list)• Important ones:

• Krishna (from the BG)• Vishnu, the preserver of Dharma• Rama (from the Ramāyana)• Vamana (a dwarf)• Varaha (a boar)

• There is a huge body of literature on Vishnu’s various avatars.• Devotees of Vishnu are called Vaishnavas.

Slide 101.

Vishnu iconographyVishnu iconography• Vishnu is theoretically shapeless

and omnipresent. However, he is traditionally represented as follows:

• A four-armed male-form• Blue skin• He has the mark of sage Bhrigu's feet

on his chest. • on his chest is the srivatsa mark,

symbolising his consort Lakshmi.• Around his neck, the jewel in which

Lakshmi dwells, and a garland of flowers.

• A crown symbolizes his supreme authority.

• two earrings represent inherent opposites in creation

• He rests on Ananta the infinite snake

Slide 102.

Vishnu holds four attributes:Vishnu holds four attributes:

• A conch represents creating and maintaining the universe.

• The discus symbolizes the purified spiritualized mind.

• A mace symbolizes all spiritual, mental and physical strength.

• A lotus represents spiritual liberation

Slide 103.

Vishnu and LakshmiVishnu and Lakshmi

Slide 104.

LakshmiLakshmi• Vishnu’s main consort• Goddess of wealth and

good fortune• Two arms up holding

lotuses (need a lot of water)

• Right hand: money• Standing on a lotus• Elephant: pouring

water

Slide 105.

ShivaShiva• The divine yogi• Vishnu is to dharma as

Shiva is to moksha• Ascetics, renunciants,

yoga & meditation• Vahana: bull

Slide 106.

ShivaShiva• Trident: emblem of Shiva• Snake around neck• 3rd eye• Ganges flowing out of his

head• In Himalayas• Off by himself• Prayer beads

• (did this idea come to Catholicism from India?)

• Loincloth• Pot for begging

Slide 107.

Parvati (Uma)Parvati (Uma)• Shiva’s consort• Divine Mother• Has many forms

(Durga, Kali)• (a second consort,

Ganga, is the Ganges)• Vahana: lion

Slide 108.

Shiva with family

Shiva with family

• Mountains• White Shiva• Bull• Wife on lion• Elephant-headed

son• 6-headed son• Threaded human

heads

Slide 109.

Skanda / MuruganSkanda / Murugan• The first son of Shiva

and Parvati• God of war

• The army general of the Gods

• Vahana: peacock

Slide 110.

GaneshaGanesha• 2nd son of Shiva &

Parvati• Very popular• God of the intellect,

and can remove obstacles

• Vahana: mouse

Slide 111.

Shiva as NatarajShiva as Nataraj• Lord of the Dance• The images originate in south

of India• Shiva as lord of creation

• His dance has 108 steps which bring about the creation, maintenance, and destruction of the world

• Hand: stop – remove fear• Fire• Cycle of creation-destruction• Hand pointing to foot (pure)• Standing on a dwarf,

symbolizing ignorance

Slide 112.

LingamLingam• The aniconic form of

Shiva• At most Hindu

temples• Usually placed in a

yoni – a concave object

Slide 113.

Hindu GoddessesHindu Goddesses

• Devī = “Goddess” – a generic title• The concept of Śakti – a creative, potent power

all deities need to carry out their various functions.

• This is a feminine thing, so when it is personified, it is as a goddess.

• All deities need shakti• Vishnu needs Shakti to incarnate himself.• So gods “always” have consorts, to provide it.

• Devotees of the Goddess(es) are called Śāktas.

Slide 114.

Multiple ideals of the “Divine Feminine”

Multiple ideals of the “Divine Feminine”

• There’s not just 1 goddess.• Mā: prehistoric? Ideal mother, big

breasted, broad hipped, fertility

Slide 115.

Sītā: the ideal wife (of Rama in the Ramayana)

Sītā: the ideal wife (of Rama in the Ramayana)

• Loyal, domestic

Slide 116.

