Chapter 33

The Great War: The World in Upheaval

11917 Canadian Recruitment Poster

Immediate Origins of World War I

June 28, 1914: Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand (1863-1914)

Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina Former Ottoman province was

occupied by the Austro-Hungarian Empire 1878, and was formally annexed in 1908

Ferdinand was in favor of greater Serbian autonomy in the province Not enough for Serbian extremists, who

wanted to annex it to the Kingdom of Serbia

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Immediate Origins of World War I

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Gavrilo Princip

Bosnian Serb (1894-1918) One of six assassins stationed

along the route of the Archduke’s motorcade First two assassins fail to act; third succeeds in throwing the a

bomb, but it bounces of the back of the Archduke’s car and explodes on the street, injuring twenty people but not the targets; the assassin swallows a faulty cyanide capsule and jumps off a bridge, but is captured alive.

Next three assassins—including Princip—fail to act because the motorcade drives by at a high speed.

All six assassins were trained by Serbian military intelligence; some had been members of the nearly defunct “Black Hand”

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The Assassination The Archduke gives a speech at the Town Hall with the

Mayor of Sarajevo and is visibly shaken. Franz Ferdinand and the expectant Sophie decide to go as

a couple to the hospital to visit victims of the bomb. Princip sees Ferdinand’s car backing up after making a

wrong turn; it stalls, and he sees his opportunity. Shoots Ferdinand and Sophie from a distance of five feet. Princip swallows an ineffective cyanide capsule; he is

captured by mob and beaten senseless. Prncip was too young to be executed, and is sentenced to

twenty years in prison; dies of tuberculosis in jail in 1918.

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The Assassination

6Automobile in which Franz Ferdinand and Sophie were assassinated

Outcome of Princip’s Bullet

First global “total” war; nearly every inhabited corner of the earth is affected

Conservative estimates of 15 million dead (5 million non-combatants), 20 million injured

End of four empires (Germany, Russia, Austro-Hungary, and Ottoman), and rise of nine new countries

Massive global human and economic dislocations Beginning of the end of Europe’s domination of

globe

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Larger Causes of World War I

Culmination of competing nationalisms Especially in Central and Southeastern Europe

Rivalry among empires Especially between Britain and Germany

Triggered by inflexible diplomatic alliances Germany, France, England, Russia

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Competing Nationalisms

Outcome of French revolution, which spread nationalist ideologies across the continent and then the world.

Self-determination and independence movements Belgium: Achieved independence form Spain in 1830. Greece: Independence recognized by Ottomans in 1832. Unification of Italy: Achieved under Kingdom of Piedmont in 1861,

known by Italians as il Risorgimento (“the Resurgence”). Unification of Germany: accomplished under King Wilhelm of Prussia

and Otto von Bismarck after Franco-Prussian War in 1871. Complete Serbian Independence: Acknowledged by Ottomans in 1878

after violent revolution (1804-1815) and gradual consolidation of autonomy.

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Nationalism in Multi-National Empires Austro-Hungarian Empire

Germans South Slavs: Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, ethnic Macedonians, Slovenes,

Bosniaks, Montenegrins (growing “Yugoslav movement”— meaning “South Slav”—among intelligentsia)

Other Slavs: Czechs, Hungarians, Poles, Slovaks, Romanians, Ukranians, etc.

Russian Empire Russians, Poles, Ukrainians, Jews (Yiddish speakers), Uzbeks, Tatars,

Germans, Baltic peoples (Estonians, Latvians & Lithuanians), etc. Ottoman Empire

Turks, Arabs, Persians, Jews, Greeks, Serbians, Armenians, Romanians, Bulgarians, Kurds, etc.

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Nationalism in Multi-National Empires

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Rivalry Among Empires

Economic Dominance of British Empire declining 1870: 32% of world’s industrial output is from Great Britain,

and only 13% from pre-unification Germany 1914: 14% from Great Britain, roughly same as Germany

Imperial Competition German Empire is a latecomer, but aggressive: it grabbed

colonies and concessions in Africa, China, and the South Pacific

Small-scale disputes around the globe, especially intense in the Balkans between Ottomans, Austrians, and national ethnic groups

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Naval Competition

Arms race between United Kingdom and Germany to control seas; Britain holds upper hand

