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An Age of Anxiety

CHAPTER 35

1


• “The lost generation” (Gertrude Stein)

• Disillusionment after WW I

• Pessimism over idea of human progress

• Spengler, Decline of the West

ERA OF INNOVATION

2


GERTRUDE STEIN

Portrait of Gertrude Stein by

Pablo Picasso, 1906

• An American writer and

catalyst in the

development of modern

art and literature, who

spent most of her life in

France.

• “All of you young people

who served in the war,

you are all a lost

generation.”


THE LOST GENERATION

• The "Lost Generation" were said to be disillusioned

by the large number of casualties of the First World

War, cynical of the Victorian notions of morality and

propriety of their elders and ambivalent about

Victorian gender ideals.

• The writers of this period included Ernest

Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald and T.S. Eliot.


ERNEST HEMINGWAY

• An American novelist,

short-story writer, and

journalist.

• Wrote The Sun Also Rises which reflected a

generation that had lost

its moral grounding

during the war.


F. SCOTT FITZGERALD

• Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald was an Irish American novelist and short story writer.

• Wrote The Great Gatsby reflected a generation that had lost its moral grounding during the war.


T.S. ELIOT

• Thomas Stearns Eliot was an American poet, dramatist and literary critic.

• He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1948.

• In his poem The Wasteland, Eliot expressed the negative outlook of the postwar years by describing a world without faith, where moral and spiritual values could not be restored.


FRANZ KAFKA

• Franz Kafka, a middle-class

Jew based in Prague, was

one of the major German-

language fiction writers of

the 20th century.

• Kafka used surrealism in

his work, which brings

conscious and unconscious

ideas together to portray

life in a dreamlike way.


• “Weakness” of democracy

• Religion discredited

• Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)

• Existentialism

• Formative years of Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), Albert Camus (1913-1960)

LOSS OF A MORAL

COMPASS

9


• Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

• Theory of Special Relativity

• Neither time nor space absolute values, vary with observer

• Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976)

• The Uncertainty Principle • Concepts extended to humanities, social

sciences

RELATIVISM IN THE

PHYSICAL WORLD

10

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-uncertainty/


• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

• The life of the subconscious mind

• Repression of sexual desires, fears

• Interpretation of Dreams

• Free Association

• Application to mythology, religion, literature, art, etc.

THE SOUL EXPLAINED?

11


• Photography makes realism irrelevant

• Art as creation, not reproduction

• Retreat to abstraction

• Pablo Picasso (1881-1973)

• Influence of non-western styles

RETREAT FROM REALISM

IN ART

12

13

Pablo Picasso’s Guernica, 1937

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/74/PicassoGuernica.jpg

14

Otto Dix ,The Seven Deadly Sins,

1933. It was created immediately

after the Nazis had Dix removed from

his teaching position at the Dresden

Art Academy.

The figures are Avarice (an old, bent

over hag clutching at money), Envy

(who rides the back of Avarice), Sloth

(the figure in the skeleton costume

who holds the scythe, and whose legs

and arms form a rough swastika),

Lust (who dances in a lascivious way

behind Death, Anger (the horned

Demon behind Death), Pride (the

enormous head behind the scythe,

whose ears are plugged and who has

an anus for a mouth), and Gluttony

(represented by the figure in the

uppermost right corner who wears a

cooking pot on his head).


•The Bauhaus

• Director: Walter Gropius (1883-1969)

•Form follows function

•Square, lifeless, but efficient

•Skyscrapers

•“Glass boxes”

•“International Style”

• Loved by business, government

MECHANIZATION OF

ARCHITECTURE

15


• Austria/Germany borrow money from USA

to pay war debts to France and England

• France, England pay debts owed to USA for

WWI

• System dependent on flow of cash from USA

• Investors begin to pull out in 1928

EUROPEAN ORIGINS OF THE

GREAT DEPRESSION

16

The Great Depression [1929-1941]

Paris in 1930

London in 1930


MAIN REASON FOR THE

DEPRESSION WERE: AT DEPRESSION - WHY?

• Less demand for raw materials – With the onset of the war, demand for resources soared. After the war, much of the industry built on that demand was now gone.

• Overproduction of manufactured goods – Factories kept producing goods, despite that demand had dropped off with the stock market crash of 1929, leaving a surplus of manufactured goods with no one to buy.