RādhāRādhā• Rādhā: the

ideal lover – a gopi, with romantic affairs with Krishna

• Theological idea behind the obsessive love & desire to be with Krishna

Slide 117.

Durga: the ideal warriorDurga: the ideal warrior

• Pan-Indian, but more so in North-Eastern (Bengal)

• As Mahishamardini (Destroyer of the Buffalo Demon), in the Devīmāhātmya.

Slide 118.

Devī MāhātmyaDevī Māhātmya• A demon has practised meditation,

austerities, yoga, etc. and gets so much tapas (religious energy/heat) from it that the gods are afraid he will scorch the world.

• So he is granted a boon – immortality• In Puranic Hinduism, the Gods have

immortality• Brahma grants that he can’t be killed

by a male.• The demon then fights the gods,

wins, their force pools up together, and forms Durga: the sum of the gods’ shakti power

• Here, she takes male power, and uses it as she pleases.

• The demons fall for her because she is so beautiful, and as soon as they let their guard down, she lops off their heads!

Slide 119.

DurgaDurga• Lion vahana• Buffalo demon

Slide 120.

DurgaDurga• Durga rules over Maya “illusion /

delusion; the world of difference”• Don’t be fooled, like the demons, by

the world of illusion.• A point of devotion: she responds to

it.• Finally, Durga is Brahman.

• Other gods are bubbles in the ocean – they pop.

• The ocean is Durga. All else comes out of her and is temporary.

Slide 121.

KaliKali• Goddess of time

and death• Vahana: donkey• usually portrayed

as dark and violent

Slide 122.

KālīKālī• The ideal mother and ideal

destroyer• Another Pan-Indian goddess,

with a focus in Bengal.• Somewhat ferocious!• Poems to Kali: Build up the

goddess in your own mind.• Dishevelled• severed heads around neck• Bluish• Naked• Blood-smeared• Fangs

Slide 123.

KaliKali• The poems to Kali ask you to think.

They make you question physical appearance.

• In the Devi Mahatmya, Durga creates goddesses to fight for her.

• Kali is created out of Durga’s anger.

• Durga licks up the blood which was spilled, created new demons.

• Blood was polluting – great aversion.

• But – there’s a great deal of power. If you are not disgusted by what others consider disgusting, maybe you’ve overcome this world of maya.

Slide 124.

Identify the DeityIdentify the Deity

Slide 127.

Review: Main Hindu DeitiesReview: Main Hindu Deities

• Krishna: cares about humanity• Viṣṇu (Vishnu): Supporter of Dharma / order.• 10 avatars

• Lakshmi: Goddess of wealth and good fortune• Shiva: The divine yogi• Parvati: Shiva’s consort• Skanda: The army general of the Gods• Ganesha: Can remove obstacles• Shiva as Nataraj: Lord of the Dance• Linga: aniconic form of Shiva

Slide 128.

Bhakti Poems Bhakti Poems Mirabai: a poet devoted

to Krishna Kamalakanta: a poet

devoted to Kali Being devoted is good,

according to the poems Why be a devotee?

Mira: I can’t help it. Is life better? poem 84; 27; 193.

Kali Poem 57; 120; 43. Shiva poem 133; 143

Compare Cathurvedi 186 with BG

Slide 129.

KrishnaKrishna• Krishna insists he has a

great love for humanity and he rewards those who love him back.

• Indra doesn’t act this way.• He doesn’t come to help you in time

of need.• Maybe Agni would; or he/it

might just burn you.• Krishna provides a different

relation between human and divine.

• The Bhagavad Gita makes it less abstract, more personal.

Slide 130.

Poem of Mirabai (Caturvedi, no. 27)Poem of Mirabai

(Caturvedi, no. 27)

Slide 131.

Mahadevi themes in the poems to Kali

Mahadevi themes in the poems to Kali

Many poems present Kali as the Great Goddess

The creator, preserver, and destroyer

Over Maya (illusion) Is Brahman (songs 10 &

11). Kali is the essence in things.