Decisive for control of trade routes in case of war Construction of dreadnoughts:

large battleships Germans build their own

dreadnoughts and develop U-Boats to counter British superiority

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H.M.S. Benbow in 1914

Role of Public Opinion

Effects of mass media age becoming widespread Availability of cheap newspapers, pamphlets, and

colorful lithographic posters Newspaper editors have little public accountability:

tend toward sensationalism and national chauvinism Awkward pressure on politicians and diplomats

Sacrifice diplomatic expediency for public support; long-term goals displaced by short-term ones that make big headlines

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Inflexible Diplomatic Alliances

Both sides are party to agreements for mutual defense Chain reaction leads to a global war Triple Alliance (later known as “Central Powers”)

Mutual defense pact between Germany and Austro-Hungarians made in 1879; joined by Italians 1882

Triple Entente (later known as “Allies”) Russia and France enter into the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1892 United Kingdom and France enter into the “Entente Cordiale” in

1904 Russia and the U.K. enter into Anglo-Russian Convention in 1907,

ending their rivalry in Central Asia (“The Great Game”)

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Inflexible Diplomatic Alliances

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Bonds between Triple Alliance Powers Bonds between Germany and Austro-Hungary: linguistic,

cultural, and political Worries over two-front war: Eastern and Western Worries over British domination of the sea and control of

global trade Worries over possibility of French attack in revenge for

Franco-Prussian defeat; also concerned about Russian interference with Austrian Balkan policies

Italians concerned about French colonial expansion in North Africa: Italians want colonies there as well. Italians actually end up witching sides in 1915 since they hope to gain territory from Austria-Hungary.

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Concerns of the Triple Entente Powers

Russia worried about strong German-Austro-Hungarian alliance

United Kingdom concerned with maintaining balance of power on the Continent

France worried about hostilities with Germany Secret naval and army pacts signed betwene the

powers in the summer 1914 Each power had reciprocal treaty obligations: must

come to the aid of each other in time of war

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Mutually Threatening War Plans

French “Plan XVII” Heavy emphasis on rapid offensives, with big

concentration of forces on Alsace-Lorraine German Schlieffen Plan

Fear of encirclement from France and Russia France to be defeated swiftly by northern route

through Belgium, then attention turned to Russia Plans triggered by mobilization of enemy forces

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Mutually Threatening War Plans

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The Schlieffen Plan vs.

Plan XVII

The Chain Reaction

23 July: Austrians issue ultimatum to Serbs, but get no response

28 July: Austrians declare war on Serbia 29 July: Russia mobilizes to defend Serbia 31 July: Germany issues ultimatum to Russia to stop

mobilizing, and issues one to France not to do so. 1 August: Germany declares war on Russia; France starts

its mobilization 3 August: Germans declare war on France and invade

Belgium 4 August: Britain comes to defense of Belgium

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War of Attrition

West: three years of stalemate Trenches from English channel to Switzerland

East: More movement and earlier end to fighting Much longer front (from St. Petersburg to Black Sea)

made troop densities too thin for trenches to develop Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918: Withdraws

Bolshevik Russia from fighting and allows Central Powers to occupy Poland, the Ukraine, and the Baltic countries.

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War of Attrition

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German soldiers relaxing in trenches during a lull in fighting

New Military Technology Barbed Wire: Developed in American West to contain cattle in 1870s;

used militarily in Spanish-American and Boer Wars, but most extensively in World War I

Machine Gun: Gatling guns used in American Civil War, but first modern machine gun was the Maxim gun; the first used in colonial wars in the 1880s and 1890s. World War I was the first war where both sides made extensive use of machine guns.

Poison Gas: Top chemists in Europe work to create nasty weapons. Chlorine Gas: First used on a mass scale by Germans as canisters fired as

artillery shells into enemy trenches in late January 1915. British first use first it in September 1915, yet it becomes ineffective as gasmasks are introduced. Also blew back on Allied troops as wind shifted.

Phosgene: Deadliest gas in the war introduced by French in 1915, often mixed with chlorine. Caused 85% of the 100,000 chemical warfare deaths during the war. Symptoms could take 24 hours to manifest.

Mustard Gas: Most famous but least deadly. First used in 1917. Designed to incapacitate rather than kill. Blistered skin, burned eyes, and mucous membranes of the respiratory system.

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New Military Technology

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New Military Technology Tanks

Introduced by British in 1916 to break through trench stalemate

Initially effective, but infantry could not hold ground gained; quickly lost to counterattacks

Aircraft Early planes did some limited bombing and strafing,

but used primarily for reconnaissance Dirigibles: German zeppelins conducted nighttime

raids over England, at altitudes beyond range of aircraft until the end of the war. Bombs were highly inaccurate.