• The stock market crash – When brokers began to call in loans on purchases largely bought on loan prior to the crash, investors could not pay them, leading to financial panic and the eventual crash.

German Unemployment: 1929-1938

The German Mark

http://www.ballandclaw.com/stamps/Originals/germany2.jpg

Decrease in World Trade: 1929-1932


THE GREAT DEPRESSION - RESULTS

• During the depression, banks and businesses closed, putting millions out of work and drastically decreasing production of goods. As the depression continued, many lost faith in democracy and capitalism.

• Extreme ideas began to gain value. Communists celebrated what they saw as the failure of capitalism. Strong leaders supported intense nationalism, militarism, and a return to authoritarian rule.

• Strong leaders in Italy and Germany high unemployment and severe economic problems helped paved the way for totalitarian dictatorships.

German Election Results in 1933

Because of the success of the

Nazi Party in the poll, its leader

and Chancellor of Germany,

Adolf Hitler, was able to pass the

Enabling Act, which effectively

gave him the power of a dictator.


• Single-export countries devastated by

declines due to new technology

• Reclaimed rubber destroys rubber-based economies

of Dutch East Indies, Malaysia, Ceylon

NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND

THE GREAT DEPRESSION

24


• Overproduction in 1920s

• Strongest harvests in 1925, 1929

• Wheat lowest price in 400 years

• Farm income drops

• Less demand for manufactured goods

• Inventory surpluses

• The Dust Bowl, mid-late 30s

AGRICULTURAL SURPLUSES

AND THE GREAT DEPRESSION

25


• Stock purchases on margin (3%)

• Hints of slowdown in Europe

• Investors begin to sell

• Snowball effect

• Life savings lost

• Black Thursday

• 11 Suicides

BLACK THURSDAY

(OCTOBER 24, 1929)

26


• Inventory surplus leads to layoffs

• Layoffs lead to decreased demand, businesses fail

• 1932 industrial production ½ of 1929 levels

• 44% of US banks out of business

• Deposits lost

US ECONOMIC COLLAPSE

27


• Hardest hit: countries dependent on export of manufactured goods for essentials

• Japan

• Single-export countries

• South America

WORLD ECONOMIC COLLAPSE

28


•Brazil

• Surplus of coffee beans set on fire, used to build highways

•USA: “planned scarcity”

• Vegetables, fruits and animals destroyed

• Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath

INITIAL GOVERNMENT ATTEMPTS TO

INCREASE DEMAND

29


•Laissez-faire, “planned scarcity” approaches fail •John Maynard Keynes, economist

•Stimulate economy by lowering interest rates

• Encouraging investment, employment •The New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt

•WWII Spending

NEW US STRATEGIES

30


FRANKLIN DELANO ROOSEVELT

31


Bloody Sunday January 22, 1905

The Czar’s Winter Palace in St. Petersburg


GEORGI GAPON

• The strikers were led by a Russian Orthodox priest and a popular working class leader named Georgi Gapon and hundreds were killed.

• This happened because Nicholas II feared an uprising and called in the soldiers.

• Destroying any of the faith and trust the people had in the czar, this led to the Revolution of 1905, a failed attempt to overthrow the czar, and a thousand year old legacy of autocracy.

Father Georgi Gapon

34

The

Revolution

Spreads


Russian Cossacks Slaughter The

People in Odessa

Anti-Jewish Attacks: Pogroms


Results


1. The Tsar’s October Manifesto

October 30, 1905

38

2. The Opening of the Duma:

Possible Reforms?

The czar continued

to exercise veto

power over the

Duma, and he

dissolved and

reformed it several

times.


THE MARCH REVOLUTION

• By the spring of 1917, the Russian people had lost faith in their government, led by Czar Nicholas II.

• The elected legislative body, the Duma, had little power.

• Although serfdom had been abolished in 1861, debts, rents, and taxes kept most Russian peasants poor.

• Strikes and demonstrations broke out in Petrograd, the then capital (this city would become St. Petersburg).

The last known photograph of

Nicholas II, taken after his

abdication in March 1917


RASPUTIN “THE MAD MONK”

A Russian mystic who is

perceived as having influenced

the later days of the Russian

Tsar Nicholas II, his wife the

Tsaritsa Alexandra, and their

only son the Tsarevich Alexei.


THE MARCH 1917

REVOLUTION

• With the overthrow of the czar a temporary government was established. This provisional government did very little to quell the demands of the middle class workers who had revolted against the czar.