Slide 132.

Poem of Kamalakanta(Śyāmā Sangīt 150)

Poem of Kamalakanta(Śyāmā Sangīt 150)

Mother,You are always finding ways to amuse yourself.

Shyama, you stream of nectar,Through your deluding powerYou forge a horrible faceAnd adorn yourself with a necklaceOf human skulls.The earth quakes under your leaps and boundsYou are frightfulWith that sword in your hand.At other timesYou take a flirtatious pose,And then even the God of Love is

outdone, Mother!

Your form is inconceivable and undecaying.You are beyond the three qualitiesAnd yet composed of them.You are terrifying,You are death,You are a beautiful woman.

Thus assuming various forms,You fulfil the wishes of your worshipers.Sometimes you even dance,Brahman, Eternal One,In the lotus heart of Kamalakanta.

Slide 133.

Tantra and KaliTantra and Kali Are closely connected. Many Tantrics are devoted to

Kali, especially the devotion called Dakshinakali.

Kali dancing on Shiva. I will lie on the battlefield on which

she is dancing. When she realizes who I am, she will stop dancing (on me).

This is also a tantric image (Tantra: anything non-Vedic)

Right-handed Tantra: non-Vedic mantras, pujas;

Left-handed Tantra: impropriety. Joining polar opposites. Much of this is through impure things.

Slide 134.

Four Stages (Ashramas) of LifeFour Stages (Ashramas) of Life

• yoga is time-consuming.• a balance between the world-denying, pursuit of liberation and world-affirming

social conservatism by prescribing different forms of spiritual practice for different life stages, or ashramas.

• Four life stages (ashramas) have are appropriate for upper-caste men (and sometimes their wives):

• student (brahmacharin)• householder (grihastha)• retiree (vanaprastha)• renunciate (sannyasin)

Slide 135.

SannyasinSannyasin• final stage: renunciate• man abandons family ties and

positions• subsists by begging• lives a nomadic life• loses all strictures and

privileges of caste• freed from all attachments,

single-mindedly pursues moksha

• most Hindus never become renunciates.

• Example: Swami Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada take worship of Krishna to the West.

Slide 136.

Schools of Hindu PhilosophySchools of Hindu Philosophy

• Several influential schools of Hindu philosophy have developed and remain paths within Hinduism today.

• Samkhya philosophy• developed by Patanjali,• regards prakriti, the world we sense, as a figment in the imagination of

purusha (pure consciousness), sustained only by the “turnings of thought.”• Advaita Vedanta

• advanced by Shankara• rejects the dualism of purusha and prakriti and regards Brahman as the

only reality.• modified by thinkers such as Ramanuja to allow for a degree of difference

between humans and gods necessary for bhakti yoga.• Tantric Hinduism

• provides “shock therapy” techniques to achieve moksha quickly while living in the very degenerate kaliyuga age.

Slide 137.

Time Line reviewTime Line review• 1500 BCE: Rig Veda• 1100-800: Age of Karman• 600: Upanishads• 400 BCE-400CE: Epic Hinduism• 500CE- Classical and Puranical Hinduism

• Voluminous texts in Sanskrit and vernacular languages• Collections about and stories of how gods preferred to be

worshipped, where they like to be worshipped, and why.

Hinduism videoHinduism video

9. What are the Hindu stages of life that a man should expect to pass through in his lifetime in the pursuit of spiritual fulfillment?

10. What is the role of astrology in Hinduism? (0:22)

11. What is the significance of the Ganges River in Hinduism? (0:23)

12. Which day of the week is traditionally considered the Hindu Sabbath?

13. Where did the term“Hinduism” originate and when?

14. What are some of the major contributions made to Hinduism by such modern thinkers as Ram Mohun Roy or Bal Gangadhar Tilak? (0:35)

15. What are the most important effects that Gandhi had on modern Hinduism? (0:38)

16. Why did Gandhi use the tactic of nonviolence against British rule in India?