Submarines: Germans developed them in 1890s and early 1900s. Had a fleet of 48 “U-boats” by the start of WWI.

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New Military Technology

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British Mark V Tank introduced in 1918

German Zeppelin used on bombing run of England in 1915

British Sopwith Camel fighter plane introduced in 1917

Brutality of New Warfare

Unprecedented casualties: industrialized warfare Battle of Verdun (February-December 1916)

362,000 French casualties 336,000 German casualties Less than 160,000 bodies recovered

The Somme Offensive: British gain few thousand yards (July-November 1916) 420,000 casualties No significant strategic advantage gained

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The Great War in Europe and Southwest Asia, 1914-1918

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Total War: The Home Front

Implications of modern industrial war: concept of a “home front”: strength of whole nation tested

Government takes command of economies Wage controls Price controls Planning boards control raw materials and manufacturing

Women in the workforce Women take traditionally “male” jobs with men at war TNT poisoning among workers at armament factories: yellow

skin, orange hair Bombing of civilian areas by zeppelins

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War Propaganda

Maintenance of Public Support for War: Rallying men to enlist, demonizing the enemy, and appealing to national honor.

Media: Recruitment posters, newspaper stories, pamphlets and books, silent films

Untruths: British authorities greatly exaggerate the extent of German atrocities in so-called “atrocity propaganda”: 1915 Report on Alleged German Outrages, a widely disseminated pamphlet that relayed accounts of systematic killing and raping of Belgian civilians by German soldiers. Doubts about its validity still persist.

Irony: By the end of the war no one believes the “official truth.” Skepticism of WWI propaganda makes belief in the WWII atrocities more difficult.

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War Propaganda

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British Recruitment Posters

War Propaganda

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German Propaganda Posters

War Propaganda

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American Recruitment Posters

Global Involvement Importation of troops from colonies

United Kingdom: Troops from Australia, New Zealand, Canada, India, and Africa involved

France: Troops from Algeria, Senegal, Tunisia involved

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Tirailleurs Senegalais in World War I France

Global Involvement

Japanese pushes its designs on China while European powers are distracted On August 15, 1914, Japan issues an ultimatum to Germany to

withdraw from its concession in Jiaozhou, China, and to remove its warships from Far East waters. The Germans refuse.

Japanese take German concession port at Qingdao and seize German-held islands in the South Pacific

Twenty-One Demands: Japan secretly presented the Chinese government with demands in January 1915 that would essentially make China a Japanese protectorate. Chinese leaked the demands to British diplomats, who prevented China’s capitulation.

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Global Involvement

Battles in Africa and Southwest Asia German Colonies in Africa: The Allies sought to capture the German

colonies of Togoland, the Cameroons, German Southwest Africa, and German East Africa. Togoland fell relatively easily, but the rest required sustained campaigns.

Gallipoli: Savage campaign from April 1915 to January 1916 by British and French against the Ottomans to open up the entrance to the Black Sea. “Anzac” troops—from Australia and New Zealand—were used to storm well-defended Ottoman positions on higher ground and took devastating losses: roughly 250,000 on each side. Gallipoli was the Turks’ greatest victory. This campaign triggered cries for more independence in both Australia and New Zealand. The Turkish hero of the campaign, Mustafa Kemal, would play a key role in founding the modern Turkish state.

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Global Involvement Ottoman Empire

Armenian Massacres: The war provided the cover for Ottoman authorities to attempt to purge the last non-Muslim ethnic group within the empire’s boundaries: two million Armenian Christians. New policies of Turkish nationalism went against older traditions of toleration. Forced evacuations killed tens of thousands of Armenians, while massacres organized by the government between 1915 and 1917 also claimed many lives. Roughly a million died, although the Turkish state still will not use the term “genocide.”

Gallipoli: Savage campaign from April 1915 to January 1916 by British and French against the Ottomans to open up the entrance to the Black Sea. “Anzac” troops—from Australia and New Zealand—were used to storm well-defended Ottoman positions on higher ground and took devastating losses: roughly 250,000 on each side. Gallipoli was the Turks’ greatest victory. This campaign triggered cries for more independence in both Australia and New Zealand. The Turkish hero of the campaign, Mustafa Kemal, would play a key role in founding the modern Turkish state.