• Most of these workers were socialists who demanded political and economic equality throughout Russia. They formed soviets, or councils of workers and soldiers in Russian cities.

• Two factions of the soviets fought for power. The moderate Mensheviks and the more radical Bolsheviks.

42

The leader of the

Bolsheviks, Vladimir

Lenin, mug shot,

Dec. 1895


FOUNDER OF BOLSHEVISM:

VLADIMIR LENIN

Workers formed soviets, or councils

of workers and soldiers in Russian

cities.

Lenin demanded that all power be

turned over to the soviets and the

Bolshevik slogan was “peace, bread

and land.”

This appealed to the war-weary and

hungry Russian people. Lenin was

a Marxist.

Lenin’s version of Marxism formed

the basis of communism.


• October/November 1917

• Soviets take over

• Disband Constituent Assembly

• “All Power to the Soviets!”

THE BOLSHEVIK

REVOLUTION

44


LEON TROTSKY

• Many in Russia were still loyal to the czar. Soon after the October Revolution broke out, the czar’s supporters, known as the Whites, and the Communist forces known as the Red Army began to clash.

• To ensure that the czar could not come into power, Lenin executed the imprisoned czar and his family.

• The Allies contributed arms, money and even troops to the White forces until the Whites defeat in 1921 by the Communists.

Red Army vs. The Whites


Russian Civil War White Army propaganda poster depicting

Trotsky as a devil.


LENIN’S “CHANGE”

• Lenin’s government had a constitution and an elected legislature. But, the Communist Party, not the people had the real power. All opposition parties were banned and only Communist Party members could run for office.

• The revolution had led to economic catastrophe which in 1921 led to Lenin adopting the New Economic Policy. Under this plan, the government controlled banks, large industry and foreign trade. Some small private businesses were allowed to help stimulate the economy.

• In 1922 the Communists renamed the land they ruled the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the USSR, or the Soviet Union.


•Rapid collectivization

•Confiscations

•Massively unpopular, Lenin backtracks in

1921

•New Economic Policy (NEP) partial

privatization of the economy

WAR COMMUNISM,

1918-1922

48


•Promotion of Agriculture

•Promotion of Industry

•“Kulaks” and speculation

•“one step backward, two steps

forward”

NEW ECONOMIC POLICY

(NEP)

49


•Lenin’s Stroke (1922) and death (1924)

•Triumvirate:

•Stalin

•Bukharin

•Trotsky

LENIN’S DEATH

50

51 Since 1924, Lenin’s body ahs been on displayed at the Lenin

Mausoleum.


JOSEPH STALIN

• When Lenin died in 1924, a power struggle took place within the Communist Party.

• The main rivals for power were Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin.

• Stalin was the leader of the Communist Party.

• Stalin emerged as the leader by arguing that after socialism succeeded in Soviet Union, revolution would spread throughout the world.


•Yosef Vissarionovich Dzugashvili

•Nom de guerre: “Man of Steel,”

•Georgian

•Mother’s influence leads to Orthodox seminary

education

•Leads Soviet Union by 1928

JOSEPH STALIN (1879-1953)

53


•Mechanics of a purge

•“confession”

• the show-trial

• punishment

•Massive scope: 8 million Soviet citizens in labor

camps by 1939

•Euphemisms: “wreckers, saboteurs”

THE PURGES

54


•Internal exile

•The possibility of escape

•Forced labor

•Living conditions

•Trial and re-trial

LIFE IN THE GULAG

55


•The “Great Leap Forward”

•Socialism in One Country

•Massive collectivization of agriculture

STALIN AND

INDUSTRIALIZATION

56


•A Terror-Famine?

•Ukrainians

•Don Region

•De-kulakization

•The Law of Socialist Property

•“When you cut down a forest, splinters will fly”

THE UKRAINIAN FAMINE

OF 1932-33

57

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Child_affected_by_malnutrition_1921-1923_Famine_in_Soviet_Russia.jpg


STALIN’S ECONOMY

• Stalin established a command economy, in which government officials made all basic decisions.

• Under Stalin, the government owned all factories, businesses and farms.

• In 1928, Stalin launched the first of his five year plans of industrialization. Consumer goods were ignored with all of the focus being on heavy industry.

• In the 1930’s, oil, coal, steel, mining and military goods increased, while most Russians already impoverished lives got worse.

• Consumer goods that were being produced were of cheap quality and hard to come by.