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Collapse of the Russian Empire The March Revolution of 1917: Revolutionaries forces the Romanov

family to abdicate and brings in a liberal democratic government of the Mensheviks under Alexander Kerensky, who looks to western liberal countries as models.

Bolsheviks: Germans smuggle Bolshevik leader Lenin from Switzerland into Russia in a sealed train car since they know he will stop the fighting if he gains power. “Peace, Land, and Bread” is the effective Bolshevik slogan.

November Revolution of 1917: “Ten Days that Shook the World”—Lenin and the Bolsheviks create the world’s first Communist state, the Soviet Union. Bolsheviks execute the Tsar and his family in July 1918.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: Signed on March 3, 1918. Soviets end the Russian war effort and allows the Central Powers to occupy Poland, the Baltic countries, and the Ukraine. Soon a civil war breaks out in Russia.

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U.S. Enters the War U.S. Economy Boosted by the War

Sells huge quantities of goods and supplies to the Allies Europeans incur huge debts to U.S. banks: world financial capital moves

from London to New York City U.S. neutrality a mirage: does not offer same help to Central Powers

German blockade of British overseas trade U-boat patrols in the North Atlantic and attack cargo vessels Sinking of Lusitania, May 7, 1915

1,198 lives lost (128 U.S.); ship was carrying munitions Germans call off submarine attacks on U.S. shipping to prevent U.S. entry

into the war U.S. declares war April 1917 after Germans resume U-Boat

attacks out of desperation; Germans would sink 14.5 million tons of Allied shipping during the war using U-boats.

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U.S. Enters the War

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Defeat of the Central Powers U.S. Troops: Influx of fresh U.S. troops by May 1917 energizes Allies.

By June 1917, there were 14,000 U.S. troops, and by May 1918 there were over one million. Called “Doughboys,” they began to fight on the front by Fall 1917. African American Troops: Roughly 350,000 served on the Western Front in

segregated units; only 20 percent of these fought in combat. Spring 1918: Germans attempt one last massive offensive in France

that initially succeeds, but ultimately collapses due to strained supply lines and worn out troops.

Summer and Fall 1918: Central Powers troops are at the point of exhaustion and have little manpower left. Allies mount the “100 Days Offensive” starting in August that pushes Germans back across their line of defense established in France and almost back to the German frontier.

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Defeat of the Central Powers

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Typical U.S. “Doughboy” African American in World War I

Defeat of the Central Powers Separate Peaces: Some of the other Central Powers begin to sign

peace agreements over the fall: Bulgaria (Sept. 29), Ottoman Empire (Oct. 30), and Austria-Hungary (Nov. 3). Hungary separates from Austria.

Germany: Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates and Germany declared a republic on November 9. Power struggle between Communists and Social Democrats begins in Berlin.

Armistice: Western Front forces agree to cease fighting on November 11, 1918 at 11:00 am. Germans allow western portions of Germany to be occupied by British and U.S. forces.

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The Paris Peace Conference

Dominated by France, Great Britain, and the United States George Clemenceau and Lloyd George are more vehement in demanding

that Germans pay; Woodrow Wilson wants to temper terms to create a stabile system of world peace.

No Central Powers Are Represented: The terms of the peace are dictated to the Germans and Austrians. Italians are given little.

Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points No secret treaties; idea of self-determination for nations within former

empires; freedom of navigation on the seas; Belgium and Poland restored; Alsace-Lorraine given back to France; creation of a general association of nations to guarantee independence of small and large nation-states alike

Peace Treaties Harsh on Central Powers: Heavy reparations

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Territorial Changes in Europe after the Great War

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The End of the Ottoman Empire Treaty of Sèvres (1920): Removes Balkan

and Arab provinces, and allows for European occupation of south and east Anatolia.

Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk): Leads uprising against sultanate, and ends Ottoman dynasty in November 1922.

Allies recognize new republic in Treaty of Lausanne (1923).

The Republic is intensely secular government and recognizes many women’s rights

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The League of Nations

League of Nations created by diplomats in Paris

Forty-two original member-states, twenty-six non-European

Application of Wilson’s concept of “self-determination”

League of Nations mandate system created to control formerly colonized areas: Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Mesopotamia, British Togoland, French Togoland, British Cameroons, French Cameroun, Ruanda-Urundi, Tanganyika, and South-West Africa

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Territorial Changes in Southwest Asia after the Great War

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The “Mandate System” in the Middle East