• Most were starving.


•From “fasces,” Roman symbol of authority

• Axe surrounded by wooden rods

•Originates with Benito Mussolini

•Influenced Europe, Asia, Latin America

THE GROWTH OF

EUROPEAN FASCISM

59

Italian Fasces


1. Primacy of state over individual

2. Distrust of democracy: the Führerprinzip

3. Hostility to Communism

4. Chauvinistic

5. Militaristic

FASCISM: COMMON

ELEMENTS

61

62

Strong

military

Use of

violence and

terror

Blind

Loyalty to

Leader Rule by

dictator

Strict

Discipline

State

control of

economy

Extreme

nationalism

Censorship

and

government

control of

news

Fascism


•Poor showing of post-WWI Italian government

• Public disappointed with weak territorial gains

• Economic and social turmoil

•Mussolini, former newspaper editor, electoral successes in 1921

•March on Rome October, King Emmanuel III offers him office of prime minister

•1926 seizes power as Il Duce, “the leader”

FASCISM IN ITALY

63

Benito Mussolini [1883-1945]


BENITO MUSSOLINI

• As an extreme nationalist, when Mussolini returned from World War I, he organized his own political party known as the Fascist party and called its doctrine fascism.

• Fascism is the rule of a people by dictatorial government that is nationalistic and imperialistic.

• While communism appealed to workers and promised a society without social classes, fascism appealed to the upper and middle classes, promising to preserve existing social classes and the ownership of private property.

Fascist Youth


THE BLACK SHIRTS

• Inspired by Giuseppe Garibaldi’s Redshirts

• Used by the Fascists to conduct a violent campaign against strikers, Communist supporters and any other opponents.


WEIMAR REPUBLIC

• After World War I, the Kaiser abdicated (Wilhelm II) the throne and the Weimar Republic was founded.

• The German people were unhappy with the Weimar republic because they supported the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, which made the Weimar Republic seem as traitors to Germany.

Inflation 1923–24: a woman feeds her tiled stove with

money. At the time, burning money was less

expensive than buying firewood.


• 1921 becomes Chairman of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazis)

• Attempts to overthrow government in 1923

• Beer Hall Putsch

• Writes autobiography Mein Kampf in jail, massively popular

ADOLF HITLER (1889-1945)

AND THE NAZI PARTY

69

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hitler_1914_1918.jpg


THE NAZI PARTY

• Promising to protect Germany from communism, the Nazi Party was extremely nationalistic, and anti-Semitic, attracting support from wealthy business leaders and landowners.

• In 1925, the Nazi Party had just 25,000 members. By 1929, the party had grown to 180,000 members.


THE THIRD REICH

• Reminding his people of their countries former glory, Hitler began to refer to his rule as the Third Reich. The first would have been the Holy Roman Empire, followed by the German Empire of the Hohenzollerns.

• Hitler claimed the Third Reich would last 1000 years.

Large military parades were

prominent in the Nazi era.


• Capitalizes on public discontent with post-war era

• War guilt clause

• Reparation payments

• Inability of major parties to come to consensus

• Anti-semitism

ADOLF HITLER (1889-1945)

AND THE NAZI PARTY

72


•Nazis become single largest party in parliament, 1930-

1932

•Weak president Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934)

appoints Hitler as Chancellor

•Suppresses opposition, abrogates constitutional and

civil rights

• Makes the Nazis the sole legal party

• Destroys trade unions

• Purges judiciary, civil service of perceived enemies

CONSOLIDATION OF

POWER

73


• Theories of racial superiority, racial purity

• Policies of eugenics

• Compulsory sterilization of 30,000 Germans

• Abortions illegal for healthy Germans, mandatory for “hereditary ill”

and “racial aliens”

• “Euthanasia” program kills 200,000 people with physical or mental

handicaps between 1939-1945

• Precursors to massacres of Jews, gypsies

THE RACIAL STATE

74


• Influence of 19th-century racism

• 1935 Nuremburg laws define Jew on racial basis

• Prohibits marriages between Jews and non-Jews

• Removal of Jews from civil service, schools

• Liquidation of Jewish-owned businesses or purchase by non-Jews

• Kristallnacht: major country-wide pogrom on Jews, November 9-

10, 1938

• “Night of broken glass”

ANTI-SEMITISM

75

76

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Nuremberg_laws.jpg


ROME-BERLIN AXIS

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